William L Masterton

Cecile N. Hurley
http://academic.cengage.com/chemistry/masterton

Chapter 6
Electronic Structure and the Periodic Table

Edward J. Neth University of Connecticut

Electronic Structure
and the Periodic
Table

Review
Chapter 2: Structure of the Atom
Nucleus: protons and neutrons
Surrounding the nucleus: electrons
Electron Arrangements in Atoms
Energy levels
Spatial locations
Considerations
Single electron in the hydrogen atom
Multiple electrons in other atoms

Arranging Electrons in Atoms

Electron configuration
The electron configuration associates the energy
level with the number of electrons in each level
Orbital diagrams
Orbital diagrams show the arrangement of
electrons within each energy level
The periodic table
Electron configurations can be deduced from the
periodic table
Properties of atoms can be related to the electron
configuration

Atomic Spectra
Under certain circumstances, atoms can generate
light, which is transmitted through space
Fireworks displays
Neon lights
Sodium vapor streetlights

Fireworks

The Wave Nature of Light

Wavelength ()
Distance between two successive crests or
troughs in the light wave
Measured in nanometers (1 nm = 10-9 m)
Frequency ()
Number of successive crests or troughs (wave
cycles) that pass a point in a unit of time
If 108 cycles pass in one second, the frequency is
108/s or 108Hz

Wavelength-Frequency Relationship
The speed at which a wave moves through space is
found by multiplying the wavelength by the
frequency:

c
c is the speed of light in a vacuum, 2.998 X 108 m/s
To use this equation,
Frequency must be in s-1
Wavelength must be in m

Figure 6.1

Example 6.1

The Electromagnetic Spectrum

The human eye can see light covering only a narrow
region of the electromagnetic spectrum (400-700
nm)
We see the red glow of a barbecue grill, but most
of the radiation is emitted above 700 nm as
infrared radiation, also known as heat
We cannot see the radiation responsible for
sunburn (ultraviolet, below 400 nm) or X-rays
(even shorter wavelength)

Figure 6.2

The Particle Nature of Light; Photon Energies

Before the 20th century, light was explained in terms of waves
only
Experiments from 1900-1910 showed that light has
properties not explained by waves
Max Planck, blackbody radiation
Albert Einstein, photoelectric effect
Today, we consider light to be a stream of particles called
photons, whose energy, E, is given by

h is the Planck constant, 6.626 X 10-34 Js

The Photoelectric Effect

Light can strike the surface of some metals causing an
electron to be ejected.

14

Energy and Wavelength

Note that energy and wavelength are inversely
related
As the wavelength becomes longer, energy
decreases
As the wavelength becomes shorter, energy
increases
Low energy
Infrared, microwave
High energy
Ultraviolet, X-ray

Example 6.2

Atomic Spectra
Sir Isaac Newton
17th Century
Showed that white light from the sun can be
separated into color components by a prism
The resulting spectrum is continuous (unbroken)
from 400 to 700 nm

Gaseous Elements
Elements can be put in to the gas phase at high
energy
Resulting emission of light is not continuous
Consider sodium
Two strong lines in the yellow region: 589.0 and 589.6
nm
Light is colored only yellow

Line Spectra

Figure 6.3

Line Spectra
The fact that photons making up atomic spectra have only
certain discrete wavelengths implies that they can have
only discrete energies because
hc
E h

Photons are produced when an electron moves from one

energy level to another within the atom
Electronic energies are quantized: they are limited to
specific values

Atomic Spectrum of Hydrogen

Hydrogen has a single electron and therefore a
simple atomic spectrum
Multi-electron atoms have complex spectra
When hydrogen is energized at high voltage, atoms
emit radiation
Wavelengths can be grouped into series
First series was discovered by Johann Balmer
(the Balmer Series)

Table 6.1

The Hydrogen Atom

Niels Bohr (1885-1962)
Theoretical explanation of the hydrogen spectrum
1922 Nobel Prize in physics
The Bohr Model
Hydrogen consists of a central proton about which
moves the electron
Electrostatic attraction of proton for electron
likened to centrifugal force of circular motion of the
electron
Electrons occupy fixed orbits around the nucleus

Mathematics of the Bohr Model

The energy of the hydrogen electron is given by

En is the energy of the electron

RH is the Rydberg constant, 2.180 X 10-18 J
n is an integer called the principal quantum number

Notes on the Bohr Model

1. Zero energy is the point at which the proton and
electron are infinitely separated; energy must be
absorbed to reach this state, so all states below it
have negative energy.
2. The ground state is the lowest energy state for the
hydrogen atom, where n = 1. Any n value above 1
corresponds to an excited state.
3. When an electron emits energy as a photon of light,
it falls from a higher n to a lower n.

Energy Release
The difference in energy between two states in the hydrogen
atom is the energy of the photon released in the transition
between those states

Combining Bohrs equation for two states produces the

Rydberg equation for the hydrogen atom

h is the Planck content, 6.626 X 10-34 Js

Example 6.3

The Hydrogen Series

The lines in the hydrogen spectrum are grouped by
the value of nlo:
Balmer series has nlo = 2
Lyman series has nlo = 1
Paschen series has nlo = 3

The Balmer Series

The Quantum Mechanical Model

Bohrs theory explains the hydrogen atom very well
When applied to atoms with two or more electrons,
the theory gives only qualitative agreement with
experimental data

Matter Waves
deBroglie, 1892-1987
If light, which is ordinarily considered a wave, can
have the properties of a particle, then electrons,
which are ordinarily considered particles, can
have the properties of a wave
The result was a new branch of physics called
wave mechanics, which evolved into quantum
mechanics

Fundamental Principles of Quantum Mechanics

The kinetic energy of an electron is inversely related
to the volume of the region in space to which it is
confined
The kinetic energy increase from the shrinking
volume of an electron moving toward the nucleus
balances the electrostatic attraction to prevent the
electron from falling into the nucleus
It is impossible to specify the exact position of an
electron at a given instant
We can only specify the probability of finding an
electron in a particular region of space

Schrodinger
Erwin Schrodinger (1887-1961)
1926
Wrote a differential equation to express the wave
properties of an atom
is called the wave function
It is possible to find the amplitude of the electron wave
at various points in space
2 is proportional to the probability of finding an
electron at a particular point in space

Electron Cloud Diagrams

Electron cloud diagrams are maps of electron
density
The depth of color is proportional to 2, the
probability of finding an electron
Orbitals
The orbital represents the region in space where
there is a 90% or higher probability of finding an
electron
Pictorial view follows

Figure 6.4

Quantum Numbers
The Schrodinger equation can be solved exactly only
for the hydrogen atom
Approximations allow for solutions of the equation
relevant to atoms with two or more electrons
The solutions result in orbitals, which have an
energy, a shape and an orientation in space
The solutions result in three quantum numbers:
n

m

First Quantum Number, n

The principal energy level is specified by the first
quantum number, n
n = 1, 2, 3, 4,
n = 1 is the first principal level
n = 2 is the second principal level, and so on

The Second Quantum Number,

Each principal energy level (specified by n) has one
or more sublevels
The sublevel is specified by the quantum number
is derived from n:
= 0, 1, 2 (n-1)
In the nth principal level, there are n sublevels

Instead of using numbers, the sublevels are given

letter designations
For = 0, 1, 2, 3

we use s, p, d, f

Combining n and
n and are combined to indicate the principal and
subsidiary levels
1s means n = 1 and =0
2s means n = 2 and = 0
2p means n = 3 and = 1

Relative Energy
For atoms with more than one electron, the energy is
dependent on both n and
ns < np < nd < nf
Recall that as n increases, energy increases
2s is higher energy than 1s
Combining both
2p is higher energy than 2s

The Third Quantum Number, m

Each sublevel contains one or more orbitals, which
differ from one another in the value of the third
quantum number, m
Just as depends on n, m depends on
m = - -1, 0, +1, +
There are 2 + 1 orbitals per sublevel

Sublevels s through f

For an s sublevel, = 0, so m = 0
For a p sublevel, = 1 so m = -1, 0, or 1
For a d sublevel, = 2 so m = -2, -1, 0, 1, or 2
For an f sublevel, = 3 so m = -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, or 2

The Fourth Quantum Number, ms

The last quantum number is associated with the
electron spin
Two spins are possible, clockwise and
counterclockwise
There are two values of ms, + and

The Pauli Exclusion Principle

No two electrons in the same atom may have the
same set of four quantum numbers
Two electrons may occupy an orbital; these will
differ in spin
The spins of two electrons in an orbital will be
opposite to each other

Table 6.3

Example 6.4

Example 6.5

Atomic Orbital Shapes and Sizes

Recall that an orbital is a physical representation of
the region in space where there is a 90% probability
of finding an electron
We will consider the shapes of two types of orbitals
in this chapter
s orbitals are spherical, differing only in size (they
become larger as n increases)
p orbitals consist of two lobes along an axis
There are three axes x, y and z
There are three p orbitals px, py, and pz

Shape of s-orbital

Shapes of p-orbitals

Shapes and Sizes

Shapes and Sizes (cont'd)

Electron Configuration in Atoms

By applying the rules from which quantum numbers
derive, it is possible to assign quantum numbers to
each electron in an atom
Electron configuration: 1s22s22p5
Coefficient is n
Letter is m
Superscript is the number of electrons

Predicting Electron Configurations

Predictions apply to gaseous atoms in the ground
state
Energy of sublevel determines order of assignment

Electron Configuration from Sublevel Energies

Once the order of filling of sublevels is known, the
electron configuration is readily obtained
Experimental evidence provides the relative
energies of sublevels
Sublevels are ordinarily filled before proceeding to
the next energy sublevel
Examples
H, 1s2
He, 1s2
Li, 1s22s1
Be, 1s22s2
B, 1s22s22p1 C 1s22s22p2

The Transition Metals

Consider Ar: 1s22s22p63s23p6
The next electron enters the 4s
K: 1s22s22p63s23p64s1
Ca: 1s22s22p63s23p64s2

With the transition metals, the 3d fills after the 4s

Sc: 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d1

Following the transition metals, the 4p fills

Ga: 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p1

Example 6.6

Abbreviated Electron Configurations

To save writing, abbreviated electron configurations
are written
Start with the preceding noble gas
Complete the configuration with the rest of the
electrons in the element
S is [Ne]3s23p4
Ni is [Ar]4s23d8

Filling of Sublevels and the Periodic Table

By using the periodic table, it is possible to quickly
write an electron configuration for any element
Consider the Group 1 elements
All have the outer configuration s1

Consider the Group 2 elements

All have the outer configuration s2

Atoms of elements in a group have the same

distribution of electrons in the outermost principal
energy level

Table 6.4

Notes on The Periodic Table

1.
2.
3.
4.

Elements in Group 1 and 2 fill an s sublevel

Elements in Groups 13-18 fill a p sublevel
Elements of the transition metals fill a d sublevel
The two sets of 14 elements each at the bottom of
the periodic table fill f sublevels with a principal
quantum number two less than the period
number
First row: lanthanides
Second row: actinides

Example 6.7

Exceptions
Some elements have electron configurations that
differ from those expected from the application of the
rules we have seen
Cr is actually [Ar]4s13d5
Cu is actually [Ar]4s13d10
These difference arise because
The energy levels of the orbitals are close to each
other
There is a gain in stability by producing a halffilled or a filled shell where possible

Orbital Diagrams of Atoms

One step beyond the assignment of electrons to
orbitals is the depiction of electrons in orbitals
Parentheses indicate orbitals (__)
Arrows, up and down, indicate electrons ()
Recall the ms quantum number
One electron in an atom has ms = and the other has
ms = -

Hunds Rule
Maximize unpaired spins where possible

Figure 6.10

Notes
In all filled orbitals, the two electrons have opposed
spins
Within a given sublevel there are as many half-filled
orbitals as possible
This is a direct consequence of Hunds Rule
Hunds rule is based on experiment
Substances with unpaired electrons are
paramagnetic
Substances with all paired electrons are
diamagnetic

Example 6.8

Electron Arrangements in Monatomic Ions

In forming an ion, electrons are removed from
(cation) or added to (anion) sublevels in the
highest principal energy level

Main Group Ions and Noble Gas Structures

Cations of Group 1 form +1 ions

Cations of Group 2 from +2 ions
Nitrogen forms a -3 ion
Elements in the oxygen family form -2 ions
Halogens form -1 ions

Figure 6.11 Noble Gas Configurations

Transition Metal Cations

Transition metal cations do not form ions with noblegas configurations
Cations do form, with charges ranging from +1 to
higher numbers
The outer s electrons are lost before the d
electrons; this is the first-in, first-out rule
Consider Mn
Mn is [Ar]4s23d5
Mn2+ is [Ar]3d5

Example 6.9

Periodic Trends
The chemical and physical properties of elements
are a periodic function of atomic number
Recall that the number of electrons is equal to the
atomic number of an element
Properties to be considered

Atomic radius (and ionic radius)

Ionization energy
Electronegativity
Electron affinity

Atomic Radius
The size of an atom is a difficult to define term
The radius of an atom can be defined and
measured, assuming the atom is a sphere
The trend for the radius of the atom is
A decrease in radius across a period
An increase in radius down a group

Figure 6.12

Trends in Atomic Radius

The increase in radius down a group can be
explained by the screening of the electron from the
positive charge on the nucleus in the outer shell by
the inner electrons; the effective nuclear charge
decreases
The decrease in radius across a period can be
explained by the fact that electrons are being added
to the same principal energy level and do not screen
as well; the effective nuclear charge increases

Atomic Radii

77

Atomic Radii
Example : Arrange these elements based on their
atomic radii.
Se, S, O, Te

78

Atomic Radii
Example : Arrange these elements based on their
atomic radii.
P, Cl, S, Si

79

Ionic Radius
Cations are smaller than the atoms from which
they form
Fewer electrons mean increased effective nuclear
charge on those that remain
Anions are larger than the atoms from which
they form
More electrons mean that there is more electronelectron repulsion so the size of the ion increases
relative to that of the atom

Figure 6.14

Example 6.10

Ionization Energy
The ionization energy is a measure of difficulty in
removing an electron from a gaseous atom
M (g) M+ (g) + e Ionization energy increases across a period from
left to right
Ionization energy decreases down a family from
top to bottom

Ionization Energy
First ionization energy (IE1)
The minimum amount of energy required to remove
the most loosely bound electron from an isolated
gaseous atom to form a 1+ ion.
Symbolically:
Atom(g) + energy ion+(g) + e-

Ionization Energy
Second ionization energy (IE2)
The amount of energy required to remove the
second electron from a gaseous 1+ ion.
Symbolically:
ion+ + energy ion2+ + e-

85

First Ionization Energies

of Some Elements

86

Figure 6.15

Example 6.11

Example 6.11

Electronegativity
Electronegativity is the ability of an atom to attract
electrons
Linus Pauling
Fluorine is the most electronegative element
Cs is the least electronegative element

As electronegativity increases, the formation of an

anion becomes more likely
Trends
Electronegativity increases across a period
Electronegativity decreases down a family

Table 6.5

Electron Affinity
Electron affinity is the amount of energy absorbed
when an electron is added to an isolated gaseous
atom to form an ion with a 1- charge.
Sign conventions for electron affinity.
If electron affinity > 0 energy is absorbed.
If electron affinity < 0 energy is released.

Electron affinity is a measure of an atoms ability to

form negative ions.
Symbolically:

atom(g) + e- + EA ion-(g)

92

Electron Affinity

Two examples of electron affinity values:

Mg(g) + e- + 231 kJ/mol Mg-(g)
EA = +231 kJ/mol

Br(g) + e- Br-(g) + 323 kJ/mol

EA = -323 kJ/mol

93

Electron Affinity

General periodic trend for electron affinity is

the values become more negative from left to right
across a period on the periodic chart.
the values become more negative from bottom to
top up a row on the periodic chart.

Measuring electron affinity values is a difficult

experiment.

94

Electron Affinity

95

Key Concepts
1. Relate wavelength, frequency and energy
2. Use the Bohr model to identify lines in the hydrogen
spectrum
3. Identify the quantum numbers of electrons in atoms
4. Derive the electron capacity of energy levels
5. Write electron configurations, full and abbreviated,
for atoms and ions
6. Draw orbital diagrams for atoms and ions
7. Identify periodic trends in radii, ionization energy
and electronegativity