1

Attitude Scaling


Ravi Shankar Rai


Learning Objectives
To understand the linkage among attitudes,
behavior, and marketing effectiveness.
To become familiar with the concept of scaling.
To learn about the various types of attitude scales.
To examine some basic considerations in selecting
a type of scale.
To realize the importance of attitude measurement
scales in management decision making.

3
Attitude
An enduring disposition to
consistently respond in a given matter
Attitudes
as Hypothetical Constructs
The term hypothetical construct is used
to describe a variable that is not
directly observable, but is measurable
by an indirect means such as verbal
expression or overt behavior - attitudes
are considered to be such variables.
Attitude Measurement
Majority of questions in marketing research are
designed to measure attitudes
Attitudes include
Information possessed
Feelings of like and/or dislike
Intentions to behave
Management wants to understand and influence
behavior
Reasons for Measuring Attitudes
Attitudes lead to behavior
More feasible to ask questions on attitudes
than to observe and interpret behavior
Large capacity for diagnosis and
explanation
Attitude Research
Attitudes directly affect purchase decisions
and these in turn, directly affect attitudes.

Attitude
Action/
Behavior
Three Components of an Attitude
Affective
Cognitive
Behavioral
9
Affective

The feelings or emotions toward an
object
Cognitive

Knowledge and beliefs
Behavioral
Predisposition to action
Intentions
Behavioral expectations
Concepts of Measurement and
Scaling
Measurement
Standardized process of assigning numbers or
other symbols to certain characteristics of objects
of interests according to pre-specified rules

Scaling
Process of creating a continuum on which objects
are located according to the amount of the
measured characteristic that the object possesses
Types of Measurement
Type of measurement depends on type of data!
Type of Measurement
Nominal
Ordinal
Interval
Ratio

Measurement Scales: Nominal
Numbers identify and classify objects
No ordering or spacing are implied
Only possible arithmetic operation is a count of
each category
If one entity is assigned the same number as
another, they are identical with respect to the
nominal variable.
Examples:
Players in a football team
Colors of traffic light
Gender (female= 1; male = 2)


Measurement Scales: Ordinal
Objects are ranked in order with regard to
some common variable.
Numbers indicate the relative position of
objects but not the magnitude of difference
Arithmetic operations are limited to
statistics such as median or mode
Examples:
Result of 100 meter dash (1
st
, 2
nd
, 3
rd
)
Ranking of largest fast food companies

Measurement Scales: I nterval
Object is measured on a continuum
Arbitrary zero point
Differences between objects can be compared
Entire range of statistical operations can be
employed (mean, correlation, ANOVA,
regression)
Examples:
Temperature
Attitudes


Measurement Scales: Ratio
Interval scale with fixed zero point
Possible to say how may times greater or smaller
one object is than another.
Comparison of absolute magnitudes is possible
Examples:
Weight, length
Age
Store sales (1 million, 2002; 1.5 million,
2003)
Market shares (51% market share)


Types of Scales and Their
Properties
Type of
Measurement
Scale
Types of Attitude
Scale
Rules for Assigning
Number
Typical
Application
Statistics /
Statistical Tests
Nominal Dichotomous yes or
no scales.
Objects are either
identical or different
Classification
(by sex,
geographic are,
social class)
Percentages, mode /
chi -square
Ordinal or Rank
Order
Comparative, Rank
order, Itemized
Category, Paired
Comparison
Objects are greater or
smaller
Rankings
(preference,
class standing)
Percentile, median,
rank-order
correlation /
Friedman ANOVA
Interval Likert, Thurstone,
Stapel, Associative
Semantic-Differential
Intervals between
adjacent ranks are equal
Index numbers,
temperature
scales, attitude
measures
Mean, standard
deviation, product
moment correlations
/ t-tests, ANOVA,
regression, factor
analysis
Ratio Certain scales with
special instructions
There is a meaningful
zero, so comparison of
absolute magnitudes is
possible
Sales, incomes,
units produced,
costs, age
Geometric and
harmonic mean,
coefficient of
variation
Measuring Attitudes

Ranking
Rating
Sorting
Choice
The Attitude Measuring Process
Ranking - Rank order preference
Rating - Estimates magnitude of a characteristic
Sorting - Arrange or classify concepts
Choice - Selection of preferred alternative
Ranking tasks require that the
respondent rank order a small
number of objects in overall
performance on the basis of some
characteristic or stimulus.
Rating asks the respondent to estimate
the magnitude of a characteristic, or
quality, that an object possesses. The
respondents position on a scale(s) is
where he or she would rate an object.
Sorting might present the respondent with
several concepts typed on cards and require
that the respondent arrange the cards into a
number of piles or otherwise classify the
concepts.
Choice between two or more alternatives is
another type of attitude measurement - it is
assumed that the chosen object is preferred
over the other.
Physiological measures of attitudes provide
a means of measuring attitudes without
verbally questioning the respondent. for
example, galvanic skin responses, measure
blood pressure etc.
Classification of attitude scales
Itemized
Category
Scales
Comparativ
e Scales
Q-sort
Scales
Paired
Comparison
Scales
Rank-Order
Scales
Constant
Sum
Scales
Pictorial
Scales
Semantic
Differential
Scales
Associative
Scales
Stapel Scales Likert
Scales
Single-Item
Scales
Continuous
Scales
Attitude
Scales
Multi-Item
Scales
Simple Attitude Scaling
In its most basic form, attitude scaling
requires that an individual agree with a
statement or respond to a single question.
This type of self-rating scale merely
classifies respondents into one of two
categories;
Simplified Scaling Example
THE PRESIDENT SHOULD RUN FOR RE-ELECTION
_______ AGREE ______ DISAGREE
Multiple-item Scales
Developed to measure a sample of beliefs toward
the attitude objects and combine the set of answers
into an average score
Multiple item Scales
Likert
Semantic Differential
Stapel
Associative Scaling

Category Scales
A category scale is a more sensitive
measure than a scale having only two
response categories - it provides more
information.
Wording of questions is an extremely
important factor in the usefulness of these
scales.
Example of Category Scale
How important were the following in your decision to visit
Agra (check one for each item)
VERY SOMEWHAT NOT TOO
IMPORTANT IMPORTANT IMPORTANT

CLIMATE ___________ ___________ ___________
COST OF TRAVEL ___________ ___________ ___________
FAMILY ORIENTED ___________ ___________ ___________
EDUCATIONAL/
HISTORICAL ASPECTS _________ ___________ ___________
FAMILIARITY WITH
AREA ___________ ___________ ___________
Method of Summated Ratings:
The Likert Scale
An extremely popular means for measuring
attitudes. Respondents indicate their own
attitudes by checking how strongly they
agree or disagree with statements.
Response alternatives: strongly agree,
agree, uncertain, disagree, and
strongly disagree.
Likert Scale for Measuring
Attitudes Toward Tennis
It is more fun to play a tough, competitive
tennis match than to play an easy one.
___Strongly Agree
___Agree
___Not Sure
___Disagree
___Strongly Disagree

Likert Scale for Measuring Attitudes Toward Tennis
Cont.
There is really no such thing as a tennis stroke
that cannot be mastered.
___Strongly Agree
___Agree
___Not Sure
___Disagree
___Strongly Disagree
Playing tennis is a great way to exercise.
___Strongly Agree
___Agree
___Not Sure
___Disagree
___Strongly Disagree
Likert Scale for Measuring Attitudes Toward Tennis
Cont.
Semantic Differential
A series of seven-point bipolar rating scales.
Bipolar adjectives, such as good and
bad, anchor both ends (or poles) of the
scale.
A weight is assigned to each position on the
rating scale. Traditionally, scores are 7, 6,
5, 4, 3, 2, 1, or +3, +2, +1, 0, -1, -2, -3.
Semantic Differential Scales for
Measuring Attitudes Toward Tennis
Exciting ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : Calm
Interesting ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : Dull
Simple___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ Complex
Passive ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ Active
Semantic Differential
Numerical Scales
Numerical scales have numbers as response
options, rather than semantic space or
verbal descriptions, to identify categories
(response positions).
Stapel Scales
Modern versions of the Stapel scale place a
single adjective as a substitute for the
semantic differential when it is difficult to
create pairs of bipolar adjectives.
The advantage and disadvantages of a
Stapel scale, as well as the results, are very
similar to those for a semantic differential.
However, the Stapel scale tends to be easier
to conduct and administer.
A Stapel Scale
for Measuring a Stores Image
Department
Store Name
+3
+2
+1
Wide Selection
-1
-2
-3
Select a plus number for words that you think
describe the store accurately. the more accurately
you think the word describes the store, the larger
the plus number you should choose. Select a
minus number for words you think do not describe
the store accurately. The less accurately you think
the word describes the store, the large the minus
number you should choose, therefore, you can
select any number from +3 for words that you
think are very accurate all the way to -3 for words
that you think are very inaccurate.
Behavioral differential: the behavioral differential instrument
has been developed for measuring the behavioral intentions of
subjects towards any object or category of objects. A
description of the object to be judged is placed on the top of a
sheet, and the subjects indicate their behavioral intentions
toward this object on a series of scales. For example:

A 25-year old woman sales representative
Would ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : Would Not
Ask this person for advice.
Paired Comparisons
In paired comparisons the respondents are presented
with two objects at a time and asked to pick the
one they prefer. Ranking objects with respect to
one attribute is not difficult if only a few products
are compared, but as the number of items
increases, the number of comparisons increases
geometrically (n*(n -1)/2). If the number of
comparisons is too great, respondents may fatigue
and no longer carefully discriminate among them.
Divide 100 points among each of the
following brands according to your
preference for the brand:

Brand A _________

Brand B _________

Brand C _________
Graphic Rating Scales
A graphic rating scale presents respondents
with a graphic continuum.
Graphic Rating Scale Stressing
Pictorial Visual Communications
3 2 1
Very Very
Good Poor
Graphic Rating Scale
Uncomfortable
Scale A
Comfortable
Uncomfortable
Scale B
Comfortable
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Monadic Rating Scale
A Monadic Rating Scale asks about a single concept

Now that youve had your automobile for about 1 year, please tell us how
satisfied you are with its engine power and pickup.

Completely Very Fairly Well Somewhat Very
Satisfied Satisfied Satisfied Dissatisfied Dissatisfied
A Comparative Rating Scale
A Comparative Rating Scale asks respondents to rate a concept by
comparing it with a benchmark

Please indicate how the amount of authority in your present position
compares with the amount of authority that would be ideal for this position.

TOO MUCH ABOUT RIGHT TOO LITTLE
An Unbalanced Scale
An Unbalanced Scale has more responses distributed at one end of the
scale

How satisfied are you with the bookstore in the Student Union?

Neither Satisfied Quite Very
Satisfied Nor Dissatisfied Satisfied Dissatisfied
Steps in multiple-item scale development
Determine clearly what you are going to measure
Generate as many items as possible
Ask experts in the field to evaluate the initial pool of items
Determine the type of attitudinal scale to be used
Include some items that will help in the validation of the scale
Administer the items to an initial sample
Evaluate and refine the items
Finally, optimize the scale length
Accuracy of Attitude Measurements
Validity
An attitude measure has validity if it measures what it is
supposed to measure
Reliability
The consistency with which the measure produces the same
results with the same or comparable population
Sensitivity
Extent to which ratings provided by a scale are able to
discriminate between the respondents who differ with respect
to the construct being measured
Relevancy
Relevance = reliability * validity