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Four Basic Types of Measurement:: - Categorizing

This document discusses different types of measurement scales and statistical concepts such as central tendency, variability, distributions, and heritability. It covers nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio scales. Key concepts explained include mean, median, mode, standard deviation, z-scores, correlation, normal distributions, reliability, validity, and how heritability estimates are specific to the populations and environments studied.

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Saman Shahzeb
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41 views

Four Basic Types of Measurement:: - Categorizing

This document discusses different types of measurement scales and statistical concepts such as central tendency, variability, distributions, and heritability. It covers nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio scales. Key concepts explained include mean, median, mode, standard deviation, z-scores, correlation, normal distributions, reliability, validity, and how heritability estimates are specific to the populations and environments studied.

Uploaded by

Saman Shahzeb
Copyright
© Attribution Non-Commercial (BY-NC)
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PPT, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Four Basic Types Of Measurement:

Categorizing
Nominal

Ranking
Ordinal

Determination of the size interval


Interval

Determination of the size of ratios


Ratio

CENTRAL TENDENCY AND VARIABILITY (NOMINAL SCALES)


Information: guessing game (ESP experiments)
Background: - Transmission of signals - How much is lost in channel? - How to measure the information transmitted in a message?

CENTRAL TENDENCY AND VARIABILITY (NOMINAL SCALES)


One word - no guesses Two words - one guess Four words - two guesses Eight words - three guesses
-# of guesses - power to which two needs to be raised to define # of words, or log to base 2 of # of alternatives -Number of guesses called # of bits (binary units)

Varying amounts of information

Nominal scales:
Name of category does not imply rank, even if it is a number.

Nominal Scales
Assignment to categories according to a rule
e. g., manic - depressive paranoid - schizophrenic involutional - melancholic

Starting point of science


Chemists - elements Physicists - atoms and sub-atomic particles Lineaus - biological categories Freud - infantile sexuality - neurotic disorders

Modern Psychology
does it have reliable units of analysis?
Reflexes? short term memory? behavior disorders?

Frequency Distributions (Nominally Scaled Data)


Bar graph - histogram Mode - summary statistic
y mode

ordinate (frequency) x abscissa

Ordinal scales:
- Numbers convey relative magnitude. rank of one usually assigned to highest magnitude cant add or subtract ranks, e. g., ranks of weight

Rank: 1 2 3 4 5

Weight (lbs.) 200 20 3 2 .5

Ordinal Scales Summary Statistics:


Central Tendency: Median (as many observations above median as below it) Variability: Range (difference between the smallest and highest values)

Interval scales: Size of difference is known Units are of equal size


Ratio scales: True zero point exists Multiplication or division possible

Magnitude of Psychological Judgments as a Function of Physical Intensity

CALCULATING THE MEAN


Given the raw data: 2, 4, 6, 8, 10
X = N

Mean = X

2 + 4 + 6 + 8 + 10 = 5

30 = =6 5

Arithmetic Mean = Center of Gravity

Symmetrical Distributions

Asymmetrical Distributions

Symmetrical Distributions

Skewed (Asymmetrical) Distrubutions

Measures of Central Tendency in a Positively Skewed Distribution

Binomial Distributions

CALCULATING DEVIATIONS FROM THE MEAN


Given the raw data: 2, 4, 6, 8, 10

Mean Deviation

Mean Absolute Deviation = Variance Standard Deviation

4 2 0 2 4 0 0 5 5 X X i N 4 2 0 2 4 12 2 . 4 5 5
X X i N
2

X X i 0 N

= =

X X i 2 N

40 5 8 2 . 82

MEASURING WITH THE STANDARD DEVIATION: ZSCORES


Given the raw data: 2, 4, 6, 8, 10
if X 6 and 8
2 6 4 Z 2 1 . 42 8 8
4 6 2 Z 4 . 709 8 8

8 6 2 . 709 8 8 8

10 6 4 Z 10 1 . 42 8 8

CORRELATION
z x r xy C z y
i i

r xy (

x y x y y

Normal Distribution

r+1.0 = +1.0

r = -1.0

Zy Zy

Zy

ZxZx or

Zx

Example of Positive Correlation

Examples of Positive, Negative and Minimal Correlation

Relationship Between r2 and Predicted Variance


Example: measures of rainfall and corn height
Suppose that r = 0.8. This means that 64% (0.8)2 of the variance of the height of corn height is accounted for by knowledge of how much rain fell.

VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY


Reliability: To what extent will a test give
the same set of results over repeated measurements?

Validity: To what extent does a test


measures what it purports to measure? Validity and reliability are measured as correlation coefficients.

Measuring reliability:
Odd-even or split-half method: To what extent does one half of the test agree with the items of the second half of the test? Test-retest: Results of test is given on two different occasions are compared. Assumes that there are no practice effects

Alternative form: Where there is a practice effect, an alternative form of the original test is given and the results are compared.
A reliable test may not be valid.

A valid test must be reliable may not be valid.


A valid test must be reliable.

HERITABILITY
Heritability: The proportion of variance of a phenotype that is attributable to genetic variance. Phenotype: Observable trait Genotype: What is transmitted from generation to generation What % of a phenotype is genetic? Hertiability is calculated by determining phenotypic variance and the magnitudes of its two components (genetic and environmental variance)

Calculation of Heritability
Heritability: The proportion of variance of a phenotype that is attributable to genetic variance. 2p = 2g + 2e 2 2 G E

2 P

2 P

Heritability =

h2

2 G 2 P

(h2 > 0 < 1)

Which Contributes More to Area? Width or Length

Heritability

HERITABILITY DOES NOT APPLY TO INDIVIDUALS!


Example: h2 of IQ = 0.6. This does not mean that 60% of an individuals IQ is genetic and 40% is environmental.

Heritability

Heritability is Specific to the Population in which its Measured

Minimum & maximum values of 2 G h (coefficient of heritability): __


h
2
=

h = 0.00: None of the observed values of phenotype is due to genes (all of it is due to environmental differences). h =1.00: All of variance is due to genes.

2 P

(h2 > 0 < 1)

Examples Of Heritability Coefficients:


Piebald Holstein Cow;

h2 = .95 (color) h2 = .3 (milk production)


Pigs:

h2 = .55 (body fat) h2 = .15 (litter size) h2 is specific to the environment and
population studied.

HERITABILITY ESTIMATES ARE SPECIFIC TO POPULATIONS AND ENVIRONMENTS IN WHICH THEY ARE MEASURED!
Example 1: Heritability of skin color in Norway and the United States. Its higher in the United States. Why? Because, in Norway the environment contributes more to phenotypic variation than family background. In the United States family background contributes more to variation in skin color then the environment.

HERITABILITY ESTIMATES ARE SPECIFIC TO POPULATIONS AND ENVIRONMENTS IN WHICH THEY ARE MEASURED!

Example 2: Heritability of Tuberculosis. Decreased during the 20th


century because of changes in the environment. Up to and during the 19th century, everyone who was exposed to germ got sick if they were susceptible. Improved hygiene made it less likely that genetically disposed individuals will get TB. Thus, heritability of TB decreased as environmental diversity increased.

How to Reduce h2
1. 2. Interbreed - this reduces 2g Increase 2e.

How to Increase h2 1. 2. 3. 4. outcrossing - new genes mutation - new genes select for rare characteristics reduce 2e.

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