Fall 2010

Control Systems (EEE 226)

Unit-3 Frequency Response Analysis
Faculty: Ramesh Babu. N
A.P(Sr)/SELECT/VIT

Frequency Domain Analysis

of Control Systems

Frequency Response
Specifications
1. Resonant or peak value Mr : The
maximum value of T(jw )
2. Resonant or peak frequency w r : The
frequency at which the peak
response Mr occurs.
3. Bandwidth Bw or w B : The
frequency at which drops to 70.0%
of , or -3db, its zero frequency or DC
value.
4. Slope Roll-off or Cut off rate: The
slope of at bandwidth w B

Frequency Response
Specifications

FREQUENCY RESPONSE
PLOTS- Polar Plots
Magnitude vs Phase in polar coordinates as w
varies from zero to
- At each frequency w determine the corresponding
vectors (mag & phase)
- Draw all vectors then connect the tip off all of them as
shown in red

polar plot for

G(s) = 1/(s +2)

Bode Plot

A Bode diagram consists of two graphs:

a plot of 20 log jG(j!)j (in dB) versus
frequency !, and
a plot of phase angle = \G(j!) versus
frequency !.
Advantages of Bode plot:
An approximate bode plot can always be
drawn with hand.
Multiplication of magnitudes get converted
into addition.
Phase-angle curves can easily be drawn if a
template for phase-angle curve of
(1 + j!) is available.

Construction of Bode plot

The factors are

1- Constant k
2- Poles or Zeros at the origin of order p: (jw )
p
3- Poles or Zeros at s = -1/T of order q: (1 + jw
T) p
4- Complex Poles and Zeros of order r: (1 + j2z
w /w n - w 2/w n
2) r
Bode plots are straight line plots connected at
corner or break frequencies
Bode plots (in dB and degrees) simplifies the
plots by adding and
subtracting complex terms.

BODE PLOT FACTORS

BODE PLOT FACTORS

BODE PLOT FACTORS

Example
H ( jw)

640( jw 1)(0.01 jw 1) 64( jw 1)(0.01 jw 1)

( jw) ( jw 10)
( jw) (0.1 jw 1)
2

Stability Definitions

Bounded Input Bounded Output

Stability:
A system is BIBO stable if, for every bounded
input, the output remains bounded with
increasing time (all system poles must lie in
the left half of the s-plane).

Marginal Stability:
A system is marginally stable if some of the
poles lie on the imaginary axis, while all
others are in the LHS of the s-plane. Some
inputs may result in the output becoming

Stability Analysis
To test the stability of a LTI system we need
only examine the poles of the system, i.e.
the roots of the characteristic equation.
Methods are available for testing for roots
with positive real parts, which do not require
the actual solution of the characteristic
equation.
Also, methods are available for testing the
stability of a closed-loop system based only
on the loop transfer function characteristics.

Relative Stability Analysis

The Nyquist Criterion
The Routh-Hurwitz Criterion provides a
check of absolute stability based on the
closed-loop characteristic equation.
The Nyquist Criterion may be used to
analyse the relative stability of the closedloop system based on the loop
characteristics.
Relative stability refers to how close the
system the system is to the absolute
stability boundary.

Relative Stability Analysis

The Nyquist Criterion

Consider the general feedback system

C(s)

R(s)
G(s)

H(s)

The closed-loop
transfer function is
C( s) G( s)
R( s) 1 GH ( s)

The characteristic equation is

1 GH ( s) 0
Define F(s) as
F ( s) 1 GH ( s)

The Nyquist Criterion

F(s) is a rational polynomial in s and can

be written generally as
z1)( s z2 )( )L
(
s
F ( s)
( s p1)( s p2 )( )L

where -zi are the zeroes of F(s) and -pi

are the poles of F(s) .
Note: the zeroes of F(s) the roots of the
characteristic equation poles of the
closed-loop system.

The Nyquist Criterion:

Notes on Zeroes and Poles
The zeroes of F(s) are the values of s that make
F(s) = 0 and the poles are the values of s that
make F(s)
N ( s)
D ( s) N ( s)
N =( s
) .
L
L
L
L

F ( s)

GH ( s )

If

D ( s)
L

, then

D ( s)
L

D ( s)
L

The denominator and numerator order of F(s) are

equal to the order of the loop transfer function
GH(s) .
poles of F(s) D (poles
of GH(s) (loop transfer
s) N ( s) = 0
L
L
function)
zeroes of F(s) roots of the characteristic

The Nyquist Criterion

The Principle of the Argument

The stability analysis of the closed-loop

system now becomes the task of
determining if there are any zeroes of F(s) in
the right hand side (RHS) of the s-plane.
This is achieved through the application of
the principle of the argument, which is a
result from general complex number theory.
This involves the mapping of a function from
the complex s-plane to the complex F(s) or
GH(s) plane.

The Principle of the Argument:

Some Definitions

Encirclements in the complex plane.

Im

Path is a
Re clockwise
encirclement of point
A

Im

counterRe clockwise
encirclement

Enclosements in the complex plane.

Im

Im

Re

Re

The area to the right of

the path is the area
enclosed by .

The Principle of the Argument

Complex Function Mapping

s-plane F(s) complex plane mapping.

j

s2

s3

Im{F}

unique

s1

F(s1
)

Re{F}

F(s2
non unique )
F(s3
)
path

If F(s) is analytic along the

(no poles of
F(s) on ) and s starts at s = s1 and traces a
closed path terminating at s1 , then F(s) will trace
a closed path in the F plane starting at F(s1) and
terminating at F(s1) .

The Principle of the Argument

The principle of the argument states that for
an arbitrary closed path in the s-plane, the
corresponding closed path in the F plane will
encircle the origin as many times as the
difference between the number of zeroes of
F(s) and poles of F(s) located in the area
enclosed by the path .
The direction of the encirclements of origin is
the same as the path if the number of
zeroes of F(s) is greater than the poles.

The Nyquist Path

Define the Nyquist

path such that it
encloses the right Poles of F(s)
hand side of the
s-plane, but does
not go through
any poles of F(s).

j
j

-j

The Nyquist Criterion

Map F(s) along the Nyquist path enclosing the

RHS.
Then the number of clockwise encirclements of
the origin of the F(s) plane is N = Z P , where
Z is the number of zeroes of F(s) in the RHS, P
is the number of poles of F(s) in the RHS.

Z, corresponds to the number of poles of the closed- loop

system in the RHS.
P, corresponds to the number poles of the loop transfer
function in the RHS.

The Nyquist Criterion

Normally, P is known. If the loop transfer
function is stable, then P = 0 and N must be
zero for a stable closed-loop system.
If P is non zero, then there must be P
counterclockwise encirclements of the origin.
A slight modification of the process is to map
the GH(s) function rather than F(s) and then
check for encirclements of the 1 point in the
complex GH(s) plane. This works since F(s)
= 1 + GH(s) .

The Nyquist Criterion:

A Simple Example

Consider a system with the loop TF

s-plane
j

K
GH ( s)
s( s a)

GH-plane

Im{GH}
j

mapping

Pole of
GH

Re{GH}
-1

-j

-j

The Nyquist Criterion:

A Simple Example
The number of encirclements of the 1
point in the GH-plane is zero, N = 0.
The number poles of the loop transfer
function GH(s) in the RHS, is zero (P = 0).
Note: the Nyquist path excludes the pole
at the origin.
Therefore, the number of poles of the
closed-loop system = the zeroes of 1 +
GH(s), in the RHS, is Z = N + P = 0 + 0
=0.

The Nyquist Criterion:

Sketching the GH(s) Function
In most cases only an approximate sketch
of the GH(s) mapping is required.
Consider various segments of the Nyquist
path.j
Section I : s = e j ; 0

= 90 +90

II

III

IV
-j

Section II : s = j0+ j
Section III : s = R e j

= +90 90
Section IV : s = j j0

The Nyquist Criterion:

Sketching the GH(s) Function

Consider a general loop transfer function

K( s z1)( s z2 )( )L
GH( s) k
s ( s p1)( s p2 )( )L
Section I: ( s = e j , 0 , = 90 +
90 )
j

z1)( L )
K
(
e
j
GH ( e ) k j k
e ( ej p1)( L )
as 0

GH

Kz1z2 L
/ - k
k j k
e p1p2 L

As varies from
90 +90 (CCW)
/GH varies from
k 90 k 90 (CW)

The Nyquist Criterion:

Sketching the GH(s) Function

Section II: (s = j , = 0+
0

GH ( j )
/ k90

GH ( j ) 0 / (n m)90

where, n = the order of the denominator of

GH
m = the order of the numerator of GH
This represents the normal frequency
response of the loop system GH(j).

The Nyquist Criterion:

Sketching the GH(s) Function

Section IV:
This section is the mirror image of Section II.

Section III: ( s = Re j , R , = +90 90 )

j
z1 )( L )
K
(
R
K
e
j
( n- m) j ( n- m)
GH ( Re ) k j k
j
R e ( Re p1 )( L )
R
e
0 /- (n - m)

This corresponds to (n-m)180 counter-clockwise

rotations about the origin.

The Nyquist Criterion:

Example 1
Nyquist Path
j
j

II

III

I
IV
-j

GH ( s)

K
s2 ( s a)

Sec. II:
s = j 0+ , GH(j) /-180
s = j , GH(j) 0 /-270
Sec. III: no effect.
Sec. IV: mirror image of II.
Sec. I: (k = 2) Then GH(j0)
rotates 360 clockwise
from GH(j0) to GH(j0+)
with a magnitude of .

The Nyquist Criterion:

Example 1
j

GH(j0+)
GH(j0)

-1

-j

Im{GH}

GH ( s)

K
s2 ( s a)

Stability Analysis:

There are 2 clockwise

rotations of GH(s) about the
1 point, N = 2.
Re{GH}
No poles of GH(s) in the
RHS, P=0 .
Then, Z = N+P = 2 which
means there are two poles
of the closed-loop system in
the RHS, i.e. the system is
unstable.

The Nyquist Criterion:

Example 2
GH ( s)

K
s( s a)( s b)

j
j

II

III

I
IV
-j

Sec. II:
s = j 0+ , GH(j) /-90
s = j , GH(j) 0 /-270
Sec. III: no effect.
Sec. IV: mirror image of II.
Sec. I: (k = 1) Then GH(j0)
rotates 180 clockwise from
GH(j0) to GH(j0+) with a
magnitude of .

The Nyquist Criterion:

K
Example 2

GH ( s)

s( s a)( s b)

Im{GH}

Where is the 1
GH(jc)
point?
If the 1 point is
Re{GH}
inside the GH path,
-1
then
N=2 , P= 0 and Z=2
the system is
-j
unstable.
If the 1 point is to
Find |GH(jc)| where c is
the left of the GH path,
defined by Im{GH(jc)} =then
0

The Nyquist Criterion:

Example 2
GH ( s)
GH ( j )

K
s( s a)( s b)

K
j ( j a)( j b)

K
- j 3 ab j - ( a b) 2

For, Im{ GH ( j c )} 0
- j c3 ab j c 0

c ab

Check if this is
less than 1 .

K
K

Then, GH ( j c )
2
- ( a b) c - ( a b)ab

Relative Stability
Gain and Phase Margins

Gain and phase margins are a measure

of how close the system is to instability.
Gain Margin: the additional gain in db,
that will make the system marginally
stable.

Im{GH}
|GH(jc)|

-1

fm

Re{GH}

20log10

1
GH ( j c )

Phase Margin: the additional phase lag in

degrees, that will make the system
marginally stable.

fm 180 -

The Nyquist Criterion:

K
Special Example
GH ( s)

2
s 2

j 2

Sec. II:
s = j 0+ , GH(j) K/2
s = j , GH(j) 0 /-180
Sec. I: Let s j 2 e j

where 0 ; -90o 90o

II

IV
-j

then

III
I

K
j 2

(j 2
e ) 2
K

- 2 j 2 2e j 2e j 2 2

GH ( s)

The Nyquist Criterion:

Special Example GH (s)
jIm{GH}

K
2
s 2

For 0

K
j ( 90)

2 2 e
/- ( 90)

GH ( s)
Re{GH}
-1

K/2

-j

Section III: no effect

Section IV: mirror
image of II.

There are no net rotations about the 1 point, therefore, N = 0.

Since P = 0 ( no roots of GH in the RHS), Z = 0 and the closed loop system is
stable for all values of K.