FREQUENCY AND LOAD CONTROL

IN
POWER GENERATION

BY

ENGR . E. A.
ABHULIMEN

MNSE, MNIMechE, Regd. Engr. COREN

OBJECTIVES
By the end of this presentation, participants
should;
Realize the need to maintain interconnected
steady-state frequency within defined limits by
balancing real power demand and supply
Come to believe that If effective frequency and
load control is achieved, system black outs or
grid collapse will be averted and
Know that with steady frequency, equipment
damage will be minimized.

INTRODUCTION
A basic

difficulty with electric energy production and

usage is that, apart from short periods of time and small
quantities, electric energy cannot be stored.
Since electrical energy is a form of energy that cannot
be effectively stored in bulk, it must be generated,
distributed, and consumed immediately.
It must be produced at the same time as it is used.
To maintain the balance between power production and
consumption, the power plants that produce the energy
must be continuously regulated.
Power system control is based on the phenomenon that
in case of an imbalance, the Alternating Current (AC)

Introduction Contd
When

the load on a system approaches the maximum

generating capacity, network operators must either find
additional supplies of energy or find ways to curtail the
load, hence load management.
If they are unsuccessful, the system will become
unstable and blackouts can occur.
Maintaining demand-supply balance and regulating
frequency are key issues in power system control.
Electrical power demand and power supply must be
continuously balanced. If the demand and supply are not
balanced, or if there is not enough stored energy in the
system to temporarily supply the imbalance, generation

THE GRID SYSTEM

An electrical grid (also known as an electricity grid
or electric grid) is an interconnected network for
delivering electricity from suppliers to consumers.
o It consists of generating stations that produce electrical
power, high-voltage transmission lines that carry power
from distant sources to demand centers, and distribution
lines that connect individual customers
o The National Grid is the high-voltage electric power
transmission network connecting power stations and
major substations and ensuring that electricity generated
anywhere can be used to satisfy demand elsewhere
o

Advantages of Interconnected Power System

The electrical grid network has following advantages or
merits compared to an isolated power system.
Transfer of power among different zones helps to
provide power supply
It has improved compensation for load fluctuations
Multi-assistance is achieved in the event of fault.
Electric utilities benefits from its nature of being large
and interconnecting utilities allows for economies of
scale.
Utilities can draw power from generator reserves from
a different region in order to ensure continuing, reliable

Advantages Contd
Interconnection

also allows regions to have access to

cheap bulk energy by receiving power from different
sources. For example, one region may be producing
cheap hydro power during high water seasons, but in low
water seasons, another area may be producing cheaper
power through wind, allowing both regions to access
cheaper energy sources from one another during different
times of the year
Neighboring utilities also help others to maintain the
overall system frequency.

Frequency
System

frequency is the number of cycles (oscillations)

made by an alternating current per second.
The utility frequency (power), line frequency (American
English) or mains frequency (British English) is
the frequency of the oscillations of alternating
current (AC) in an electric power grid transmitted from
a power plant to the end-users.
In large parts of the world this is 50Hz (e.g. Nigeria),
although in the Americas and parts of Asia it is typically
60 Hz.
For operation of the electrical components in power
System, certain frequency limits exist. Usually, + 1.5 and

LOAD
On

the other hand, loads with energy storage elements

are frequency dependent. Loads can be grouped into
three major categories:
Industrial,
Residential, and
Commercial.
Each load category has its own characteristics. For
example, industrial loads tend to be heavy rotating
machines with high inertia and good frequency
responses.

LOAD CONTD
On

the opposite side of the load spectrum are

commercial and residential loads, which usually
include electronically controlled devices with a
weaker frequency response.
The effect of load type on the frequency
response is important to the extent that it has
been suggested as a separate input to the
frequency response models
Inductive loads, such as rotational electrical
machines, are natural frequency stabilizers.

Synchronization
The

majority of synchronous generators are connected

to each other via the electrical power supply grid. This
grid is referred to as a stiff or constant voltage, constant
frequency system because certain conditions determined
for it may not be changed.
The mains voltage V1 is constant.
The
If

frequency f1 is constant.

generators are connected to the system, then these

synchronization conditions as well as the following must
be fulfilled:
VG = V1; VG: generator voltage

Synchronization Contd
The fulfillment of these synchronization conditions
constitutes synchronization.
The result is that the generator is run up to the
synchronization point, the voltage is adjusted
accordingly via the exciter current while the frequency
and phase angle are controlled via the speed or torque
of the turbine.
The term synchronous simply means it is in step with
the grid frequency,

Synchronization Contd
When

a generator is operating in isolation, e.g feeding

its own industrial power network, it supplies voltage at
a frequency that depends on its rotation speed.
This is determined by the mechanical torque of the
drive machine and the active power output of the
generator as determined by the loads.
For constant speeds, the drive torque and the load
torque have to be equal.
Load fluctuations lead to speed variations, which then
need to be compensated for by the speed controller of
the drive module.

Synchronization Contd
When

a generator is operated in parallel with a large

three-phase mains network, the speed (frequency) is
predetermined by the mains supply.
The generator needs to be synchronized in advance, i.e.
the terminal voltage of the generator operating under noload must match the mains voltage in terms of amplitude,
frequency, phase sequence and phase angle.
The active power output is determined by the angular
displacement, i.e. the relative phase offset of the
generator output with respect to the mains.
The phase shift between the synchronous generated
voltage and the mains voltage is defined as the angular

The Control
A synchronous

machine can be compared to a trolley

between two locomotives, which must go at the same
pace as the rest of the system, otherwise it will be
crushed.

The Control Contd

The

frequency of a synchronous generator is given by

F=NP/120
Where,
f = frequency (in Hz),
N = revolution per minutes (RPM),
P = number of poles
The frequency (F) of a synchronous generator is
directly proportional to its speed (N). When multiple
synchronous generators are connected in parallel to
electrical grid, the frequency is fixed by the grid, since
individual power output of each generator will be small
compared to the load on a large grid, and thus all the

The Control Contd

In the case of frequency control, the objective is to
maintain the nominal frequency as closely as possible.
If there is a disturbance, it is desirable to restore the
nominal frequency quickly.
Frequency deviations are an indication of power
mismatch in the power network.
If power generation and demand are not balanced, the
frequency continues to increase (if generation exceeds
demand )or decrease (if demand exceeds generation).
Eventually connected equipment starts failing and after
some time the power system collapses (i.e, power is not
delivered at the quality and quantity demanded). For this

The Control Contd

The

increase in turbine speed reference will increase

the error between reference and actual speed.
As the difference increases, fuel flow is increased to
increase power output, and vice versa. This type
of control is referred to as "straight proportional"
control.
If the entire grid tends to be overloaded, the grid
frequency and hence, actual speed of generator will
decrease.
All units will see an increase in the speed error, and so
increase fuel flow to their prime movers and
power output.

Classes of load frequency control

Load frequency control in power systems are
classified into two type:
Primary frequency control and
Secondary frequency control.
They are explained below:

primary frequency control

The control of frequency by the action of governors
associated with turbine-generators is called primary
frequency control
The governor is a speed sensitive device, designed to
maintain a constant engine speed regardless of load
variation on the engine.
It controls the flow rate of the working fluid into the
engine (prime mover) in order to
keep the speed constant. It is designed in such a way
that it can monitor and measure the machines speed,
compares it with a desired speed (set value) and makes

Governor Control
Since the governor controls the prime movers speed, it
must have some means of detecting speed, some
reference with which to compare the speed at any instant
and some means to correct the speed error of the prime
mover. Thus; governors, regulating speed has three
essential components:
Speed detection elements
Speed reference elements
Speed correction or regulating elements

The Governor in relation to turbine control

Governor Control Contd

The complete speed governor, measures the speed of the
prime mover, compares it with the set or reference
speed and initiates a regulating action to return the
actual speed to the set speed, by changing the rate of
supply of energy to the prime mover.
When the actual speed equals the set, the speed error is
zero and no further corrective action occurs.
A speed detector operates the engine speed control
which is like the throttle, regulating the speed of the
engine/turbine.

Governor Control Contd

The speed detector could be a rotating mechanical
weights that move up and down to provide an output
signal through a mechanical linkage to the throttle .
It could also be an electronic RPM sensor that has an
output signal proportional to RPM. The output signal is
processed to control a motor or linkage to operate the
throttle, regulate the fuel flow, the water or steam flow,
whatever is require to vary the power of the prime
mover (engine) so its speed remains constant with
changes in load. The governor is therefore a feedback
control system.

The Mechanical acting governor

FREQUENCY AND LOAD CONTROL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE GOVERNOR

Whenever

there is variation in load demand on a generating unit,

there will be a momentary of current of imbalance between real
power output of the prime mover and power on the grid. In order to
maintain grid system stability and reliability, balance must be
maintain between demand and supply of electric power on the
grid.
When there is a load increase on a machine, its speed will tend
to
reduce. The governor will detect this speed change, and act to
increase fuel intake to the engine, leading to proportional increase
in speed back to set value.
Conversely, when there is a load reduction, the governor will
detect speed rise and take action to reduce fuel flow rate to the

Secondary frequency control

In

secondary frequency control the loading on

different plants is changed according to the instructions
given by the load dispatcher.
In this type of control, the frequency of the generating
stations is brought back to the required value (50 or 60
Hz) by appropriate transfer of load between different
areas or zones
The secondary load frequency control takes into
account of economical operations of the complete system
having several interconnected generating stations.

Secondary frequency control Contd

Exchange

of power between the different zones in the

power system is usually governed by certain fixed set of
programs so that for a given period of time, a constant
amount of power is exchanged between the two
interconnected systems.
If there is a frequency variation in particular zone
during operation this may be due to tripping of one of
the
generating stations in the zone or tripping of tie line.
That zone is instructed to increase the amount of
power
import or reduce the amount of power export . Such a
control is based on Load frequency bias.

Droop speed control

Droop

refers to an error signal deliberately introduced

in system control.
In electrical power generation, Droop Speed Control is
a speed control mode of a prime mover driving
a synchronous generator connected to an electrical grid.
This mode allows synchronous generators to run in
parallel, so that loads are shared among generators in
proportion to their power rating.
In this mode, a speed reference as percentage of actual
speed is set. As the generator is loaded from no load to
base load, the actual speed of the prime mover tend to

Droop speed control Contd

In

order to increase the power output, the prime

movers speed reference is increased.
Because the actual prime mover speed is fixed by the
grid, this difference in speed reference and actual speed
of the prime mover is used to increase the flow of
working fluid (fuel, steam, etc) to the prime mover, and
hence power output is increased.
The reverse will be true for decreasing power output.
The prime mover speed reference is always greater than
actual speed of the prime mover.
The actual speed of the prime mover is allowed to
"droop" or decrease with respect to the reference, and so

Droop setting:

If a turbine is rated at 3000 rpm for instance, and the

Machines speed reduces from 3000 rpm to 2880 rpm
when it is loaded from no load to base load, then the
droop setting is given by;
% droop = (3000 2880) / 3000
= 4%.
In this case, speed reference will be 104% and actual
speed will be 100%.
For every 1% change in the turbine speed reference, the
power output of the turbine will change by 25% of rated

Conclusion
The Regulation and Frequency Response Service, is
necessary.
This service is achieved predominantly using automatic
generation control equipment.
Since demand is the aggregation of a very large number
of small loads that turn on and off randomly, frequency
continuously fluctuates around some average value.
In its statistical nature, this type of fluctuation is small
when observed on a short time scale. It is not possible to
compensate for small, very fast frequency deviations.
If power generation and demand are not balanced, the
frequency continues to increase (if generation exceeds

Conclusion
Eventually, connected equipment starts failing
and after some time the power system collapses.
For this reason, quick frequency restoration is
mandatory.
The governor system is therefore very crucial
as it works with droop setting to achieve a stable
frequency irrespective of load variation.

Thanks for your Time and

participation.