Radiative Properties

When radiation strikes a surface, a portion of it is

reflected, and the rest enters the surface.
Of the portion that enters the surface, some are
absorbed by the material, and the remaining
radiation is transmitted through.
The ratio of reflected energy to the incident energy
is called reflectivity, .
Transmissivity () is defined as the fraction of the
incident energy that is transmitted through the
object.
Absorptivity () is defined as the fraction of the incident energy that is
absorbed by the object.
The three radiative properties all have values between zero and 1.
Furthermore, since the reflected, transmitted, and absorbed radiation must
add up to equal the incident energy, the following can be said about the three
properties:
o + t + = 1
Emissivity
A black body is an ideal emitter.
The energy emitted by any real surface is less than the
energy emitted by a black body at the same temperature.
At a defined temperature, a black body has the highest
monochromatic emissive power at all wavelengths.
The ratio of the emissive power of real body E to the
blackbody emissive power E
b
at the same temperature is
the hemispherical emissivity of the surface.

b
E
E
= c
The Emission Process
For gases and semitransparent
solids, emission is a volumetric
phenomenon.

In most solids and liquids the
radiation emitted from interior
molecules is strongly absorbed by
adjoining molecules.
Only the surface molecules can
emit radiation.
Spherical Geometry
u
|
dA
Vectors in Spherical Geometry
Zenith Angle : u

Azimuthal Angle : |
(|, u,r)
Hemispherical Black Surface Emission
t
o
t
4
T E
I
b
b
= =
Black body Emissive Intensity
Real Surface emission
The radiation emitted by a real surface is spatially distributed:
) , , ( T I I
real
u = Directional Emissive Intensity:
Directional Emissivity:
b
I
T I
T
) , , (
) , , (
u
u c =
Directional Emissivity
Planck Radiation Law
The primary law governing blackbody radiation is the Planck
Radiation Law.
This law governs the intensity of radiation emitted by unit surface area
into a fixed direction (solid angle) from the blackbody as a function of
wavelength for a fixed temperature.
The Planck Law can be expressed through the following equation.

( )
1
1 2
,
5
2

=
kT
hc
e
hc
T E

h = 6.625 X 10
-27
erg-sec (Planck Constant)

K = 1.38 X 10
-16
erg/K (Boltzmann Constant)

C = Speed of light in vacuum
Real Surface Monochromatic emission
The radiation emitted by a real surface is spatially distributed:
) , , , (
,
T I I
real
u

= Directional MonochromaticEmissive Intensity:

Directional Monochromatic Emissivity:

u
u c
,
) , , (
) , , (
b
I
T I
T =
Monochromatic emissive power E

All surfaces emit radiation in many wavelengths and some,
including black bodies, over all wavelengths.
The monochromatic emissive power is defined by:
dE = emissive power in the wave band in the infinitesimal
wave band between and +d.

( ) d T E dE , =
The monochromatic emissive power of a blackbody is given by:
( )
1
1 2
,
5
2

=
kT
hc
e
hc
T E

Shifting Peak Nature of Radiation

Weins Displacement Law:
At any given wavelength, the black body monochromatic
emissive power increases with temperature.
The wavelength
max
at which is a maximum decreases as
the temperature increases.
The wavelength at which the monochromatic emissive
power is a maximum is found by setting the derivative of
previous Equation with respect to .
( )

d
e
hc
d
d
T dE
kT
hc

=
1
1 2
,
5
2
mK T 8 . 2897
max
=
Wien law for three different stars
Stefan-Boltzmann Law
The maximum emissive power at a given
temperature is the black body emissive power (Eb).
Integrating this over all wavelengths gives E
b.

( )
} }

=
0
5
2
0
1
1 2
,

d
e
hc
d T E
kT
hc
( )
4 4
4
4 2
15
2
T T
k
hc
hc
T E
b
o
t
=
(

=
The total (hemispherical) energy emitted by a body, regardless of the
wavelengths, is given by:
4
AT Q
emitted
co =
where is the emissivity of the body,
A is the surface area,
T is the temperature, and
is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant, equal to 5.6710
-8
W/m
2
K
4
.
Emissivity is a material property, ranging from 0 to 1, which
measures how much energy a surface can emit with respect to an
ideal emitter ( = 1) at the same temperature
The total (hemispherical emissive power is, then, given by
Here, c can be interpreted as either the emissivity of a body,
which is wavelength independent, i.e., c

is constant, or as the
average emissivity of a surface at that temperature.
A surface whose properties are independent of the wavelength is
known as a gray surface.
The emissive power of a real surface is given by
} }

= =
0 0
) ( c

d E d E E
b
Define total (hemispherical) emissivity, at a defined temperature
}
}
}
}

= =
0
0
0
0
) (

d E
d E
d E
d E
b
b
b
Absorptivity o, Reflectivity , and Transmissivity t
Consider a semi-transparent sheet
that receives incident radiant
energy flux, also known as
irradiation, G .
Let dG represent the irradiation in
the waveband to + d.
Part of it may be absorbed, part of
it reflected at the surface, and the
rest transmitted through the sheet.
We define monochromatic
properties,
Monochromatic Absorptivity :
dG
dG
o

o =
Monochromatic reflectivity :
dG
dG

=
Monochromatic Transmissivity :
dG
dG
t

t =
Total Absorptivity :
G
G
d
o

o o = =
}

0
Total reflectivity :
G
G
d

= =
}

0
Total Transmissivity :
G
G
d
t

t t = =
}

0
Conservation of Irradiation
The total Irradiation =
t o
G G G G + + =
G
G
G
G
G
G
t

o
+ + = 1
1 = + + t o
3..
Blackbody Radiation
The characteristics of a blackbody are :
It is a perfect emitter.
At any prescribed temperature it has the highest
monochromatic emissive power at all wave lengths.
A blackbody absorbs all the incident energy and there fore
o = o

= 1.
It is non reflective body (t=0).
It is opaque (t = 0).
It is a diffuse emitter
Radiative Heat Transfer
Consider the heat transfer between two
surfaces, as shown in Figure.
What is the rate of heat transfer into
Surface B?
To find this, we will first look at the
emission from A to B.
Surface A emits radiation as described in
4
, A A A emitted A
T A Q o c =
This radiation is emitted in all directions, and only a fraction of it
will actually strike Surface B.
This fraction is called the shape factor, F.

The amount of radiation striking Surface B is therefore:
4
, A A A B A inceident B
T A F Q o c

=
The only portion of the incident radiation contributing to heating
Surface B is the absorbed portion, given by the absorptivity
B
:
4
, A A A B A B absorbed B
T A F Q o c o

=
Above equation is the amount of radiation gained by Surface B
from Surface A.
To find the net heat transfer rate at B, we must now subtract the
amount of radiation emitted by B:
4
, B B B emitted B
T A Q o c =
The net radiative heat transfer (gain) rate at Surface B is
emitted B absorbed B B
Q Q Q
, ,
=
4 4
B B B A A A B A B B
T A T A F Q o c o c o =

Shape Factors
Shape factor, F, is a geometrical
factor which is determined by the
shapes and relative locations of
two surfaces.
Figure illustrates this for a
simple case of cylindrical source
and planar surface.
Both the cylinder and the plate are
infinite in length.
In this case, it is easy to see that
the shape factor is reduced as the
distance between the source and
plane increases.
The shape factor for this simple
geometry is simply the cone angle
() divided by 2
Shape factors for other simple
geometries can be calculated using
basic theory of geometry.
For more complicated geometries, the
following two rules must be applied
to find shape factors based on simple
geometries.
The first is the summation rule.
1 2 2 2 1 1
= F A F A
This rule says that the shape factor from a surface (1) to another
(2) can be expressed as a sum of the shape factors from (1) to
(2a), and (1) to (2b).
The second rule is the reciprocity rule, which relates the shape
factors from (1) to (2) and that from (2) to (1) as follows:
b a
F F F
2 1 2 1 2 1
+ =
Thus, if the shape factor from (1) to (2) is known, then the shape
factor from (2) to (1) can be found by:
1 2
1
2
2 1
= F
A
A
F
If surface (2) totally encloses the surface 1:
1
2 1
=

F
Geometric Concepts in Radiation
Solid Angle:
2
r
dA
d
n
= e
sin d d d e u u =
Emissive intensity
( ) Sr W/m
d dS
dq
I
n
e
2
,
e
u =
Monochromatic Emissive intensity
( ) m Sr W/m
d d dS
dq
I
n
e

e
u

2
,
, , =
Total emissive power
dS
n
dS
cos
n
dS dS u =
n
e e
all
directions
dS
E I d
dS
e =
}
2
2
,
0 0 0
( , , ) cos sin
e e
q E I d d d
t
t

u u u u

= =
} } }
Radiation Heat Transfer
e = emissive power
G = total irradiation
J = total radiosity
1 = + + t o
In general:
Opaque material:
1 = + o
o = absorptivity
= reflectivity
t = transmissivity
c = emissivity
o=c

e

T
1
T
2
T
3
Energy
e
Ideal Emitter Schematic
T
3
> T
2
> T
1

Radiation Heat Transfer
Black Body
absorptivity = o=1
emissivity = c=1
ideal emissive power = e
b

4
T e
b
o =
1 = =c o
o f =
c f =
4
T e
gray
oc =
b gray
e e c =
Gray Body
absorptivity < 1
emissivity < 1
emissive
power<1

e

Gray
Body
Black
Body

Energy
Real
Body
black
gray
e
e
= c
c o =
( ) c f =
Schematic
Radiation Heat Transfer
1 =
j
ij
F
1 ... ...
1 1 12 11
= +
n j
F F F F
ji j ij i
F A F A =
Thermal Equilibrium
View Factor: F
ij
= fraction of radiation
from surface i intercepted by surface j.
1
2
Radiation Heat Transfer
1 b
e
1
J
2
J
R
J
1 1
1
1
c
c
A

2 2
2
1
c
c
A

R
F A
1 1
1
12 1
1
F A
R
F A
2 2
1
No net heat flux wall
Analog
circuit
12
Q

1 12 12
A q Q =

Find:
2 b
e
X
1 2
R
R
Radiation Heat Transfer
1 b
e
1
J
2
J
2 b
e
R
J
1 1
1
1
c
c
A

2 2
2
1
c
c
A

R
F A
1 1
1
12 1
1
F A
R
F A
2 2
1
R R
F A F A
2 2 1 1
1 1
+
1 b
e
1
J
2
J
2 b
e
1 1
1
1
c
c
A

2 2
2
1
c
c
A

12 1
1
F A
Radiation Heat Transfer
1 b
e
1
J
2
J
2 b
e
1 1
1
1
c
c
A

2 2
2
1
c
c
A
R R
F A F A
2 2 1 1
1 1
+
12 1
1
F A
1 b
e
1
J
2
J
2 b
e
1 1
1
1
c
c
A

2 2
2
1
c
c
A

R R
F A F A
F A
2 2 1 1
12 1
1 1
1
1
+
+
R R
F A F A
F A F A
2 2 1 1
12 1 12 1
1 1
1
+
+ =
Radiation Heat Transfer
1 b
e
1
J
2
J
2 b
e
1 1
1
1
c
c
A

2 2
2
1
c
c
A

12 1
1
F A
R R
F A F A
F A F A
2 2 1 1
12 1 12 1
1 1
1
+
+ =
2 2
2
12 1 1 1
1
1 1 1
c
c
c
c
A F A A

+ +

1 b
e
2 b
e
2 2
2
12 1 1 1
1
12 1
1 1 1
1
c
c
c
c
A F A A
A

+ +

= F
1 b
e
2 b
e
12 1
1
F A
4
2
4
1 1 12
T T A Q = o
12
F

2 1 1 12 b b
e e A Q =
12
F

12 1
tan F A ce Conduc =
Radiation Heat Transfer
R R
F A F A
F A F A
2 2 1 1
12 1 12 1
1 1
1
+
+ =
2 2
2
12 1 1 1
1
12 1
1 1 1
1
c
c
c
c
A F A A
A

+ +

= F
Radiation Heat Transfer
Consider the radiation
heat transfer between two
infinite parallel plates.
1
2
net
q
, 12
2 b
e
1 b
e
1
J
2
J
2 2
2
1
c
c
A

1 1
1
1
c
c
A

12 1
1
F A
1
21 12
= = F F
2 1
A A =
( )
2 2
2
12 1 1 1
1
2 1
1 12
1 1 1
c
c
c
c
A F A A
e e
A q
b b

+ +

=
( )
1
1 1
2 1
2 1
12
+

=
c c
b b
e e
q
1
Special Case
Radiation Heat Transfer
Consider the radiation heat
transfer between a small object
and infinite surroundings.
1
S
net S
q
, 1
bS
e
1 b
e
1
J
S
J
S S
S
A c
c 1
1 1
1
1
c
c
A

S
F A
1 1
1
1
1
=
S
F
0
1
~
S
A
A
( )
S S
bS b
S
A F A A
e e
A q
c
c
c
c
2
2
1 1 1 1
1
1
1 1
1 1 1
+ +

=
( )
bS b S
e e q =
1 1 1
c
1
0
1 = =
S S
c o
Special Case
4 4
1 1 1 S S
T T q = oc