3rd week

IP - Internet Protocol
TCP/IP Protocols
What is TCP/IP?
 TCP/IP is a protocol system - a collection of
protocols that support network communications.
 Layering: Application, Transport, Network, Data
Link, Physical.
 Features:
 Logical addressing
 Routing
 Name service
 Error control and flow control
 Application support
TCP/IP vs. OSI
How TCP/IP works …

segment

datagram
IP – Internet Protocol
 IP is the workhorse protocol of the TCP/IP
protocol suite.
 Data packet is transmitted as an datagram.

 IP provides an unreliable, connectionless

datagram delivery service.
IP - Datagram delivery service
 Unreliable:
 No guarantees that an IP datagram successfully
gets to its destination.
 Provides a best effort service.
 Reliability must be provided by the upper layers
(e.g., TCP).
 Connectionless:
 not maintain any state information about
successive datagrams.
 IP datagrams can get delivered out of order.
Connectionless vs.
Connection-oriented Protocols
 Connectionless protocols
 Send data across the network to its destination
without guaranteeing receipt
 Fast; require little overhead

 Connection-oriented protocols
 Establish a formal connection between two
computers, guaranteeing the data will reach its
destination
 Slower; more reliable
Addressing and Delivering
IP Datagram

Header

10101011101010101010010101010100101010100
11010010101010010101111111010000011101111
10100001011101010100110101011110100000101
00100000000010101000011010000111111010101
......... 1011011001010100011001001010110
Data
 IP Addresses
 4 8-bit numbers (Hierarchical)
18.26.0.1

network 32-bits host

 Specifies both network and host

 Number of bits allocated to specify network varies
 Three classes:
A B C

0 net host 1 0 net host 110 net host

1 7 24 bits 2 14 16 bits 3 21 8 bits

 Address Ranges for Class A, B,
and C Networks
Address Binary Address First Term of Dotted Decimal Excluded Addresses
Class Must Begin with Address Must Be

A 0 0 to 127 10.0.0.0 to 10.255.255.255

127.0.0.0 to 127.255.255.255

B 10 128 to 191 172.16.0.0 to 172.31.255.255

C 110 192 to 223 192.168.0.0 to 192.168.255.255

Classes D and E
 Class D:
 multicast (a single message sent to a subset of
the network).
 started with the binary pattern 1110 (224 ~ 239).
 Class E:
 are not normally used in any production
environment.
 started with the binary pattern 11110 (240 ~ 247).
Special IP Addresses
 An all-zero host ID refers to the network itself.
 IP address 129.152.0.0 refers to the Class B network with the network ID
129.152.
 An all-ones host ID signifies a broadcast.
 IP address 129.152.255.255 is the broadcast address for the Class B network
with the network ID 129.152.
 The address 255.255.255.255 can also be used for broadcast on
the network.
 Addresses beginning with the term 127 are loopback addresses
 A message addressed to a loopback address is sent by the local TCP/IP software
to itself.
 The loopback address is used to verify that the TCP/IP software is functioning.
 The loopback address 127.0.0.1 is commonly used.
 Some IP address ranges for private networks.
 Private address ranges are not connected to the Internet:
 10.0.0.0 to 10.255.255.255
 172.16.0.0 to 172.31.255.255
 192.168.0.0 to 192.168.255.255
ARP: Address Resolution
Protocol 32-bit Internet Address

ARP RARP

48-bit Ethernet Address

RARP: Reverse Address
Resolution Protocol
 RARP = Reverse ARP.
 RARP is the opposite of ARP.
 ARP is used when the IP address is known
but the physical address is not known.
 RARP is used when the physical address is
known but the IP address is not known.
 RARP is often used in conjunction with the
BOOTP protocol (boot PROM) to boot
diskless workstations.
ICMP - Internet Control
Message Protocol
 Data sent to a remote computer often travels
through one or more routers.
 These routers can encounter a number of problems
in sending the message to its ultimate destination.
 Routers use Internet Control Message Protocol
(ICMP) messages to notify the source IP of these
problems.
 ICMP is also used for other diagnosis and
troubleshooting functions.
 ICMP messages encapsulated within an IP
datagram.
The most common ICMP
messages
 Echo Request and Echo Reply – ping.
 Source Quench:
 a large amounts of data can overwhelm the router.
 router use ICMP to send a Source Quench message to the source IP to
ask it to slow down the rate at which it is shipping data.
 Destination Unreachable:
 datagram cannot be delivered
 router cannot deliver a message in a downed network (equipment failure
or maintenance).
 Time Exceeded—TTL reaches zero.
 Too many router hops away to reach with the current TTL value.
 router table problems that cause the datagram to loop through the same
routers continuously (routing loop).
 Fragmentation Needed: ICMP sends this message if:
 it receives a datagram with the Don't Fragment bit set.
 and router needs to fragment the datagram in order to forward it to the
next router or the destination.
IP Address Space
 Originally, 3 Classes
 A, B, C
 Problem
 Classes too rigid (C too small, A too big)
 Solution
 Subnetting

 Classless Interdomain Routing (CIDR)

Subnetting – why ?

Network ID: 129.100.0.0

Subnet ID: 0.0.128.0
Subnneting - Example
Addresses in a network with
and without subnetting
Default mask and subnet mask
Finding the Subnet Address
Given an IP address, we can find the 
subnet address the same way we found the 
network address in the previous chapter. 
We apply the mask to the address. We can 
do this in two ways: straight or short­cut.
Straight Method
In the straight method, we use binary 
notation for both the address and the 
mask and then apply the AND operation 
to find the subnet address.
Example 1

What  is  the  subnetwork  address  if  the 

destination  address  is  200.45.34.56  and  the 
subnet mask is 255.255.240.0?
Solution

11001000  00101101  00100010  00111000
11111111  11111111  11110000  00000000
11001000  00101101  00100000  
0000 00000000

The subnetwork address is 200.45.32.0.
Short­Cut Method
** If the byte in the mask is 255, copy 
the byte in the address.
** If the byte in the mask is 0, replace 
the byte in the address with 0.
** If the byte in the mask is neither 255 
nor 0, we write the mask and the address 
in binary and apply the AND operation.
Example 2

What  is  the  subnetwork  address  if  the 

destination  address  is  19.30.80.5  and  the 
mask is 255.255.192.0?
Solution

See next slide
Example 2
The number of subnets must be 
a power of 2. 
Example 3

A  company  is  granted  the  site  address 

201.70.64.0  (class  C).  The  company  needs 
six subnets. Design the subnets. 
Solution

The  number  of  1s  in  the  default 

mask is 24 (class C).
Solution (Continued)

The company needs six subnets. This number 
6 is not a power of 2. The next number that is 
a power of 2 is 8 (23). We need 3 more 1s in 
the  subnet  mask.  The  total  number  of  1s  in 
the subnet mask is 27 (24 + 3).
The  total  number  of  0s  is  5  (32  −  27).  The 
mask is 
Solution (Continued)

11111111 11111111 11111111 11100000
or 
255.255.255.224

The number of subnets is 8.
The number of addresses in each subnet 
is 25 (5 is the number of 0s) or 32.
See next slide
Example 3
Example 4

A  company  is  granted  the  site  address 

181.56.0.0  (class  B).  The  company  needs 
1000 subnets. Design the subnets.
Solution

The  number  of  1s  in  the  default  mask  is  16 
(class B).
Solution (Continued)

The  company  needs  1000  subnets.  This 

number is not a power of 2. The next number 
that is a power of 2 is 1024 (210). We need 10 
more 1s in the subnet mask.
The total number of 1s in the subnet mask is 
26 (16 + 10).
The total number of 0s is 6 (32 − 26).
Solution (Continued)

The mask is
    11111111 11111111 11111111 11000000
                                 or 
                    255.255.255.192.
The number of subnets is 1024.
The number of addresses in each subnet is 26
(6 is the number of 0s) or 64.
See Figure 5.9
Example 4
Supernetwork
Rules:
•   The number of blocks must be a power of 2 (1, 
2, 4, 8, 16, . . .).
•   The blocks must be contiguous in the address 
space (no gaps between the blocks).
•   The third byte of the first address in the 
superblock must be evenly divisible by the number 
of blocks. In other words, if the number of blocks is 
N, the third byte must be divisible by N. 
Example 5

A  company  needs  600  addresses.  Which  of 

the  following  set  of  class  C  blocks  can  be 
used to form a supernet for this company?
198.47.32.0  198.47.33.0 198.47.34.0
198.47.32.0 198.47.42.0  198.47.52.0  198.47.62.0
198.47.31.0 198.47.32.0  198.47.33.0  198.47.52.0
198.47.32.0  198.47.33.0  198.47.34.0  198.47.35.0
Solution

1: No, there are only three blocks. 
2: No, the blocks are not contiguous.
3: No, 31 in the first block is not divisible by 4. 
4: Yes, all three requirements are fulfilled. 
Comparison of subnet, default,
and supernet masks
Example 6
We  need  to  make  a  supernetwork  out  of  16 
class C blocks. What is the supernet mask?
Solution
We  need  16  blocks.  For  16  blocks  we  need  to 
change  four  1s  to  0s  in  the  default  mask.  So  the 
mask is 
11111111   11111111   11110000  00000000
or
255.255.240.0
Example 7

A  supernet  has  a  first  address  of  205.16.32.0  and  a 

supernet  mask  of  255.255.248.0.  A  router  receives  three 
packets with the following destination addresses:
205.16.37.44
205.16.42.56
205.17.33.76
Which packet belongs to the supernet?
Solution

We  apply  the  supernet  mask to  see  if  we  can  find 
the beginning address.
205.16.37.44   AND  255.255.248.0  205.16.32.0
205.16.42.56   AND  255.255.248.0  205.16.40.0
205.17.33.76   AND  255.255.248.0  205.17.32.0
Only the first address belongs to this supernet. 
Example 8
A  supernet  has  a  first  address  of  205.16.32.0  and  a 
supernet mask of 255.255.248.0. How many blocks are in 
this supernet and what is the range of addresses?

Solution

The supernet has 21 1s (248). The default mask has 
24  1s.  Since  the  difference  is  3,  there  are  23  or  8 
blocks in this supernet. The blocks are 205.16.32.0 
to  205.16.39.0.  The  first  address  is  205.16.32.0. 
The last address is 205.16.39.255.
CIDR – Classless InterDomain
Routing
 CIDR is a technique that allows a block of
network IDs to be treated as a single entity in
routing tables.
 CIDR groups a range of network IDs into a
single address entry using what is called a
supernet mask.
CLASSLESS ADDRESSING

Variable-length blocks
Number of Addresses in a Block
There is only one condition on the number 
of addresses in a block; it must be a power 
of 2 (2, 4, 8, . . .). A household may be 
given a block of 2 addresses. A small 
business may be given 16 addresses. A large 
organization may be given 1024 addresses. 
Beginning Address
The beginning address must be evenly divisible 
by the number of addresses. For example, if a 
block contains 4 addresses, the beginning 
address must be divisible by 4. If the block has 
less than 256 addresses, we need to check only 
the rightmost byte. If it has less than 65,536 
addresses, we need to check only the two 
rightmost bytes, and so on. 
Example 9
Which of the following can be the beginning address of a 
block that contains 16 addresses?
205.16.37.32
190.16.42.44
17.17.33.80
123.45.24.52
Solution

The address 205.16.37.32 is eligible because 32 is 
divisible by 16. The address 17.17.33.80 is eligible 
because 80 is divisible by 16.
Example 10
Which of the following can be the beginning address of a 
block that contains 1024 addresses?
205.16.37.32
190.16.42.0
17.17.32.0
123.45.24.52

Solution
To be divisible by 1024, the rightmost byte of an address 
should  be  0  (evenly  divisible  256)  and  the  second 
rightmost byte must be divisible by 4 (1024/256). Only the 
address 17.17.32.0 meets this condition.
Slash notation
Slash notation is also called 
CIDR 
notation. 
Example 11
A small organization is given a block with the beginning 
address  and  the  prefix  length  205.16.37.24/29  (in  slash 
notation). What is the range of the block? 

Solution
The beginning address is 205.16.37.24. To find the 
last  address  we  keep  the  first  29  bits  and  change 
the last 3 bits to 1s.
Beginning:11001111  00010000  00100101  00011000
Ending     : 11001111  00010000  00100101  00011111
 There are only 8 addresses in this block.
Example 12
We  can  find  the  range  of  addresses  in  Example  11  by 
another  method.  We  can  argue  that  the  length  of  the 
suffix is 32 − 29 or 3. So there are 23 = 8 addresses in this 
block. If the first address is 205.16.37.24, the last address 
is 205.16.37.31 (24 + 7 = 31). 
 A block in classes A, B, and C 
can easily be represented in slash 
notation as 
A.B.C.D/ n 
where n is 
either 8 (class A), 16 (class B), or 
24 (class C).
Example 13
What  is  the  network  address  if  one  of  the  addresses  is 
167.199.170.82/27?

Solution
The prefix length is 27, which means that we must 
keep  the  first  27  bits  as  is  and  change  the 
remaining bits (5) to 0s. The 5 bits affect only the 
last byte. The last byte is 01010010. Changing the 
last  5  bits  to  0s,  we  get  01000000  or  64.  The 
network address is 167.199.170.64/27.
Example 14
An  organization  is  granted  the  block  130.34.12.64/26. 
The organization needs to have four subnets. What are the 
subnet  addresses  and  the  range  of  addresses  for  each 
subnet?

Solution

The suffix length is 6. This means the total number 
of  addresses  in  the  block  is  64  (26).  If  we  create 
four subnets, each subnet will have 16 addresses.
Solution (Continued)
Let  us  first  find  the  subnet  prefix  (subnet  mask). 
We  need  four  subnets,  which  means  we  need  to 
add  two  more  1s  to  the  site  prefix.  The  subnet 
prefix is then /28. 
Subnet 1: 130.34.12.64/28 to 130.34.12.79/28.
Subnet 2 : 130.34.12.80/28 to 130.34.12.95/28.
Subnet 3: 130.34.12.96/28 to 130.34.12.111/28.
Subnet 4: 130.34.12.112/28 to 130.34.12.127/28.
See next slide 
Example 14
Homework
Một  ISP  được  cấp  dãy  địa  chỉ  190.100.0.0/16.  ISP  cần 
phân bổ các địa chỉ này cho 3 nhóm khách hàng:
1. Group 1: có 64 khách hàng; mỗi khách hàng cần 256 địa chỉ.
2. Group 2 : có 128 khách hàng; mỗi khách hàng cần 128 địa chỉ.

3. Group 3 : có 128 khách hàng;  mỗi khách hàng cần 64 địa chỉ.

Thiết  kế  các  sub_blocks  và  cho  biết  dạng  slash  notation 
cho  mỗi  sub_block.  Cho  biết  có  bao  nhiêu  địa  chỉ  còn 
trống (avaiable) sau khi cấp cho 3 nhóm này.