Chapter 4- 2

Vacancy atoms
Interstitial atoms
Substitutional atoms
Dislocations
Grain Boundaries
Point defects


Line defects

Area defects
TYPES OF IMPERFECTIONS
Chapter 4- 3
Vacancies:
-vacant atomic sites in a structure.
Vacancy
distortion
of planes
Self-Interstitials:
-"extra" atoms positioned between atomic sites.
self-
interstitial
distortion
of planes
POINT DEFECTS
Chapter 4-
Boltzmann's constant
(1.38 x 10
-23
J/atom K)
(8.62 x 10
-5
eV/at om K)
|
N
D
N
=
exp

Q
D
kT
|
\

|
.
|
No. of defects
No. of potential
defect sites.
Activation energy
Temperature
Each lattice site
is a potential
vacancy site
4
Equilibrium concentration varies with temperature!
EQUIL. CONCENTRATION:
POINT DEFECTS
Chapter 4- 6
Find the equil. # of vacancies in 1m of Cu at 1000C.
Given:
3
8.62 x 10
-5
eV/atom-K
0.9eV/atom
1273K
|
N
D
N
=
exp

Q
D
kT
|
\

|
.
|
For 1m
3
, N =
N
A
A
Cu
x x 1m
3
= 8.0 x 10
28
sites
= 2.7 10
-4
Answer:
MEASURING ACTIVATION ENERGY
Chapter 4- 7
Low energy electron
microscope view of
a (110) surface of NiAl.
Increasing T causes
surface island of
atoms to grow.
Why? The equil. vacancy
conc. increases via atom
motion from the crystal
to the surface, where
they join the island.
Reprinted with permission from Nature (K.F. McCarty,
J.A. Nobel, and N.C. Bartelt, "Vacancies in
Solids and the Stability of Surface Morphology",
Nature, Vol. 412, pp. 622-625 (2001). Image is
5.75 m by 5.75 m.) Copyright (2001) Macmillan
Publishers, Ltd.
OBSERVING EQUIL. VACANCY CONC.
Chapter 4- 8
Two outcomes of impurity (B) added to host (A):
Solid solution of B in A (i.e., random dist. of point defects)
Solid solution of B in A plus particles of a new
phase (usually for a larger amount of B)
OR
Substitutional alloy
(e.g., Cu in Ni)
Interstitial alloy
(e.g., C in Fe)
Second phase particle
--different composition
--often different structure.
POINT DEFECTS IN ALLOYS
Chapter 4- 9
Low energy electron
microscope view of
a (111) surface of Cu.
Sn islands move along
the surface and "alloy"
the Cu with Sn atoms,
to make "bronze".
The islands continually
move into "unalloyed"
regions and leave tiny
bronze particles in
their wake.
Eventually, the islands
disappear.
Reprinted with permission from: A.K. Schmid, N.C.
Bartelt, and R.Q. Hwang, "Alloying at Surfaces by
the Migration of Reactive Two-Dimensional Islands",
Science, Vol. 290, No. 5496, pp. 1561-64 (2000).
Field of view is 1.5 m and the temperature is
290K.
ALLOYING A SURFACE
Chapter 4- 10
Definition: Amount of impurity (B) and host (A)
in the system.
Weight %
Two descriptions:
Atom %
Conversion between wt % and at% in an A-B alloy:
C
B
=
C'
B
A
B

C'
A
A
A
+ C'
B
A
B
x 100
Basis for conversion:
COMPOSITION
Chapter 4- 11
are line defects,
cause slip between crystal plane when they move,
produce permanent (plastic) deformation.
Dislocations:
Schematic of a Zinc (HCP):
before deformation after tensile elongation
slip steps
LINE DEFECTS
Chapter 4- 12
Dislocations slip planes incrementally...
The dislocation line (the moving red dot)...
...separates slipped material on the left
from unslipped material on the right.
Simulation of dislocation
motion from left to right
as a crystal is sheared.
(Courtesy P.M. Anderson)
INCREMENTAL SLIP
Chapter 4- 13
Dislocation motion requires the successive bumping
of a half plane of atoms (from left to right here).
Bonds across the slipping planes are broken and
remade in succession.
Atomic view of edge
dislocation motion from
left to right as a crystal
is sheared.
(Courtesy P.M. Anderson)
BOND BREAKING AND REMAKING
Chapter 4- 14
Structure: close-packed
planes & directions
are preferred.
Comparison among crystal structures:
FCC: many close-packed planes/directions;
HCP: only one plane, 3 directions;
BCC: none
Mg (HCP)
Al (FCC)
tensile direction
Results of tensile
testing.
view onto two
close-packed
planes.
DISLOCATIONS & CRYSTAL STRUCTURE
Chapter 4- 15
Grain boundaries:
are boundaries between crystals.
are produced by the solidification process.
for example, a change in crystal orientation across them.
impede dislocation motion.
grain
boundaries
Schematic
Adapted from Fig. 4.7, Callister 6e.
Adapted from Fig. 4.10, Callister 6e. (Fig.
4.10 is from Metals Handbook, Vol. 9, 9th edition,
Metallography and Microstructures, Am. Society for Metals,
Metals Park, OH, 1985.)
~ 8cm
Metal Ingot
AREA DEFECTS: GRAIN BOUNDARIES
An ingot is a material,
usually metal, that is cast into a
shape suitable for further
processing. Non-metallic and
semiconductor materials prepared in
bulk form may also be referred to as
ingots, particularly when cast by
mold based methods.
Chapter 4- 16
Useful up to 2000X magnification.
Polishing removes surface features (e.g., scratches)
Etching changes reflectance, depending on crystal
orientation.
close-packed planes
micrograph of
Brass (Cu and Zn)
Adapted from Fig. 4.11(b) and (c), Callister
6e. (Fig. 4.11(c) is courtesy
of J.E. Burke, General Electric Co.
0.75mm
OPTICAL MICROSCOPY (1)
Chapter 4- 17
Grain boundaries...
are imperfections,
are more susceptible
to etching,
may be revealed as
dark lines,
change direction in a
polycrystal.
Adapted from Fig. 4.12(a)
and (b), Callister 6e.
(Fig. 4.12(b) is courtesy
of L.C. Smith and C. Brady,
the National Bureau of
Standards, Washington, DC
[now the National Institute of
Standards and Technology,
Gaithersburg, MD].)
OPTICAL MICROSCOPY (2)
Chapter 4- 18
Point, Line, and Area defects arise in solids.
The number and type of defects can be varied
and controlled (e.g., T controls vacancy conc.)
Defects affect material properties (e.g., grain
boundaries control crystal slip).
Defects may be desirable or undesirable
(e.g., dislocations may be good or bad, depending
on whether plastic deformation is desirable or not.)
SUMMARY