PowerPoint Lecture Slides prepared by Barbara Heard, Atlantic Cape Community College
CHAPTER
The Human Body: An Orientation: Part A
Annie Leibovitz/Contact Press Images 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Overview of Anatomy and Physiology Anatomy
Study of structure
Subdivisions:
Gross or macroscopic (e.g., regional, systemic, and surface anatomy) Microscopic (e.g., cytology and histology) Developmental (e.g., embryology)
2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Overview of Anatomy and Physiology To study anatomy
Mastery of anatomical terminology Observation Manipulation Palpation Auscultation
2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Overview of Anatomy and Physiology Physiology
Study of the function of the body Subdivisions based on organ systems (e.g., renal or cardiovascular physiology) Often focuses on cellular and molecular level
Body's abilities depend on chemical reactions in individual cells
2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Overview of Anatomy and Physiology To study physiology
Ability to focus at many levels (from systemic to cellular and molecular) Study of basic physical principles (e.g., electrical currents, pressure, and movement) Study of basic chemical principles
2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Principle of Complementarity Anatomy and physiology are inseparable
Function always reflects structure What a structure can do depends on its specific form
2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Levels of Structural Organization
Chemical
Atoms and molecules (chapter 2); and organelles (chapter 3)
Cellular
Cells (chapter 3)
Tissue
Groups of similar cells (chapter 4)
Organ
Contains two or more types of tissues
Organ System
Organs that work closely together
Organismal
All organ systems
2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1.1 Levels of structural organization.
Slide 1
Atoms
Molecule
Organelle Smooth muscle cell
Chemical level Atoms combine to form molecules.
Cellular level Cells are made up of molecules. Cardiovascular system Heart Blood vessels
Smooth muscle tissue
Tissue level Tissues consist of similar types of cells. Blood vessel (organ) Smooth muscle tissue Connective tissue
Epithelial tissue
Organ level Organs are made up of different types of tissues. Organ system level Organismal level The human organism is made Organ systems consist of different organs that work together closely. up of many organ systems.
2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1.1 Levels of structural organization.
Slide 2
Atoms
Molecule
Chemical level Atoms combine to form molecules.
2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1.1 Levels of structural organization.
Slide 3
Atoms
Molecule
Organelle Smooth muscle cell
Chemical level Atoms combine to form molecules.
Cellular level Cells are made up of molecules.
2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1.1 Levels of structural organization.
Slide 4
Atoms
Molecule
Organelle Smooth muscle cell
Chemical level Atoms combine to form molecules.
Cellular level Cells are made up of molecules.
Smooth muscle tissue
Tissue level Tissues consist of similar types of cells.
2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1.1 Levels of structural organization.
Slide 5
Atoms
Molecule
Organelle Smooth muscle cell
Chemical level Atoms combine to form molecules.
Cellular level Cells are made up of molecules.
Smooth muscle tissue
Tissue level Tissues consist of similar types of cells. Blood vessel (organ) Smooth muscle tissue Connective tissue
Epithelial tissue
Organ level Organs are made up of different types of tissues.
2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1.1 Levels of structural organization.
Slide 6
Atoms
Molecule
Organelle Smooth muscle cell
Chemical level Atoms combine to form molecules.
Cellular level Cells are made up of molecules. Cardiovascular system Heart Blood vessels
Smooth muscle tissue
Tissue level Tissues consist of similar types of cells. Blood vessel (organ) Smooth muscle tissue Connective tissue
Epithelial tissue
Organ level Organs are made up of different types of tissues. Organ system level Organ systems consist of different organs that work together closely.
2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1.1 Levels of structural organization.
Slide 7
Atoms
Molecule
Organelle Smooth muscle cell
Chemical level Atoms combine to form molecules.
Cellular level Cells are made up of molecules. Cardiovascular system Heart Blood vessels
Smooth muscle tissue
Tissue level Tissues consist of similar types of cells. Blood vessel (organ) Smooth muscle tissue Connective tissue
Epithelial tissue
Organ level Organs are made up of different types of tissues. Organ system level Organismal level The human organism is made Organ systems consist of different organs that work together closely. up of many organ systems.
2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Necessary Life Functions Maintaining boundaries Movement Responsiveness Digestion Metabolism Dispose of wastes Reproduction Growth
2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Necessary Life Functions Maintaining boundaries between internal and external environments
Plasma membranes Skin
Movement (contractility)
Of body parts (skeletal muscle) Of substances (cardiac and smooth muscle)
2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Necessary Life Functions Responsiveness
Ability to sense and respond to stimuli Withdrawal reflex Control of breathing rate
Digestion
Breakdown of ingested foodstuffs Absorption of simple molecules into blood
2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Necessary Life Functions Metabolism
All chemical reactions that occur in body cells Catabolism and anabolism
Excretion
Removal of wastes from metabolism and digestion Urea, carbon dioxide, feces
2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Necessary Life Functions Reproduction
Cellular division for growth or repair Production of offspring
Growth
Increase in size of a body part or of organism
2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Interdependence of Body Cells Humans are multicellular
To function, must keep individual cells alive All cells depend on organ systems to meet their survival needs
All body functions spread among different organ systems Organ systems cooperate to maintain life
Note major organs and functions of the 11 organ systems (fig. 1.3)
2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1.2 Examples of interrelationships among body organ systems.
Digestive system
Takes in nutrients, breaks them down, and eliminates unabsorbed matter (feces) Food Respiratory system Takes in oxygen and eliminates carbon dioxide O2 Cardiovascular system Via the blood, distributes oxygen and nutrients to all body cells and delivers wastes and carbon dioxide to disposal organs CO2
Blood CO2 O2
Heart Nutrients
Interstitial fluid
Urinary system Eliminates nitrogenous wastes and excess ions
Nutrients and wastes pass between blood and cells via the interstitial fluid
Feces
Integumentary system Protects the body as a whole from the external environment
Urine
2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1.3a The bodys organ systems and their major functions.
Hair Skin Nails
Integumentary System Forms the external body covering, and protects deeper tissues from injury. Synthesizes vitamin D, and houses cutaneous (pain, pressure, etc.) receptors and sweat and oil glands.
2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1.3b The bodys organ systems and their major functions.
Bones
Joint
Skeletal System Protects and supports body organs, and provides a framework the muscles use to cause movement. Blood cells are formed within bones. Bones store minerals.
2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1.3c The bodys organ systems and their major functions.
Skeletal muscles
(c) Muscular System
Allows manipulation of the environment, locomotion, and facial expression. Maintains posture, and produces heat.
2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1.3d The bodys organ systems and their major functions.
Brain
Spinal cord
Nerves
Nervous System As the fast-acting control system of the body, it responds to internal and external changes by activating appropriate muscles and glands.
2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1.3e The bodys organ systems and their major functions.
Pineal gland Thyroid gland Thymus Adrenal gland Pituitary gland
Pancreas
Testis Ovary
Endocrine System Glands secrete hormones that regulate processes such as growth, reproduction, and nutrient use (metabolism) by body cells.
2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1.3f The bodys organ systems and their major functions.
Heart
Blood vessels
Cardiovascular System Blood vessels transport blood, which carries oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, wastes, etc. The heart pumps blood.
2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1.3g The bodys organ systems and their major functions.
Red bone marrow
Thymus Lymphatic vessels Thoracic duct
Spleen
Lymph nodes
Lymphatic System/Immunity Picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels and returns it to blood. Disposes of debris in the lymphatic stream. Houses white blood cells (lymphocytes) involved in immunity. The immune response mounts the attack against foreign substances within the body.
2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1.3h The bodys organ systems and their major functions.
Nasal cavity Pharynx Larynx Trachea Lung Bronchus
Respiratory System Keeps blood constantly supplied with oxygen and removes carbon dioxide. The gaseous exchanges occur through the walls of the air sacs of the lungs.
2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1.3i The bodys organ systems and their major functions.
Oral cavity Esophagus
Liver Stomach Small Intestine Large Intestine
Rectum Anus
Digestive System Breaks down food into absorbable units that enter the blood for distribution to body cells. Indigestible foodstuffs are eliminated as feces.
2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1.3j The bodys organ systems and their major functions.
Kidney Ureter
Urinary bladder Urethra
Urinary System
Eliminates nitrogenous wastes from the body. Regulates water, electrolyte and acid-base balance of the blood.
2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1.3kl The bodys organ systems and their major functions.
Mammary glands (in breasts) Prostate gland Ovary Penis Testis Scrotum Ductus deferens Uterine tube
Uterus Vagina
Male Reproductive System Overall function is production of offspring. Testes produce sperm and male sex hormone, and male ducts and glands aid in delivery of sperm to the female reproductive tract. Ovaries produce eggs and female sex hormones. The remaining female structures serve as sites for fertilization and development of the fetus. Mammary glands of female breasts produce milk to nourish the newborn.
2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Female Reproductive System Overall function is production of offspring. Testes produce sperm and male sex hormone, and male ducts and glands aid in delivery of sperm to the female reproductive tract. Ovaries produce eggs and female sex hormones. The remaining female structures serve as sites for fertilization and development of the fetus. Mammary glands of female breasts produce milk to nourish the newborn.
Survival Needs Appropriate amounts necessary for life
Too little or too much harmful
Nutrients Oxygen Water Normal body temperature Appropriate atmospheric pressure
2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Survival Needs Nutrients
Chemicals for energy and cell building Carbohydrates, fats, proteins, minerals, vitamins
Oxygen
Essential for energy release (ATP production)
2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Survival Needs Water
Most abundant chemical in body Environment of chemical reactions Fluid base for secretions and excretions
Normal body temperature
37 C Affects rate of chemical reactions
Appropriate atmospheric pressure
For adequate breathing and gas exchange in lungs
2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Homeostasis Homeostasis
Maintenance of relatively stable internal conditions despite continuous changes in environment A dynamic state of equilibrium Maintained by contributions of all organ systems
2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Homeostatic Control Mechanisms Involve continuous monitoring and regulation of all factors that can change (variables) Communication necessary for monitoring and regulation
Functions of nervous and endocrine systems
Nervous and endocrine systems accomplish communication via nerve impulses and hormones
2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Components of a Control Mechanism
Receptor (sensor)
Monitors environment Responds to stimuli (something that causes changes in controlled variables)
Control center
Determines set point at which variable is maintained Receives input from receptor Determines appropriate response
Effector
Receives output from control center Provides the means to respond Response either reduces (negative feedback) or enhances stimulus (positive feedback)
2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1.4 Interactions among the elements of a homeostatic control system maintain stable internal conditions.
Slide 1
3 Input: Information sent along afferent pathway to control center. Receptor
Control Center
Afferent pathway Efferent pathway
4 Output: Information sent along efferent pathway to effector.
2 Receptor detects change. 1 Stimulus produces change in variable.
Effector 5 Response of effector feeds back to reduce the effect of stimulus and returns variable to homeostatic level.
BALANCE
2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1.4 Interactions among the elements of a homeostatic control system maintain stable internal conditions.
Slide 2
1 Stimulus produces change in variable.
BALANCE
2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1.4 Interactions among the elements of a homeostatic control system maintain stable internal conditions.
Slide 3
2 Receptor detects change. 1 Stimulus produces change in variable.
Receptor
BALANCE
2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1.4 Interactions among the elements of a homeostatic control system maintain stable internal conditions.
Slide 4
3 Input: Information sent along afferent pathway to control center. Receptor
Control Center
Afferent pathway
2 Receptor detects change. 1 Stimulus produces change in variable.
BALANCE
2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1.4 Interactions among the elements of a homeostatic control system maintain stable internal conditions.
Slide 5
3 Input: Information sent along afferent pathway to control center. Receptor
Control Center
Afferent pathway
4 Output: Information sent along efferent pathway to effector.
Efferent pathway
2 Receptor detects change. 1 Stimulus produces change in variable.
Effector
BALANCE
2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1.4 Interactions among the elements of a homeostatic control system maintain stable internal conditions.
Slide 6
3 Input: Information sent along afferent pathway to control center. Receptor
Control Center
Afferent pathway
4 Output: Information sent along efferent pathway to effector.
Efferent pathway
2 Receptor detects change. 1 Stimulus produces change in variable.
Effector 5 Response of effector feeds back to reduce the effect of stimulus and returns variable to homeostatic level.
BALANCE
2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Negative Feedback Most feedback mechanisms in body Response reduces or shuts off original stimulus
Variable changes in opposite direction of initial change
Examples
Regulation of body temperature (a nervous system mechanism) Regulation of blood glucose by insulin (an endocrine system mechanism)
2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1.5 Body temperature is regulated by a negative feedback mechanism.
Control Center (thermoregulatory center in brain)
Afferent pathway
Efferent pathway
Receptors
Temperature-sensitive cells in skin and brain)
Effectors Sweet glands
Sweat glands activated
Body temperature rises
Response Evaporation of sweat Body temperature falls; stimulus ends
Stimulus: Heat
BALANCE Stimulus: Cold
Response
Body temperature rises; stimulus ends
Body temperature falls
Effectors Skeletal muscles
Receptors Temperature-sensitive cells in skin and brain
Shivering begins
Efferent pathway
Afferent pathway
Control Center
(thermoregulatory center in brain)
2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Negative Feedback: Regulation of Blood Glucose by Insulin Receptors sense increased blood glucose (blood sugar) Pancreas (control center) secretes insulin into the blood Insulin causes body cells (effectors) to absorb more glucose, which decreases blood glucose levels
2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Positive Feedback Response enhances or exaggerates original stimulus May exhibit a cascade or amplifying effect Usually controls infrequent events that do not require continuous adjustment
Enhancement of labor contractions by oxytocin (chapter 28) Platelet plug formation and blood clotting
2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1.6 A positive feedback mechanism regulates formation of a platelet plug.
Slide 1
1 Break or tear
occurs in blood vessel wall.
Positive feedback cycle is initiated.
3 Released
2 Platelets
chemicals attract more platelets.
Positive feedback loop
adhere to site and release chemicals.
Feedback cycle ends when plug is formed.
4 Platelet plug
is fully formed.
2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1.6 A positive feedback mechanism regulates formation of a platelet plug.
Slide 2
1 Break or tear
occurs in blood vessel wall.
Positive feedback cycle is initiated.
2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1.6 A positive feedback mechanism regulates formation of a platelet plug.
Slide 3
1 Break or tear
occurs in blood vessel wall.
Positive feedback cycle is initiated.
2 Platelets
adhere to site and release chemicals.
2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1.6 A positive feedback mechanism regulates formation of a platelet plug.
Slide 4
1 Break or tear
occurs in blood vessel wall.
Positive feedback cycle is initiated.
3 Released
2 Platelets
chemicals attract more platelets.
Positive feedback loop
adhere to site and release chemicals.
2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1.6 A positive feedback mechanism regulates formation of a platelet plug.
Slide 5
1 Break or tear
occurs in blood vessel wall.
Positive feedback cycle is initiated.
3 Released
2 Platelets
chemicals attract more platelets.
Positive feedback loop
adhere to site and release chemicals.
Feedback cycle ends when plug is formed.
4 Platelet plug
is fully formed.
2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Homeostatic Imbalance Disturbance of homeostasis
Increases risk of disease Contributes to changes associated with aging
Control systems less efficient
If negative feedback mechanisms overwhelmed
Destructive positive feedback mechanisms may take over (e.g., heart failure)
2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
