CG601 GEODESY 2

Sr Harith Fadzilah Abd Khalid

Topic One
Introduction To Physical Geodesy

At the end to this topic, student should be:

able to explains the earths gravity, principle of gravity
survey, absolute gravity measurement, relative gravity
measurement, gravity data correction, gravity data
reduction and introduction to dynamic satellite in
geodesy.
Why physical Geodesy?
In a quest to determine the shape of the earth,
knowledge on the characteristic of the gravity field
is needed, such as :

Gravity field structure,
Geoid undulating
Gravimetric vertical deflection, and
Earths flattening


In physical geodesy context,
It is the resultant force of the earths attraction force
and the centrifugal force due to the earths rotation.


A body rotating with the earth experiences the
gravitational forces of the earth and of other celestial
bodies, as well as the centrifugal force due to the
earth's rotation. The resultant force is the force of
gravity. It is a function of position, but also undergoes
temporal variations
Components of the Earths
Gravitational Field
The unit of acceleration in the Sl-system( Systeme International
d'Unites), Markowitz (1973), is ms
-2
.

The acceleration of gravity can be measured with an accuracy of
10
-7
t o 10
-8
ms
-2
; the deviations of the terrestrial gravity field
from a "normal earth", in general, remain less than 2 x 10
-3
ms
-2
.

Therefore, the sciences of geodesy and geophysics have until
recently adopted the more suitable units

mgal = 10
-5
ms
- 2
, gal = l0
-8
ms
-2
=10 nms
-2
.

They are derived from the unit "gal" (after Galilei) = cm s
-2
or

1 gal = 1 cms
-2

And the average gravity acceleration of earth is

980 gal = 980 cms
-2
= 9.80 ms
-2

The unit
Gravity value much influence by :

texture and distribution of the
earths mass
variation of the earth rotation due to
time factor

Measured gravity will contained :

location of the observation area/site
earths mass distribution on the earths
surface meant for geophysical use.

Gravity
(Ocean basins mapped with satellite altimetry. Seafloor features larger than 10 km are detected by resulting gravitational
distortion of sea surface. Source: http://www.ngdc.noaa.gov/mgg/bathymetry/predicted/explore.HTML
Ocean gravity map
Gravity survey: The measurement of gravity at regularly
Basic Theory of Gravity
-Gravitation and gravitational potential
- law of universal gravitation
Basic Theory of Gravity
- Gravitation and gravitational potential
According to Newtons Law of Gravitation (1687), two point masses
m
1
and m
2
attract each other with the gravitational force (attractive
force)
where,
G = gravitational constant,
l = distance between point masses
K & l = point in opposing directions


b = gravitational acceleration or gravitation
Basic Theory of Gravity
- or simply

Newtons second law : F = ma or in terms of gravity : F = mg
Law of universal gravity :









The average of g on the earths surface is 980 gal where it decrease about
5 gal towards equator.
law) motion second s (Newton' on, accelerati Gravity
radius s earth' R and mass s earth' M where
basic from
2
E
2
2 1
2
R
m M
G
m
F
g
r
m m
G F
R
m M
G F
E
E
= =
= =
= =
Gravitational Potential

An irregular earth surface, which no mathematical representation
available but it is based on the equipotential surface at mean
sea level.
At any point it is perpendicular to the direction of gravity.
Gravitational Potential (Cont.)

Equipontial surfaces
Direction of mass attraction
U
S
Gravitational Potential (Cont.)

Gravitational Potential (Cont.)

Summary
By using the gravimetry technique, the topographic surface can be
determined by analyzing the the gravity data.
The gravity field (potential force) of a point with m mass is :

U = Gm = constant i.e. r = constant
r
The gravity field (potential force) of a non rotated sphere is :

U = GM
R
The gravity field (potential force) of a rotated sphere is :
U = - GM + 1 R
2

2
cos
2

R 2
major separuh paksi a
tiwa dikhatulis daya
a
GM
tiwa dikhatulis l sentrif uga pelajuan a
a
GM
a m
f m B
tiwa dikhatulis graviti
B
e
e
=
=
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
.
|

\
|
=
=
=
+ =
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
/
2
5
) sin 1 (
e
e

|
Summary (cont.)
On a rotated ellipsoid surface with angular velocity, , the gravity,
, of a point at latitude, , the gravity acceleration is given as
(Clairaut,1743):
The International Gravity Standard Formula is given
as :



Where B
2
and B
4
are constants.
For GRS 1967 :
B2 = 0.0053024
B4 = 0.0000058

e
= 978.032

Because of the flattening at the poles and the centrifugal acceleration, g,
varies on the surface of an earth ellipsoid between 9.78m s
-2
(equator) and
9.83ms
-2
(pole).
Summary (cont.)
) 2 sin sin 1 (
2
4
2
2
| | B B
e
+ =
Gravity Measurement

2 types:

1. Absolute Gravity Measurement

The determination of g from the fundamental
acceleration quantities length and time.
Done by experts in a laboratory, using special
advance and precise instruments.
Quite expensive
Methods :
i. Free fall
ii. Rise-and-fall
iii. Pendulum




Underground Laboratory tomeasure gravity g at very high resolution
Gravity Measurement (cont.)



2. Relative Gravity Measurements

- The measurement of a difference in gravity, g by
direct or indirect observation.
- The observation done by one of the two acceleration
quantities time or length kept fixed.
- Can be performed with considerably more ease than
the absolute measurement.




Absolute Gravity Measurement

1. Free Fall Method:
Relation between time travelled, t, through distance z






Summary






Absolute Gravity Measurement (cont)

2. Rise and Fall Method:
Relation between time travelled, t, through distance z






Absolute Gravity Measurement (cont)

3. Pendulum Method:
Relation between time travelled, t, through distance z






Relative Gravity Measurement

Two Categories :
- Dynamic
- Static

Measurement : difference in gravity (g)
between two stations

Instrument used : Gravimeter


Relative Measurement
1) Dynamic Method - pendulum measurement
- the periods of oscillation T1, T2,
of the same pendulum are measured
- calculation based on :
Relative Gravity Measurement

- with the invention of the spring
gravimeter which is more exact and
economical, the pendulum
measurements have lost their
importance.
2) Static Method spring gravimeter
- based on the principle of a spring
balance.
- the equilibrium position of a mass is
observed as it is influenced by the
acceleration of gravity and the
counterforce of the elastic spring.
- if gravity changes, the spring length
will also change in order to reach
static equilibrium again.
Relative Gravity Measurement (cont.)

Static Method In Vertical spring balance,
the condition of equilibrium
is given by:




- by diferentiating the above equation,
change in gravity (g) and observed
difference in length l is given by:
Relative Gravity Measurement (cont.)

Static Method In Lever Spring balance,
the spring counterforce (l-l
o
) can act
under arbitrary angle on the lever
carrying the mass m.
- the equilibrium condition for torques
reads :




Relative Gravity Measurement (cont.)

Methods of Measuring Relative Gravity
1) Traverse method

Similar to theodolite traverse
Starts at a known reference station (g is avaliable)
and closed to the same station other known station.
Usually used for measuring the gravity value
of an area

2) Profile method

Each points will be read twice.
Only needs one known reference station
(g is avaliable)
Will provide more reading for adjustment and better
result.

Methods of Measuring Relative Gravity (cont.)
3) Star method

Needs only one reference station
Each point observed, have to referred back to the
reference station
More time needed, if observed points are quite distant
Instrument drift can be detected since repeated readings
are available
Methods of Measuring Relative Gravity (cont.)
4) Step method

If precise result needed, this method will be chosen, such
as establishing basic gravity network.
Each point observed three times
Observation can be closed to the starting station or other
reference station
Able to provide better drift information at every
measured points
Costly in terms of time and money

Methods of Measuring Relative Gravity (cont.)
Correction of Observed Gravity Data
1. Correction to Systematic Errors

Instrument Height
If the instrument placed on different height
Free Air Correction
Small difference in height :

g = 2g
o
h/R = + 0.3086 mgal/m

where R earths radius, g
o
- gravity at equator
h instrument height


Correction of Observed Gravity Data (cont.)
2. Earths Tides

Earths surface subject to deformation cause by tides.

This will cause periodical variation in gravity value.

The variation is in the radial direction towards earths mass centre
is around 0.2 mgal

Concern only to precise works

Correction of Observed Gravity Data (cont.)
3. Drift

Temporal variations arise in the zero reading of the
gravimeter

Drift is caused by the aging spring as well as
uncompensated temperature fluctuations and
by elastic aftereffects produced by
locking and unlocking the lever


Gravity Data Reduction

The variation of gravity is caused by the irregular
shape and earth topography
The gravity reduction have to be reffered to a certain
reference before any gravity data can be define and
Used. The aims of the gravity reduction is to determin
the geoid surface. There are several type of reduction,
such as:

a) Latitude Reduction
b) Free air Reduction
c) Bouguer reduction, and
d) Terrain reduction

Assignment 2 : What are
a) Latitude Reduction
b) Free air Reduction
c) Bouguer reduction, and
d) Terrain reduction ?
Gravity Data Reduction
Satellite geodesy


Is the measurement of the form and dimensions of the Earth, the
location of objects on its surface and the figure of the Earth's gravity
field by means of artificial satellite techniques. It belongs to the broader
field of space geodesy, which also includes such techniques as
geodetic very long baseline interferometry (VLBI) and lunar laser
ranging.

Traditional astronomical geodesy is not commonly considered a part of
satellite geodesy, although there is considerable overlap between the
techniques.
** Interferometry refers to a family of techniques in which electromagnetic waves are superimposed in order to
extract information about the waves.
An instrument used to interfere waves is called an interferometer.
* Very Long Baseline Interferometry (VLBI) is a type of astronomical interferometry used in radio
astronomy
The main goals of satellite geodesy are:

Determination of the figure of the Earth, positioning, and
navigation (geometric satellite geodesy)

Determination of Earth's gravity field and geoid (dynamical
satellite geodesy)

Measurement of geodynamical phenomena, such as crustal
dynamics and polar motion.


Satellite geodetic data and methods can be applied to diverse fields
such as navigation, hydrography, oceanography and geophysics.

Satellite geodesy relies heavily on orbital mechanics.
The Jason-1 measurement system combines major geodetic
measurement techniques, including DORIS, SLR, GPS, and
altimetry.
DORIS - Doppler Orbitography and Radiopositioning Integrated by
Satellite
Is a French satellite system used for the determination of
satellite orbits (e.g. TOPEX/Poseidon) and for positioning.
SLR - Satellite Laser Ranging (SLR)
a global network of observation stations measure the round trip
time of flight of ultrashort pulses of light to satellites equipped
with retro reflectors.
Satellite altimetry
Laser Ranging System of the geodetic observatory Wettzell,
Bavaria.
This graph shows the rise in global sea level (in millimeters)
measured by the NASA/CNES ocean altimeter
mission TOPEX/Poseidon (on the left) and its follow-on
mission Jason-1.

Image credit: University of Colorado