CSE 243: Introduction to Computer Architecture and Hardware/Software Interface

Topics covered: Instruction Set Architecture

Instruction execution and sequencing

Recall the fetch/execute cycle of instruction execution. In order to complete a meaningful task, a number of instructions need to be executed. During the fetch/execution cycle of one instruction, the Program Counter (PC) is updated with the address of the next instruction:

PC contains the address of the memory location from which the next instruction is to be fetched.

When the instruction completes its fetch/execution cycle, the contents of the PC point to the next instruction. Thus, a sequence of instructions can be executed to complete a task.

Instruction execution and sequencing (contd..)

Simple processor model Processor has a number of general purpose registers. Word length is 32 bits (4 bytes). Memory is byte addressable. Each instruction is one word long. Instructions allow one memory operand per instruction.

One register operand is allowed in addition to one memory operand.

Simple task:
Add two numbers stored in memory locations A and B. Store the result of the addition in memory location C.

Move A, R0 (Move the contents of location A to register R0) Add B, R0 (Add the contents of location B to register R0) Move R0, C (Move the contents of register R0 to location C)
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Instruction execution and sequencing (contd..)

0
Move A, R0 Add B, R0

4
8

Execution steps: Step I: -PC holds address 0.

-Fetches instruction at address 0. -Fetches operand A. -Executes the instruction. -Increments PC to 4.

Move R0, C

Step II: -PC holds address 4.

A -Fetches instruction at address 4. -Fetches operand B. -Executes the instruction. -Increments PC to 8.

Step III: -PC holds address 8.

-Fetches instruction at address 8. -Executes the instruction. -Stores the result in location C.

Instructions are executed one at a time in order of increasing addresses. Straight line sequencing
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Instruction execution and sequencing (contd..)

Consider the following task:
Add 10 numbers. Number of numbers to be added (in this case 10) is stored in location N. Numbers are located in the memory at NUM1, .... NUM10 Store the result in SUM. Move NUM1, R0 (Move the contents of location NUM1 to register R0) Add NUM2, R0 (Add the contents of location NUM2 to register R0) Add NUM3, R0 (Add the contents of location NUM3 to register R0) Add NUM4, R0 (Add the contents of location NUM4 to register R0) Add NUM5, R0 (Add the contents of location NUM5 to register R0) Add NUM6, R0 (Add the contents of location NUM6 to register R0) Add NUM7, R0 Add NUM8, R0 Add NUM9, R0 Add NUM10, R0 Move R0, SUM (Move the contents of register R0 to location SUM)

Instruction sequencing and execution (contd..)

Separate Add instruction to add each number in a list, leading to a long list of Add instructions. Task can be accomplished in a compact way, by using the Branch instruction.
Move N, R1 (Move the contents of location N, which is the number of numbers to be added to register R1) Clear R0 (This register holds the sum as the numbers are added) LOOP Determine the address of the next number. Add the next number to R0. Decrement R1 (Counter which indicates how many numbers have been added so far). Branch>0 LOOP (If all the numbers havent been added, go to LOOP) Move R0, SUM

Instruction execution and sequencing (contd..)

Decrement R1:
Initially holds the number of numbers that is to be added (Move N, R1). Decrements the count each time a new number is added (Decrement R1). Keeps a count of the number of the numbers added so far.

Branch>0 LOOP:
Checks if the count in register R1 is 0 (Branch > 0) If it is 0, then store the sum in register R0 at memory location SUM (Move R0, SUM). If not, then get the next number, and repeat (go to LOOP). Go to is specified implicitly.

Note that the instruction (Branch > 0 LOOP) has no explicit reference to register R1.

Instructions execution and sequencing (contd..)

Processor keeps track of the information about the results of previous operation. Information is recorded in individual bits called condition code flags. Common flags are:
N (negative, set to 1 if result is negative, else cleared to 0) Z (zero, set to 1 if result is zero, else cleared to 0) V (overflow, set to 1 if arithmetic overflow occurs, else cleared) C (carry, set to 1 if a carry-out results, else cleared)

Flags are grouped together in a special purpose register called condition code register or status register.
If the result of Decrement R1 is 0, then flag Z is set. Branch> 0, tests the Z flag. If Z is 1, then the sum is stored. Else the next number is added.
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Instruction execution and sequencing (contd..)

Branch instructions alter the sequence of program execution
Recall that the PC holds the address of the next instruction to be executed. Do so, by loading a new value into the PC. Processor fetches and executes instruction at this new address, instead of the instruction located at the location that follows the branch. New address is called a branch target.

Conditional branch instructions cause a branch only if a specified condition is satisfied

Otherwise the PC is incremented in a normal way, and the next sequential instruction is fetched and executed.

Conditional branch instructions use condition code flags to check if the various conditions are satisfied.

Instruction sequencing and execution (contd..)

How to determine the address of the next number? Recall the addressing modes:
Initialize register R2 with the address of the first number using Immediate addressing. Use Indirect addressing mode to add the first number. Increment register R2 by 4, so that it points to the next number.

Move N, R1 Move #NUM1, R2 (Initialize R2 with address of NUM1) Clear R0 LOOP Add (R2), R0 (Indirect addressing) Add #4, R2 (Increment R2 to point to the next number) Decrement R1 Branch>0 LOOP Move R3, SUM
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Instruction execution and sequencing (contd..)

Note that the same can be accomplished using autoincrement mode:
Move N, R1 Move #NUM1, R2 (Initialize R2 with address of NUM1) Clear R0 LOOP Add (R2)+, R0 (Autoincrement) Decrement R1 Branch>0 LOOP Move R3, SUM

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Stacks
A stack is a list of data elements, usually words or bytes with the accessing restriction that elements can be added or removed at one end of the stack.
End from which elements are added and removed is called the top of the stack. Other end is called the bottom of the stack.

Also known as:

Pushdown stack. Last in first out (LIFO) stack.

Push - placing a new item on the stack. Pop - Removing the top item from the stack.

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Stacks (contd..)
Data stored in the memory of a computer can be organized as a stack.

Successive elements occupy successive memory locations.

When new elements are pushed on to the stack they are placed in successively lower address locations.

Stack grows in direction of decreasing memory addresses.

A processor register called as Stack Pointer (SP) is used to keep track of the address of the element that is at the top at any given time.

A general purpose register could serve as a stack pointer.

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Stacks (contd..)
0 4

Processor with 65536 bytes of memory. Byte addressable memory. Word length is 4 bytes. First element of the stack is at BOTTOM. SP points to the element at the top.
1 2 739

SP

Push operation can be implemented as: Subtract #4, SP Move A, (SP) Pop operation can be implemented as: Move (SP), B Add #4, SP Push with autodecrement: Move A, -(SP) Pop with autoincrement: Move (SP)+, A
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BOTTOM

43

65535

Subroutines
In a program subtasks that are repeated on different data values are usually implemented as subroutines. When a program requires the use of a subroutine, it branches to the subroutine.

Branching to the subroutine is called as calling the subroutine. Instruction that performs this branch operation is Call.

After a subroutine completes execution, the calling program continues with executing the instruction immediately after the instruction that called the subroutine.

Subroutine is said to return to the program. Instruction that performs this is called Return.

Subroutine may be called from many places in the program.

How does the subroutine know which address to return to?

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Subroutines (contd..)
Recall that when an instruction is being executed, the PC holds the address of the next instruction to be executed.
This is the address to which the subroutine must return. This addressed must be saved by the Call instruction.

Way in which a processor makes it possible to call and return from a subroutine is called subroutine linkage method. The return address could be stored in a register called as Link register Call instruction:
Stores the contents of the PC in a link register. Branches to the subroutine.

Return instruction:

Branch to the address contained in the link register.

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Subroutines (contd..)
Memory location Calling program Memory location Subroutine SUB Calling

200 204

Call SUB next instruction

1000

first instruction

Return

1000

PC

204

program calls a subroutine, whose first instruction is at address 100. The Call instruction is at address 200. While the Call instruction is being executed, the PC points to the next instruction at address 204. Call instructions stores address 204 in the Link register, and loads 1000 into the PC. Return instruction loads back the address 204 from the link register into the PC.

Link Call

204 Return

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Subroutines and stack

For nested subroutines:
After the last subroutine in the nested list completes execution, the return address is needed to execute the return instruction. This return address is the last one that was generated in the nested call sequence. Return addresses are generated and used in a Last-In-FirstOut order.

Push the return addresses onto a stack as they are generated by subroutine calls. Pop the return addresses from the stack as they are needed to execute return instructions.

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Assembly language
Recall that information is stored in a computer in a binary form, in a patterns of 0s and 1s. Such patterns are awkward when preparing programs. Symbolic names are used to represent patterns. So far we have used normal words such as Move, Add, Branch,
to represent corresponding binary patterns.

When we write programs for a specific computer, the normal words need to be replaced by acronyms called mnemonics. E.g., MOV, ADD, INC A complete set of symbolic names and rules for their use constitute a programming language, referred to as the assembly language.

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Assembly language (contd..)

Programs written in assembly language need to be translated into a form understandable by the computer, namely, binary, or machine language form. Translation from assembly language to machine language is performed by an assembler.
Original program in assembly language is called source program. Assembled machine language program is called object program.

Each mnemonic represents the binary pattern, or OP code for the operation performed by the instruction. Assembly language must also have a way to indicate the addressing mode being used for operand addresses. Sometimes the addressing mode is indicated in the OP code mnemonic. E.g., ADDI may be a mnemonic to indicate an addition operation
with an immediate operand.
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Assembly language (contd..)

Assembly language allows programmer to specify other information necessary to translate the source program into an object program.
How to assign numerical values to the names. Where to place instructions in the memory. Where to place data operands in the memory.

The statements which provide additional information to the assembler to translate source program into an object program are called assembler directives or commands.

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Assembly language (contd..)

100 104 108 LOOP 112 116 120 124 Move Move Clear Add Add N,R1 #NUM1,R2 R0 (R2),R0 #4,R2

Decrement R1 Branch>0 LOOP

128
132

Move

R0,SUM

What is the numeric value assigned to SUM? What is the address of the data NUM1 through NUM100? What is the address of the memory location represented by the label LOOP? How to place a data value into a memory location?

SUM N NUM1 NUM2

200 204 208 212 100

NUM 100604

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Assembly language (contd..)

Memory address lab el Addressing or data information

Operation

Assem bler directiv es

SUM N NUM1

Statemen ts that generate mac hine instructions

START

LOOP

Assem bler directiv es

EQU ORIGIN DA TAW ORD RESER VE ORIGIN MO VE MO VE CLR ADD ADD DEC BGTZ MOVE RETURN END

200 204 100 400 100 N,R1 #NUM1,R2 R0 (R2),R0 #4,R2 R1 LOOP R0,SUM STAR T

EQU: Value of SUM is 200. ORIGIN: Place the datablock at 204. DATAWORD: Place the value 100 at 204 Assign it label N. N EQU 100 RESERVE: Memory block of 400 words is to be reserved for data. Associate NUM1 with address 208 ORIGIN: Instructions of the object program to be loaded in memory starting at 100. RETURN: Terminate program execution. END: End of the program source text
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Assembly language (contd..)

Assembly language instructions have a generic form: Label Operation Operand(s) Comment Four fields are separated by a delimiter, typically one or more blank characters. Label is optionally associated with a memory address:

May indicate the address of an instruction to be executed. May indicate the address of a data item.

How does the assembler determine the values that represent names?

Value of a name may be specified by EQU directive. A name may be defined in the Label field of another instruction, value represented by the name is determined by the location of that instruction in the object program.

SUM EQU 100

E.g., BGTZ LOOP, the value of LOOP is the address of the instruction ADD (R2) R0
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Assembly language (contd..)

Assembler scans through the source program, keeps track of all the names and corresponding numerical values in a symbol table.

When a name appears second time, it is replaced with its value from the table.

What if a name appears before it is given a value, for example, branch to an address that hasnt been seen yet (forward branch)?

Assembler can scan through the source code twice. First pass to build the symbol table. Second pass to substitute names with numerical values. Two pass assembler.

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Encoding of machine instructions

Instructions specify the operation to be performed and the operands to be used. Which operation is to be performed and the addressing mode of the operands may be specified using an encoded binary pattern referred to as the OP code for the instruction. Consider a processor with:
Word length 32 bits. 16 general purpose registers, requiring 4 bits to specify the register. 8 bits are set aside to specify the OP code. 256 instructions can be specified in 8 bits.

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Encoding of machine instructions (contd..)

One-word instruction format.
8 OP code 7 Source 7 Dest 10 Other info

: 8 bits. : 4 bits to specify a register 3 bits to specify the addressing mode. Destination operand : 4 bits to specify a register. 3 bits to specify the addressing mode. Other information : 10 bits to specify other information such as index value. Opcode Source operand

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Encoding of machine instructions (contd..)

What if the source operand is a memory location specified using the absolute addressing mode?
8 OP code 3 Source 7 Dest 14

Opcode : 8 bits. Source operand : 3 bits to specify the addressing mode. Destination operand : 4 bits to specify a register. 3 bits to specify the addressing mode.

Leaves us with 14 bits to specify the address of the memory location. Insufficient to give a complete 32 bit address in the instruction. Include second word as a part of this instruction, leading to a two-word instruction.

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Encoding of machine instructions (contd..)

Two-word instruction format.

OP code

Source

Dest

Other info

Memory address/Immediate operand

Second word specifies the address of a memory location. Second word may also be used to specify an immediate operand.

Complex instructions can be implemented using multiple words. Complex Instruction Set Computer (CISC) refers to processors using instruction sets of this type.

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Encoding of machine instructions (contd..)

Insist that all instructions must fit into a single 32 bit word:

Instruction cannot specify a memory location or an immediate operand.

ADD R1, R2 can be specified. ADD LOC, R2 cannot be specified. Use indirect addressing mode: ADD (R3), R2
R3 serves as a pointer to memory location LOC. Relative addressing mode.

How to load address of LOC into R3?

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Encoding of machine instructions (contd..)

Restriction that an instruction must occupy only one word has led to a style of computers that are known as Reduced Instruction Set Computers (RISC).
Manipulation of data must be performed on operands already in processor registers. Restriction may require additional instructions for tasks. However, it is possible to specify three operand instructions into a single 32-bit word, where all three operands are in registers:

Three-operand instruction
OP code Ri Rj Rk Other info

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