Understanding Operating Systems Sixth Edition

Chapter 2 Memory Management: Early Systems

Learning Objectives
After completing this chapter, you should be able to describe: The basic functionality of the three memory allocation schemes presented in this chapter: fixed partitions, dynamic partitions, relocatable dynamic partitions Best-fit memory allocation as well as first-fit memory allocation schemes How a memory list keeps track of available memory

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Learning Objectives (cont'd.)

The importance of deallocation of memory in a dynamic partition system The importance of the bounds register in memory allocation schemes The role of compaction and how it improves memory allocation efficiency

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Introduction
Management of main memory is critical Entire system performance dependent on two items
How much memory is available Optimization of memory during job processing

This chapter introduces:

Memory manager Four types of memory allocation schemes
Single-user systems Fixed partitions Dynamic partitions Relocatable dynamic partitions
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Single-User Contiguous Scheme

Commercially available in 1940s and 1950s Entire program loaded into memory Contiguous memory space allocated as needed Jobs processed sequentially Memory manager performs minimal work
Register to store the base address Accumulator to track program size

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Single-User Contiguous Scheme (cont'd.)

Disadvantages
No support for multiprogramming or networking Not cost effective Program size must be less than memory size to execute

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Fixed Partitions
Commercially available in 1950s and 1960s Main memory is partitioned
At system startup One contiguous partition per job

Permits multiprogramming Partition sizes remain static

Must shut down computer system to reconfigure

Requires:
Protection of the jobs memory space Matching job size with partition size
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Fixed Partitions (cont'd.)

Memory manager allocates memory space to jobs
Uses a table

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Fixed Partitions (cont'd.)

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Fixed Partitions (cont'd.)

Disadvantages
Requires contiguous loading of entire program Job allocation method
First available partition with required size

To work well:
All jobs must be same size and memory size known ahead of time

Arbitrary partition size leads to undesired results

Partition too small Large jobs have longer turnaround time Partition too large Memory waste: internal fragmentation
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Dynamic Partitions
Main memory is partitioned
Jobs given memory requested when loaded One contiguous partition per job

Job allocation method

First come, first serve allocation method Memory waste: comparatively small

Disadvantages
Full memory utilization only during loading of first jobs Subsequent allocation: memory waste
External fragmentation: fragments between blocks
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Dynamic Partitions (cont'd.)

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Best-Fit Versus First-Fit Allocation

Two methods for free space allocation
First-fit memory allocation: first partition fitting the requirements
Leads to fast allocation of memory space

Best-fit memory allocation: smallest partition fitting the requirements

Results in least wasted space Internal fragmentation reduced, but not eliminated

Fixed and dynamic memory allocation schemes use both methods

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Best-Fit Versus First-Fit Allocation (cont'd.)

First-fit memory allocation
Advantage: faster in making allocation Disadvantage: leads to memory waste

Best-fit memory allocation

Advantage: makes the best use of memory space Disadvantage: slower in making allocation

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Best-Fit Versus First-Fit Allocation (cont'd.)

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Best-Fit Versus First-Fit Allocation (cont'd.)

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Best-Fit Versus First-Fit Allocation (cont'd.)

Algorithm for first-fit
Assumes memory manager keeps two lists
One for free memory One for busy memory blocks

Loop compares the size of each job to the size of each memory block
Until a block is found that is large enough to fit the job

Job stored into that block of memory Memory Manager moves out of the loop
Fetches next job from the entry queue
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Best-Fit Versus First-Fit Allocation (cont'd.)

Algorithm for first-fit (cont'd.):
If entire list searched in vain
Then job is placed into waiting queue Otherwise, Memory Manager fetches next job

Process repeats

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Best-Fit Versus First-Fit Allocation (cont'd.)

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Best-Fit Versus First-Fit Allocation (cont'd.)

Algorithm for best-fit
Goal
Find the smallest memory block into which the job will fit

Entire table searched before allocation

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Best-Fit Versus First-Fit Allocation (cont'd.)

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Best-Fit Versus First-Fit Allocation (cont'd.)

Hypothetical allocation schemes
Next-fit: starts searching from last allocated block, for next available block when a new job arrives Worst-fit: allocates largest free available block to new job
Opposite of best-fit Good way to explore theory of memory allocation Not best choice for an actual system

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Deallocation
Deallocation: freeing allocated memory space For fixed-partition system:
Straightforward process Memory Manager resets the status of jobs memory block to free upon job completion Any code may be used Example code: binary values with zero indicating free and one indicating busy

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Deallocation (cont'd.)
For dynamic-partition system:
Algorithm tries to combine free areas of memory More complex

Three dynamic partition system cases

Case 1: When the block to be deallocated is adjacent to another free block Case 2: When the block to be deallocated is between two free blocks Case 3: When the block to be deallocated is isolated from other free blocks
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Case 1: Joining Two Free Blocks

Blocks are adjacent List changes to reflect starting address of the new free block
Example: 7600 - the address of the first instruction of the job that just released this block

Memory block size changes to show its new size for the new free space
Combined total of the two free partitions Example: (200 + 5)

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Case 1: Joining Two Free Blocks (cont'd.)

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Case 1: Joining Two Free Blocks (cont'd.)

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Case 2: Joining Three Free Blocks

Deallocated memory space
Between two free memory blocks

List changes to reflect starting address of new free block

Example: 7560 was smallest beginning address

Sizes of the three free partitions must be combined

Example: (20 + 20 + 205)

Combined entry (last of the three) given status of null

Example: 7600
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Case 2: Joining Three Free Blocks (cont'd.)

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Case 2: Joining Three Free Blocks (cont'd.)

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Case 3: Deallocating an Isolated Block

Deallocated memory space
Isolated from other free areas

System determines released memory block status

Not adjacent to any free blocks of memory Between two other busy areas

System searches table for a null entry

Occurs when memory block between two other busy memory blocks is returned to the free list

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Case 3: Deallocating an Isolated Block (cont'd.)

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Case 3: Deallocating an Isolated Block (cont'd.)

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Case 3: Deallocating an Isolated Block (cont'd.)

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Case 3: Deallocating an Isolated Block (cont'd.)

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Relocatable Dynamic Partitions

Memory Manager relocates programs
Gathers together all empty blocks

Compact the empty blocks

Make one block of memory large enough to accommodate some or all of the jobs waiting to get in

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Relocatable Dynamic Partitions (cont'd.)

Compaction: reclaiming fragmented sections of memory space
Every program in memory must be relocated
Programs become contiguous

Operating system must distinguish between addresses and data values

Every address adjusted to account for the programs new location in memory Data values left alone

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Relocatable Dynamic Partitions (cont'd.)

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Relocatable Dynamic Partitions (cont'd.)

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Relocatable Dynamic Partitions (cont'd.)

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Relocatable Dynamic Partitions (cont'd.)

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Relocatable Dynamic Partitions (cont'd.)

Compaction issues:
What goes on behind the scenes when relocation and compaction take place? What keeps track of how far each job has moved from its original storage area? What lists have to be updated?

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Relocatable Dynamic Partitions (cont'd.)

What lists have to be updated?
Free list
Must show the partition for the new block of free memory

Busy list
Must show the new locations for all of the jobs already in process that were relocated

Each job will have a new address

Exception: those already at the lowest memory locations

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Relocatable Dynamic Partitions (cont'd.)

Special-purpose registers used for relocation:
Bounds register
Stores highest location accessible by each program

Relocation register
Contains the value that must be added to each address referenced in the program Must be able to access the correct memory addresses after relocation If the program is not relocated, zero value stored in the programs relocation register

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Relocatable Dynamic Partitions (cont'd.)

Compacting and relocating optimizes use of memory
Improves throughput

Options for timing of compaction:

When a certain percentage of memory is busy When there are jobs waiting to get in After a prescribed amount of time has elapsed

Compaction entails more overhead Goal: optimize processing time and memory use while keeping overhead as low as possible
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Summary
Four memory management techniques
Single-user systems, fixed partitions, dynamic partitions, and relocatable dynamic partitions

Common requirements of four memory management techniques

Entire program loaded into memory Contiguous storage Memory residency until job completed

Each places severe restrictions on job size Sufficient for first three generations of computers
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Summary (cont'd.)
New modern memory management trends in late 1960s and early 1970s
Discussed in next chapter Common characteristics of memory schemes
Programs are not stored in contiguous memory Not all segments reside in memory during job execution

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