We aim a source of particles at

target particles and detect the result

To view living cells we
use optical microscopes
Resolution~ 10
-6
m
Down to the size of atomic
dimensions we use electron
microscopes, where electron of
a few hundred KV are typical.
Resolution ~ 10
-10
m
To view the inner workings of
nucleons (protons and neutrons)
we need particle accelerators .
Resolution < 10
-15
m
How we see small objects
Arden Ayube Warner 6/15/2010
How do we experiment with tiny
particles?
Accelerators solve two problems for physicists.
First, since all particles behave like waves,
physicists use accelerators to increase a
particle's momentum, thus decreasing its
wavelength enough that physicists can use it
to poke inside atoms. Second, the energy of
speedy particles is used to create the massive
particles that physicists want to study.

Particle accelerators
p h /
velengths Shorter wa momentum Higher
=

Nucleons inside atomic nuclei have a size ~ 10

-15
m and are separated by
distances of the same order. The electrons orbiting atomic nuclei as well as
the quarks inside nucleons have a size, if any < 10
-18
m
The resolving power of these devices is determined by the de Broglie wavelength
of the source particles.
Example: if an electron is required to
have a de Broglie wavelength
comparable to the size of the nucleon, it
must have a kinetic energy of 1200
MeV. Several thousand higher than an
electron microscope.

For an electron energy above 10 MeV,
kinetic energy is proportional
momentum.
Arden Ayube Warner 6/15/2010
Some Advantages of Particle Accelerators

Accelerators provide the ability to control the
particles (steer, focus, increase/decrease intensity,
for instance) in order to conduct experiments
efficiently and in a controlled fashion.




Since all particles behave like waves,
physicists use accelerators to increase a
particle's momentum, thus decreasing its
wavelength enough that they can use them
to poke inside atoms.
High energy particles can have their energy
converted into mass (E = mc
2
), and so new
particle states can be created and observed.
Arden Ayube Warner 6/15/2010
How do accelerators work?
Basically, an accelerator takes a particle,
speeds it up using electromagnetic fields, and
bashes the particle into a target or other
particles. Surrounding the collision point are
detectors that record the many pieces of the
event.
How to obtain particles to accelerate
Electrons: Heating a
metal causes electrons
to be ejected. A
television, like a
cathode ray tube, uses
this mechanism.
Protons: They can easily
be obtained by ionizing
hydrogen.
How to obtain particles to accelerate
Antiparticles: To get
antiparticles, first have
energetic particles hit a
target. Then pairs of
particles and
antiparticles will be
created via virtual
photons or gluons.
Magnetic fields can be
used to separate them.
Accelerating particles
Accelerators speed up charged particles by
creating large electric fields which attract or
repel the particles. This field is then moved
down the accelerator, "pushing" the particles
along.


Accelerator design
There are several
different ways to design
these accelerators, each
with its benefits and
drawbacks.
Accelerators can be
arranged to provide
collisions of two types:
Fixed target: Shoot a
particle at a fixed target.
Colliding beams: Two
beams of particles are
made to cross each other.
Accelerator design
Accelerators are shaped
in one of two ways:
Linacs: Linear
accelerators, in which
the particle starts at one
end and comes out the
other.
Synchrotrons:
Accelerators built in a
circle, in which the
particle goes around and
around and around...

Fixed target experiments
In a fixed-target
experiment, a charged
particle such as an
electron or a proton is
accelerated by an electric
field and collides with a
target, which can be a
solid, liquid, or gas. A
detector determines the
charge, momentum,
mass, etc. of the resulting
particles.
An example of this
process is Rutherford's
gold foil experiment, in
which the radioactive
source provided high-
energy alpha particles,
which collided with the
fixed target of the gold
foil. The detector was
the zinc sulfide screen.
Colliding beam experiment
in a colliding-beam
experiment two beams of
high-energy particles are
made to cross each other.
The advantage of this
arrangement is that both
beams have significant
kinetic energy, so a collision
between them is more likely
to produce a higher mass
particle than would a fixed-
target collision (with the
one beam) at the same
energy. Since we are dealing
with particles with a lot of
momentum, these particles
have short wavelengths and
make excellent probes.

A linear or circular accelerator?
All accelerators are either linear or circular,
the difference being whether the particle is
shot like a bullet from a gun (the linear
accelerator) or whether the particle is twirled
in a very fast circle, receiving a bunch of little
kicks each time around (the circular
accelerator). Both types accelerate particles
by pushing them with an electric-field wave.
A linear or circular accelerator?
Linear accelerators
(linacs) are used for
fixed-target
experiments,

as injectors to circular
accelerators,

or as linear colliders.
What makes particles go in a circle?
In a circular accelerator,
an electric field makes
the charged particle
accelerate, while large
magnets provide the
necessary inward force
to bend the particle's
path in a circle.
(In the image to the above, the
particle's velocity is represented by
the white arrow, while the inward
force supplied by the magnet is the
yellow arrow.)
What makes particles go in a circle?
The presence of a magnetic field does not add
or subtract energy from the particles. The
magnetic field only bends the particles' paths
along the arc of the accelerator. Magnets are
also used to direct charged particle beams
toward targets and to "focus" the beams, just
as optical lenses focus light.
Advantages of accelerator design
The advantage of a circular
accelerator over a linear
accelerator is that the particles in
a circular accelerator
(synchrotron) go around many
times, getting multiple kicks of
energy each time around.
Therefore, synchrotrons can
provide very high-energy particles
without having to be of
tremendous length. Moreover,
the fact that the particles go
around many times means that
there are many chances for
collisions at those places where
particle beams are made to cross.
On the other hand, linear
accelerators are much easier to
build than circular accelerators
because they don't need the
large magnets required to coerce
particles into going in a circle.
Circular accelerators also need an
enormous radii in order to get
particles to high enough energies,
so they are expensive to build

Advantages of accelerator design
Another thing that physicists need to consider
is that when a charged particle is accelerated,
it radiates away energy. At high energies the
radiation loss is larger for circular acceleration
than for linear acceleration. In addition, the
radiation loss is much worse for accelerating
light electrons than for heavier protons.
Electrons and anti-electrons (positrons) can be
brought to high energies only in linear
accelerators or in circular ones with large radii.
22
Basic Concepts I
Speed of light
Relativistic energy
Relativistic momentum

E-p relationship

Kinetic energy
Equation of motion under Lorentz force
1 8
sec m 10 99792458 . 2

= c
2
0
2
c m mc E = =
c m mv p |
0
= =
2
2
1
2
2
1
1
1
|
|

=
|
|
.
|

\
|
= =

c
v
c
v
2
2
0
2
2
2
c m p
c
E
+ =
pc E , ~ ~ 1 particles ic relativist ultra
( ) 1
2
0
2
0
= = c m c m E T
( ) ( ) B v E q v
dt
d
m f
dt
p d

. + = =
0
23
Basic Concepts II
Electron charge
Electron volts
Energy in eV
Energy and rest mass
Electron
Proton
Neutron
Coulombs 10 6021 . 1
19
= e
joule 10 6021 1 eV 1
19 -
. =
| |
e
c m
e
mc
E
2
0
2
eV

= =
kg 10 9.109 keV 0 . 511
-31 2
0
= = c m
kg 10 1.673 MeV 3 . 938
-27 2
0
= = c m
kg 10 78 . 1 eV 1
36 2
= c
kg 10 1.675 MeV 6 . 939
-27 2
0
= = c m
24
Motion in Electric and Magnetic Fields
Governed by Lorentz force




Acceleration along a uniform electric field (B=0)


| | B v E q
dt
p d

+ =
( ) E p
E
qc
B v E p
E
qc
dt
dE
dt
p d
p c
dt
dE
E
c m c p E

= . + =
=
+ =
2 2
2
4 2
0
2 2 2
c v
t
m
eE
x
vt z
<<

~
~
for path parabolic
2
2
0

A magnetic field does not

alter a particles energy.
Only an electric field can
do this.
25

e

0
0
2
0
) (
) (
m
qB v
b
qB
v m
a
B v q
v m
= =
=
=
Behaviour under constant B-field, E=0
Motion in a uniform, constant magnetic field
Constant energy with spiralling along a uniform
magnetic field

qB
p
=

e
v
E
qBc
= =
2
26
Force on charged particle is given by the Lorentz Force
B v q E q F + =
Charged Particle Beams
Electric Field
Acceleration
Magnetic Field
Bending
Cathode(-) Anode(+)
e
-

p
+
e
+

e
-
In the first accelerators, particles were accelerated by a
high voltage applied over the gap between a cathode and
an anode cathode ray tubes (1890s).
Using cathode ray tubes x-rays were discovered in
1895 by Wilhelm Rntgen First Nobel Prize in
physics (1901).

1896 Joseph Thomson studied the cathode rays and
found that they had a precise charge to mass ratio and
discovered the first elementary particle (the electron)
Nobel prize (1906)

Cathode ray tubes are still the most common type
of accelerator today (TV)

A Little History
Arden Ayube Warner 6/15/2010
9v
+
-
d
As the electron accelerates from the right hand
plate to the left, the change in energy is the
work done,
The charge on an electron is q = -e = -1.6 x 10
-19
Coul
(on a proton, +1.6 x 10
-19
Coul = +e)
So, we say that an electron/proton accelerated through 1 volt gains
an amount of energy E = 1 eV (1 electron volt) (= 1.6 x 10
-19
J)
In example above, the electron would gain energy of amount 9 eV.
W = F x d = qV
How fast is this electron moving?
Note: if looked at a proton instead, its mass is 1836 times that of the electron.
Thus, its speed would be only 0.00014c.
(= 90,000 mi/hr!)
Q: How much voltage can we deliver?
Lets look at a TV set...
( c = 186,000 miles/sec = 300,000,000 m/sec )
This is 4 million miles/hr ! = 0.6% the speed of light (0.006c)
Arden Ayube Warner 6/15/2010
Your TV Set
heated filament,
electron source
(cathode)
phosphorescent
screen which
lights up when
struck by electrons
electromagentic fields to
accelerate and steer the
electron beam (ray)
evacuated glass
container (tube)
Note: voltages encountered are a few tens of thousands of
volts, therefore particle energies of about 10,000 eV!
OK, so its a little more than that
but not much! Really!
Arden Ayube Warner 6/15/2010
So, how fast are we moving now?
An electron in a typical TV set, with 10 keV kinetic energy, say,
would thus be moving about
(10,000 eV / 9 eV)
1/2
= 30 times faster, or about 0.2c.
Does this mean a 50 keV electron would be moving at the speed of
light? 100 keV --> 2 x c ???
No! Relativistic effects kick in
Special Relativity (near the speed of light) plays a big role in
high energy particle acceleration
Arden Ayube Warner 6/15/2010
s
p
e
e
d

m
o
m
e
n
t
u
m

Kinetic energy Kinetic energy
Electron: 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 MeV
Proton: 0 1000 2000 3000 MeV
rest energy, mc
2
:

e- 0.5 MeV
p 938 MeV
Speed, Momentum vs. Energy
Arden Ayube Warner 6/15/2010
How to get high voltage? How high can we go?
String a bunch of batteries in series!
Not very practical



9v 9v 9v 9v

So, Back to High Voltage!
Arden Ayube Warner 6/15/2010
High Voltage
The first high voltage particle accelerator had a potential drop of ~100 KV and
was developed in early 1930s by Cockcroft and Walton, and is named after them:
In 1951 they obtained the Nobel prize in physics for their work on the
transmutation of atomic nuclei by artificially accelerated atomic particles.
Converts AC voltage V to
DC voltage n x V
Arden Ayube Warner 6/15/2010
High Voltage continued!
The most common potential-drop accelerator in use today is
the Van de Graaff. Several configurations exist and have
achieved voltages > 25 MV.
Arden Ayube Warner 6/15/2010
The Fermilab pelletron provides 4.3 MeV electrons.
These electrons are used to manipulate the phase space
of anti-protons in the recycler in a process called
electron cooling. More on this later.
Arden Ayube Warner 6/15/2010
37
John Cockroft & Ernest Walton
Voltage Multiplier
Cavendish Laboratory, 1932.
1897 J.J. Thomson
38

Cockroft/Walton
Pre-Injectors
750kV FermiLab
665 kV ISIS, RAL
(replaced 2004)
1/23/07 184 Lecture 9 39
The Van de Graaff Generator
A Van de Graaff generator is a device that creates high electric
potential.
The Van de Graaff generator was invented by Robert J. Van de
Graaff, an American physicist (1901 - 1967).
Van de Graaff generators can produce electric potentials up to
many 10s of millions of volts.
Van de Graaff generators can be used to produce particle
accelerators.
We have been using a Van de Graaff generator in lecture
demonstrations and we will continue to use it.
1/23/07 184 Lecture 9 40
The Van de Graaff Generator (2)
The Van de Graaff generator works
by applying a positive charge to a
non-conducting moving belt using a
corona discharge.
The moving belt driven by an electric
motor carries the charge up into a
hollow metal sphere where the
charge is taken from the belt by a
pointed contact connected to the
metal sphere.
The charge that builds up on the
metal sphere distributes itself
uniformly around the outside of the
sphere.
For this particular Van de Graaff
generator, a voltage limiter is used
to keep the Van de Graaff generator
from producing sparks larger than
desired.


1/23/07 184 Lecture 9 42
The Tandem Van de Graaff Accelerator
One use of a Van de Graaff
generator is to accelerate
particles for condensed matter
and nuclear physics studies.
Clever design is the tandem
Van de Graaff accelerator.
A large positive electric
potential is created by a huge
Van de Graaff generator.
Negatively charged C ions get
accelerated towards the +10
MV terminal (they gain kinetic
energy).
Terminal at +10MV
C
-1
C
+6

Stripper foil
strips electrons from C
Electrons are stripped from
the C and the now positively
charged C ions are repelled
by the positively charged
terminal and gain more kinetic
energy.
Linear Accelerators
In linear accelerators, particles are accelerated in a
straight line, often with a target at one to create a
collision
The size of linear accelerators varies greatly
A cathode ray tube is small enough to fit inside of a
television
Stanfords linear accelerator is two miles long
http://www.exploratorium.edu/origins/cern/tools/lin
ac.html
44
Fermilab (400 MeV)
+
-
+
+ + - -
Alternating RF voltage. Each step gives a small energy increase to the particle.
LINEAR ACCELERATORS
Linear Accelerator Example 1
(Cathode Ray Tube)
The cathode ray tube is a linear accelerator found
in many TVs, computer monitors, etc.
http://science.howstuffworks.com/atom-smasher2.htm
Linear Accelerator - Example 2
(Stanford Linear Accelerator)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image:LINAC.jpg
47
2 mile Linear Accelerator, SLAC, Stanford

Lets Re-use the E-field!
The Cockcroft-Walton design can produce voltages up to a
few MV, and the van de Graaf up to about 10 MV; at these
voltages, materials begin to experience high voltage break-
down
Takes only a few MV to generate lightning
So, to continue to higher particle energies, it would be
beneficial to re-use the electric fields we generate:
BUT! If the voltage is DC, then
though particle is accelerated when in
between the plates, it will be
decelerated while outside the plates!
-- net acceleration = 0 !
SO, need a field which can be switched
on and off -- an AC system!
Circular Accelerators
The first circular accelerator was the cyclotron.
mv
2
/r = qvB
==> r = mv / qB
Arden Ayube Warner 6/15/2010
Circular Accelerators
Circular accelerators
propel particles along a
circular path using
electromagnets until the
particles reach desired
speeds/energies
Particles are accelerated in
one direction around the
accelerator, while anti-
particles are accelerated in
the opposite direction
www.fnal.gov
52
Cyclotron
First circular particle accelerator built by
Ernest O. Lawrence & Stanley Livingston at
Berkeley in 1930.
Energy = 80 keV, Diameter = 13cm
Circular Accelerators
13 cm
53
Particle Accelerators
The Cyclotron makes use of
the magnetic force on a
moving charge to bend
moving charges into a
semicircular path between
accelerations by an applied
electric field.

2/xx/07 184 Lecture 22 54
Orbits in a Constant Magnetic Field
If a particle performs a complete circular orbit inside a constant
magnetic field, then the period of revolution of the particle is just
the circumference of the circle divided by the speed



From the period we can get the frequency and angular frequency



The frequency of the rotation is independent of the speed of the
particle.
Isochronous orbits.
Basis for the cyclotron.
T =
2tr
v
=
2tm
qB
f =
1
T
=
qB
2tm
e = 2t f =
qB
m
2/xx/07 184 Lecture 22 55
Cyclotrons
A cyclotron is a particle accelerator
The D-shaped pieces (descriptively called
dees) have alternating electric potentials
applied to them such that a positively
charged particle always sees a negatively
charged dee ahead when it emerges from
under the previous dee, which is now
positively charged
The resulting electric field accelerates the
particle
Because the cyclotron sits in a strong
magnetic field, the trajectory is curved
The radius of the trajectory is proportional
to the momentum, so the accelerated
particle spirals outward
2/xx/07 184 Lecture 22 56
Example: Deuteron in Cyclotron
Suppose a cyclotron is operated at frequency f=12 MHz
and has a dee radius of R=53cm. What is the magnitude
of the magnetic field needed for deuterons to be
accelerated in the cyclotron (m=3.34 10
-27
kg)?
Key Idea: For a given frequency f, the magnetic field
strength, B, required to accelerate the particle depends
on the ratio m/q (or mass to charge):

2/xx/07 184 Lecture 22 57
Special Clicker
Suppose a cyclotron is operated at frequency f=12 MHz and has a dee
radius of R=53cm. What is the kinetic energy of the deuterons in this
cyclotron when they travel on a circular trajectory with radius R
(m=3.34 10
-27
kg, B=1.57 T)?

A) 0.9 10
-14
J
B) 8.47 10
-13
J
C) 2.7 10
-12
J
D) 3.74 10
-13
J
J 10 7 . 2
m/s 10 99 . 3 implies
12 2
2
1
7

= =
= = =
mv K
m
RqB
v
qB
mv
r
Circular Accelerators

Since the entire cyclotron had to be in a magnetic field, the
magnets would become very large.
Also, as the particles continued to accelerate, their speeds
would begin to approach c, and thus they would not keep in
step with the changing voltage.
Synchrocyclotrons were invented to try to take these effects into
account, as well as other types of accelerators -- betatron,
microtron,
But the one that won out, when it came to very high energy
particle beams, was the synchrotron.
Arden Ayube Warner 6/15/2010
The Synchrotron
Use a single device which develops an electric field along the
direction of motion, and which oscillates at a tunable frequency.

Use a series of tunable electromagnets whose strength is adjusted
to keep the particle(s) on a circular orbit back to the accelerating
device (cavity).
Voltage = V sin(2tf t + o)

f = 1/T = v / 2tR

Each revolution,
energy changes by amount
E = e V sin(o)
V
o is called the synchronous phase angle
Arden Ayube Warner 6/15/2010
Synchrotron (contd)
Slowly increase the magnetic field, and
particles will accelerate to keep up, and
the particles will remain on the same radius
circle
mv
2
/R = evB
==> R = mv / eB
= p / eB


And as the particle speeds up, the frequency of
the cavity must change in step (in sync)
What frequencies do we need?
Lets say v ~ c,
and say R = 1 m
then,
f = v / 2tR
= (3 x 10
8
m/s) / (2 t 1m)
= 5 x 10
7
/ s = 50 MHz
thus, we use RF cavities and power sources...
FM Radio Stations: 88 - 108 MHz!
V
time
Arden Ayube Warner 6/15/2010
Principal Components of a
Synchrotron
In a Collider, bunches of particles/antiparticles
circulate in opposite directions.
62
Super Proton Synchrotron
CERN, Geneva
(6km circumference)
63
Radio Frequency Cavities
Large Electron Positron Collider (LEP)
1989-2000
27 km circumference
3,000 bending magnets
800 focussing magnets
11,000 revolutions/sec
LEP (CERN)
Lorentz equation
The two main tasks of an accelerator
Increase the particle energy
Change the particle direction (follow a given trajectory, focusing)

Lorentz equation:



F
B
v F
B
does no work on the particle
Only F
E
can increase the particle energy

F
E
or F
B
for deflection? v ~ c Magnetic field of 1 T (feasible) same bending
power as en electric field of 310
8
V/m (NOT feasible)
F
B
is by far the most effective in order to change the particle direction

B E F F B v q E q B v E q F

+ = + = + = ) (
Acceleration techniques: DC field
The simplest acceleration method: DC voltage

Energy kick: AE=qV

Can accelerate particles over many gaps: electrostatic accelerator






Problem: breakdown voltage at ~10MV

DC field still used at start of injector chain
Acceleration techniques: RF field
Oscillating RF (radio-frequency) field






Widere accelerator, after the pioneering work of the Norwegian Rolf Widere
(brother of the aviator Viggo Widere)

Particle must sees the field only when the field is in the accelerating direction
Requires the synchronism condition to hold: T
particle
=T
RF


Problem: high power loss due to radiation

vT L ) 2 / 1 ( =
Acceleration techniques: RF cavities
Electromagnetic power is stored in a resonant volume instead of being
radiated






RF power feed into cavity, originating from RF power generators, like
Klystrons

RF power oscillating (from magnetic to electric energy), at the desired
frequency

RF cavities requires bunched beams (as opposed to coasting beams)
particles located in bunches separated in space
From pill-box to real cavities

LHC cavity module ILC cavity
(from A. Chao)
69
Radio Frequency Cavities
Large Electron Positron Collider (LEP)
1989-2000
27 km circumference
3,000 bending magnets
800 focussing magnets
11,000 revolutions/sec
LEP (CERN)
Why circular accelerators?





Technological limit on the electrical field in an RF cavity (breakdown)

Gives a limited AE per distance

Circular accelerators, in order to re-use the same RF cavity

This requires a bending field F
B
in order to follow a circular trajectory (later slide)

The synchrotron
Acceleration is performed by RF cavities

(Piecewise) circular motion is ensured by a guide field F
B

F
B
: Bending magnets with a homogenous field

In the arc section:

RF frequency must stay locked to the revolution frequency of a particle (later
slide)

Synchrotrons are used for most HEP experiments (LHC, Tevatron, HERA, LEP, SPS,
PS) as well as, as the name tells, in Synchrotron Light Sources (e.g. ESRF)
] / [
] [
3 . 0 ] [
1 1
F
1
2
B
c GeV p
T B
m
p
qB v
m ~ = =


So much for acceleration, ...
what else do we need?
Arden Ayube Warner 6/15/2010
Accelerator Magnets
To steer the particles, we need to use strong magnetic
fields -- electro-magnets:



A simple electromagnet might look like:

Accelerator magnet:
lots of current and lots of iron!
Iron-dominated magnets can obtain
field strengths up to ~2 Tesla


Arden Ayube Warner 6/15/2010
Also, The Need for Focusing
Particles move in circular orbits when in a uniform magnetic
field
What happens if we deflect a particle as it is going around?
Deflections in a Uniform magnetic field:
Horizontal -- stable Vertical -- NOT -- spirals away!




Also, large number of particles in a real beam start out heading in
every which direction! (sort of like a flashlight beam,
spreading out away from the source)
B
B
Arden Ayube Warner 6/15/2010
Focusing
So, as particles move around the accelerator, we need to
use other electromagnets to steer and focus them
Arrangement of focusing magnets, acting much like
optical lenses, keeps the particle beam contained



Smaller magnets are used to fine-tune the beam
trajectory, and to perform special orbit manipulations
Note: The beam in the Tevatron, for example, is
only about 1 mm wide! Its orbit is controlled to a
fraction of a mm! Yet, the orbit itself is 6.28 km
(4 mi) around!
Arden Ayube Warner 6/15/2010
Focusing field
reference trajectory: typically centre of the dipole magnets


Problem with geometrical focusing: still large oscillations and NO focusing in the
vertical plane the smallest disturbance (like gravity...) may lead to lost particle

Desired: a restoring force of the type F
x,y
=-kx,y in order to keep the particles close
to the ideal orbit






A linear field in both planes can be derived from the scalar pot. V(x,y) = gxy
Equipotential lines at xy=V
const

B magnet iron surface
Magnet surfaces shaped as hyperbolas gives linear field


Focusing field: quadrupoles
Quadrupole magnets gives linear field in x and y:
B
x
= -gy
B
y
= -gx


However, forces are focusing in one plane and defocusing in the orthogonal plane:
F
x
= -qvgx (focusing)
F
y
= qvgy (defocusing)


Opposite focusing/defocusing is achieved by rotating the quadrupole 90

Analogy to dipole strength: normalized quadrupole strength:



] / [
] / [
3 . 0 ] [
2
c GeV p
m T g
m k
p
eg
k ~ =

inevitable due to Maxwell
Optics analogy
Physical analogy: quadrupoles optics


Focal length of a quadrupole: 1/f = kl
where l is the length of the quadrupole




Alternating focusing and defocusing lenses will together give total focusing effect
in both planes (shown later)
Alternating Gradient focusing



79
Sextupole (LEP)
Correction of chromatic spread.
Focussing Magnets
Quadrupole (LEP)
Strong Focussing
Beam alternately
focussed in horiz
and vert planes.
Example: Fermilab Main Injector
Focusing Magnets
Bending Magnets
Arden Ayube Warner 6/15/2010
Bending field
Circular accelerators: deflecting forces are needed


Circular accelerators: piecewise circular orbits with a defined bending radius
Straight sections are needed for e.g. particle detectors
In circular arc sections the magnetic field must provide the desired bending radius:


For a constant particle energy we need a constant B field dipole magnets with
homogenous field

In a synchrotron, the bending radius,1/=eB/p, is kept constant during
acceleration (last section)

B E F F B v E q F

+ = + = ) (
p
eB
=

1
The reference trajectory
An accelerator is designed around a reference trajectory (also called design orbit in
circular accelerators)

This is the trajectory an ideal particle will follow and consist of
a straight line where there is no bending field
arc of circle inside the bending field









We will in the following talk about transverse deviations from this reference trajectory,
and especially about how to keep these deviations small

Reference trajectory

Bending field: dipole magnets
Dipole magnets provide uniform field in the desired region





LHC Dipole magnets: design that allows opposite and uniform
field in both vacuum chambers

Bonus effect of dipole magnets: geometrical focusing in the
horizontal plane

1/: normalized dipole strength, strength of the magnet


] / [
] [
3 . 0 ] [
1 1
1
c GeV p
T B
m
p
eB
= =


Synchrotron radiation facility general
layout
Electrons injection and
acceleration

X-ray emission

Photon production
Synchrotron Radiation is put to use at light
sources for material, biological and
industrial applications. Extremely stable
beams are required.
Arden Ayube Warner 6/15/2010
87
Synchrotron Radiation
Diamond Light Source
Started operation Feb 2007. Uses synchrotron
radiation for studies at molecular/atomic level.

e

4
0
1
|
|
.
|

\
|
A
m
E
R
E
88
Summary of Circular Machines
Machine RF frequency
f
Magnetic
Field B
Orbit Radius

Comment
Cyclotron constant constant increases with
energy
Particles out of synch
with RF; low energy
beam or heavy ions
Isochronous
Cyclotron
constant varies increases with
energy
Particles in synch,
but difficult to create
stable orbits
Synchro-cyclotron varies constant increases with
energy
Stable oscillations
Synchrotron varies varies constant
Flexible machine,
high energies
possible
FFAG varies constant in time,
varies with radius
increases with
energy
Increasingly
attraction option for
21
st
century designs

e
v
E
qBc
= =
2
qB
p
=
References

Web sites:
Particle Adventure
http://particleadventure.org
http://www.lbl.gov/Education/ (many other links here)
http://217.168.88.14/Arkiv/Dokumenter/NTFK
http://hepwww.rl.ac.uk/pust/masterclass/mclass09/introduction.ppt
https://interns.fnal.gov/Members/jamieson/talks/arden.ppt
http://www.cockcroft.ac.uk/education/PG_courses_2008-
9/physacc_lecture.ppt
http://www.hep.fsu.edu/~wahl/Quarknet/summer2002/talks/accelerator
s.ppt

Particle Accelerator Schools --
USPAS: http://uspas.fnal.gov
CERN CAS: http://cas.web.cern.ch