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Eukaryotic Cell Structure

5.1 A typical eukaryotic cell

1. Compare and contrast eukaryotic, bacterial, and archaeal cells in terms of their use of membranes, size, morphological diversity, and organelles.

Eukaryotic Microorganisms
Prominent members of ecosystems Useful as model systems and industry Some are major human pathogens Two groups of eukaryotes commonly possess microbial members
protists fungi

Common Features of Eukaryotic Cells

Membrane-delimited nuclei Membrane-bound organelles that perform specific functions Intracytoplasmic membrane complex serves as transport system More structurally complex and generally larger than bacterial or archaeal cells

5.2 Eukaryotic cell envelopes

1. Identify the types of eukaryotic microbes that have cell walls and distinguish them from plant cell walls. 2. Compare and contrast the cell envelopes of members of Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya in terms of their component layers, molecular make-up, and function.

Eukaryotic Cell Envelopes

Consists of the plasma membrane and all coverings external to it

Plasma membrane is a lipid bilayer

major membrane lipids include phosphoglycerides, sphingolipids, and cholesterol, all of which contribute to strength of membrane microdomains participate in variety of cellular processes

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Eukaryotic Cell Envelopes - 2

Unlike the peptidoglycan in the cell wall of Bacteria and Archaea, many eukaryotes lack or have a chemically distinct cell wall Cell walls of photosynthetic algae have cellulose, pectin, and silica

Cell walls of fungi consist of cellulose, chitin, or glucan

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5.3 Cytoplasm of eukaryotes

1. Describe the functions of the cytoplasm. 2. Identify the three filaments that make up the cytoskeleton of eukaryotic cells and describe their functions.

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The Cytoplasm of Eukaryotes

Consists of liquid, the cytosol, and many organelles

Cytoskeleton
vast network of interconnected filaments within the cytoplasmic matrix

filaments that form the cytoskeleton: microfilaments (actin), microtubules, intermediate filaments, and motor proteins plays role in both cell shape and cell movement
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Microfilaments
Small protein filaments, 4 to 7 nm in diameter
Scattered within cytoplasmic matrix or organized into networks and parallel arrays Composed of actin protein Involved in cell motion and shape changes
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Intermediate Filaments
Heterogeneous elements of the cytoskeleton, ~10 nm in diameter

Keratin and vimentin classes

Role in cell is unclear
play structural role some shown to form nuclear lamina others help link cells together to form tissues

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Microtubules

Shaped like thin cylinders ~25 nm in diameter of and -tubulin

Help maintain cell shape

Involved with microfilaments in cell movements Participate in intracellular transport processes
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5.4 Organelles of the secretory and endocytic pathways

1. Differentiate the two types of endoplasmic reticulum in terms of structure and function. 2. Outline the pathway of molecules through the secretory pathway, noting the structures involved and their role in the process. 3. List the endocytic pathways observed in mammalian cells, noting the structures involved and their role in the process, and noting those pathways that have been observed in eukaryotic microbes.

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Secretory Endocytic Pathway

Intricate complex of membranous organelles and vesicles that move materials into the cell from outside, from inside to outside, and within the cell

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

Golgi apparatus Lysosomes

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Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

Irregular network of branching and fusing membranous tubules and flattened sacs (cisternae s., cisterna) Rough ER
ribosomes attached synthesis of secreted proteins by ERassociated ribosomes

Smooth ER
devoid of ribosomes synthesis of lipids by ER-associated enzymes
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Functions of ER
Transports proteins, lipids, and other materials within cell Major site of cell membrane synthesis

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The Golgi Apparatus

Membranous organelle made of cisternae stacked on each other

Cis and trans faces

Dictyosomes=stacks of cisternae Involved in modification, packaging, and secretion of materials

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Lysosomes
Membrane-bound vesicles found in most eukaryotes

Involved in intracellular digestion

Contain hydrolases, enzymes which hydrolyze molecules and function best under slightly acidic conditions Maintain an acidic environment by pumping protons into their interior

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The Secretory Pathway

Used to move materials to various sites within the cell, as well as to either the plasma membrane or cell exterior Proteins destined for the cell membrane, endosomes, and lysosomes or secretion are synthesized by ribosomes on rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) Targeted to RER lumen and are released in small budding vesicles from RER

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Secretory Pathway - 2
Released in small vesicles cis face of Golgi apparatus trans face of Golgi apparatus
modification of proteins occurs in Golgi; targets protein for final destination

Transport vesicles released from trans face of Golgi

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The Secretory Pathway - 3

After release some vesicles deliver their contents to endosomes and lysosomes Two types of vesicles deliver proteins to cell membrane
constitutive delivery to membrane
secretory vesicles in multicellular eukaryotes store proteins until signal to release

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The Secretory Pathway - 4

Quality assurance mechanism
unfolded or misfolded proteins are secreted into cytosol, targeted for destruction by ubiquitin polypeptides
proteasomes destroy targeted proteins

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The Endocytic Pathway

Endocytosis
used by all eukaryotic cells
used to bring materials into the cell solutes or particles taken up and enclosed in vesicles pinched from plasma membrane in most cases materials are then delivered to lysosome and destroyed

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Types of Endocytosis
Phagocytosis: use of cell surface protrusions to surround and engulf particles Clathrin-dependent: clathrin proteincoated pits have external receptors that specifically bind macromolecules Caveolae-dependent endocytosis: may play role in signal transduction, transport of small as well as macromolecules

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Endocytosis
Clathrin-coated vesicles and some caveolincoated vesicles deliver contents to endosomes (organelles with hydrolytic enzymes) Early endosomes develop into late endosomes which fuse with lysosomes Caveosomes fuse with early endosomes
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Autophagy
Delivery of materials to be digested by route that does not involve endocytosis Macroautophagy involves digestion and recycling of cytoplasmic components Double membrane surrounds cell component forming an autophagosome Autophagosome fuses with a lysosome
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Once Lysosome Is Formed

Digestion occurs without release of lysosome enzymes into cytoplasmic matrix As contents are digested, products leave lysosome and can be used as nutrients Resulting lysosome called a residual body which can release contents to cell exterior by process called lysosome secretion

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5.5 Organelles involved in genetic control of the cell

1. Describe the structure of the nucleus, chromosomes, nucleolus, and eukaryotic ribosomes. 2. Compare and contrast the chromosomes and ribosomes of bacterial, archaeal, and eukaryotic cells.

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Organelles Involved in Genetic Control of the Cell

Nucleus

Ribosomes

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The Nucleus - 1
Membrane-bound spherical structure that houses genetic material of eukaryotic cell

Contains dense fibrous material called chromatin

complex of DNA, histones, and other proteins

five types of histones form nucleosomes

H1, H2A, H2B, H3, and H4

chromatin condenses into chromosomes during division

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The Nucleus - 2
Nuclear envelope
double membrane structure that delimits nucleus

continuous with ER
penetrated by nuclear pores
associated proteins make up the nuclear pore complex
pores allow materials to be transported into or out of nucleus
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 1 nucleolus/nucleus Organelle but not membrane enclosed

The Nucleolus

Important in ribosome synthesis

directs synthesis and processing of rRNA
directs assembly of rRNA to form partial ribosomal subunits ribosomes mature in cytoplasm
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Eukaryotic Ribosomes - 1
Larger (more mass) than the 70S bacterial and archaeal ribosomes

80S in size
60S + 40S subunits

May be attached to ER or free in cytoplasmic matrix 60S is bound subunit to ER

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Eukaryotic Ribosomes - 2
Proteins made on ribosomes of RER are often secreted or inserted into ER membrane as integral membrane proteins Free ribosomes synthesize nonsecretory and nonmembrane proteins
some proteins are inserted into organelles

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5.6 Organelles involved in energy conservation

1. Draw a mitochondrion and identify its component parts. 2. Compare and contrast mitochondria and hydrogenosomes in terms of their structure and the chemical processes they carry out. 3. Draw a chloroplast and identify its component parts.

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Organelles Involved in Energy Conservation

Mitochondria
Hydrogenosomes Chloroplasts

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Endosymbiotic Hypothesis
Mitochondria, hydrogenosomes, and chloroplasts are all thought to have evolved from bacterial cells that invaded or were ingested by early ancestors of eukaryotic cells
mitochondria and chloroplasts are very similar to extant bacteria and cyanobacteria, respectively

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Mitochondria
The power houses of the cell are found in most eukaryotic cells

Site of tricarboxylic acid cycle activity

Site where ATP is generated by electron transport and oxidative phosphorylation About the same size as bacterial cells Reproduce by binary fission as do bacterial cells

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Mitochondrial Structure
Outer membrane
contains porins similar to the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria

Inner membrane
highly folded to form cristae (s., crista)
location of enzymes and electron carriers for electron transport and oxidative phosphorylation

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Mitochondrial Structure
Matrix enclosed by inner membrane
contains ribosomes (same size as bacterial), mitochondrial DNA (may be closed circular like bacterial DNA) contains enzymes of the tricarboxylic acid cycle and enzymes involved in catabolism of fatty acids

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 Small energy conservation organelles in some anaerobic protists

Descended from common mitochondrial ancestor
double membrane, no cristae, usually lack DNA
ATP is generated by fermentation process rather than respiration CO2, H2, and acetate are products

Hydrogenosomes

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Chloroplasts
Type of plastid
pigment-containing organelles observed in plants and algae

Site of photosynthetic reactions Surrounded by double membrane

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Chloroplast Structure
The stroma (a matrix) is within inner membrane
contains DNA, ribosomes, lipid droplets, starch granules, and thylakoids
thylakoids
flattened, membrane-delimited sacs grana (s., granum) stacks of thylakoids site of light reactions (trapping of light energy to generate ATP, NADPH, and oxygen)

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Chloroplast Structure
Stroma is site of dark reactions of photosynthesis (formation of carbohydrates from water and carbon dioxide) Algal chloroplasts many contain a pyrenoid
participates in polysaccharide synthesis

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5.7 External structures

1. Describe the structures of eukaryotic flagella and cilia. 2. Compare and contrast bacterial, archaeal, and eukaryotic flagella. 3. List the types of motility observed in eukaryotic microbes.

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External Cell Covering

Cilia
Flagella

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Cilia and Flagella

Flagella (s., flagellum)
100-200 m long

move in undulating
fashion

Cilia (s., cilium)

5-20 m long beat with two phases, working like oars

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Ultrastructure of Flagella and Cilia

Membrane-bound cylinders ~2 m in diameter Axoneme: set of microtubules in a 9+2 arrangement

Basal body
at base of flagellum or cilium directs synthesis of flagella and cilia

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5.8 Comparison of bacterial, archaeal, and eukaryotic cells

1. Create a Venn diagram or concept map that clearly distinguishes bacterial, archaeal, and eukaryotic cells in terms of their genome organization, organelles, cell envelopes, ribosome size and component molecules, and cytoskeleton. 2. Determine the type of microbe when given a description of a newly discovered microbe.

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Comparison of Bacterial, Archaeal, and Eukaryotic Cells

Differences in eukaryotic cells
eukaryotic nucleus
larger, more complex meiosis, mitosis

complex processes

Molecular unity basic to all three cells

biochemical processes, metabolic pathways genetic code

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