Network Topologies

Understanding Network Basics

Module 2 Network Topologies

Overview

This module deals with basic topology of a network: both physical and logical. The common physical topologies like bus, ring, star etc are dealt with here. In addition, the transmission methods underlying the various IEEE standards like Ethernet, LLC, token ring, FDDI and wireless networks are described.
Lessons covered in this module LAN Topologies

Lesson 2.1 LAN Topologies

Introduction
Topology determines the network communication between systems. The choice of the topology is based on the type and the number of the devices used, rate of the data transfer, cost required to built a network and the length of the cable required. There are two major divisions of topologies- physical and logical topology. different topologies require different communication methods and these methods have great influence on the network. Basically there are four types of topologies: bus, ring, star and Mesh topology.

Lessons 2.1 LAN topologies

Topics covered in this lesson are
Topology Features of IEEE Standards

Topic 1 Topology
A network topology refers to the physical arrangements, or the networks layout in which all the devices are interconnected to communicate on the network. It defines manner in which cables are arranged.

The network topology is classified into two main categories. Physical Topology Logical Topology
Physical topology of a network refers to the configuration of cables, computers, and other peripherals. Logical topologies are bound to the network protocol which directs the data transfer across a network.

Topic 1 Topology
BUS Topology

Bus topology is the cheapest, simplest and the most common method of networking systems where multiple computers and network devices are connected in a single line using single cable.

Topic 1 Networking
Features
All workstations connect to the same cable segment

Commonly used for implementing Ethernet at 10 MBps

The cable is terminated at each end Wiring is normally done point to point A faulty cable or workstation will take the entire LAN down Two wire, generally implemented using coaxial cable during the 1980s

and early 90s

Advantages East to implement and extend. Well suited for temporary networks Cheapest topology to implement Failure of one station does not affect ithers Small networks do not require high speeds. 7

Disadvantages Difficult to administer or troubleshoot. Limited cable length and number of stations Maintenance costs may be higher in the long run Failure of one cable can disable the entire network. Large networks fail to pass signals with low speed

Topic 1 Topology

Ring Topology
In ring topology, all the systems are connected to one another forming a large circle in a closed loop, so that each system is connected directly to other systems, one on either side of it. The data sent in the form of packets around the ring until it reaches the final destination.

Topic 1 Topology
Advantages Data travels I one direction at high speeds of transmission of data. When using a co axial cable to create a ring network the service becomes much faster. Disadvantages Numerous connections to the other systems slow down the network activity If one node fails, the rest of the network could also fail.

Topic 1 Topology
Star Topology
Star topology is one of the most common network setup where each system on a network is connected to a central hub. The star topology uses an individual connection for each system to prevent the network failure. Data is transmitted from the main system through the hub to all the systems on the network.

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Topic 1 Topology
Advantages
Easy to implement and extend even in large networks.

Disadvantages
It has limited cable length and number of stations.

Well suited for temporary networks.

The failure of a non central node will not have major effects on the functionality of the network.

Maintenance costs may be higher in the long run.

Failure of the central node can disable the entire network.

Security can be implemented in the hub/switch.

Network failure is due to breakdown of hub.

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Topic 1 Topology
Mesh Topology
Mesh topology is a type of wireless network setup where each of the system and network devices are interconnected with one another in a network for the data transmission.

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Topic 1 Topology
Hybrid Topology
The hybrid topology combines multiple topologies into one large topology. The hybrid network is common in large wide area networks. The disadvantage of the hybrid topology is that the devices on one topology cannot be placed into another topology without some hardware changes. It has the following advantages:
One company can combine the benefits of several different types of

topologies. Workgroup efficiency and traffic can be customized.

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Topic 2 Features of IEEE Standards

The IEEE networking specifications pertaining to connectivity, error checking algorithms, encryption, networking media, emerging technologies, etc come under IEEEs Projects 802 which was implemented in order to standardize the physical and logical elements of a network.. Now let us discuss some of the IEEE standards:

Logical Link Control (IEEE 802.2)

The IEEE divides the data link layer into sub layers: the Logical Link Control (LLC) and the Media Access Control (MAC) layer. The Logical Link Control Layer resides in the upper portion of the Data Link Layer. The LLC layer performs these functions:
Managing the data-link communication Link Addressing
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Defining Service Access Points (SAPs) Sequencing

Topic 2 Features of IEEE Standards

The positioning of the LCC within the OSI reference model is as shown in the figure below:

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Topic 2 Features of IEEE Standard

The command packets generated by the LLC are called PDUs (protocol Data Units). It is the data field of the MAC layer Frame that transmits the LLC Protocol Data Unit. The LLC layer adds the standard 8-bit DSAP (Destination Service Access Point) and SSAP (Source Service Access Point) labels to a given packets regardless of the network type.

Where DSAP: Destination Service Point SSAP: Source Service Access Point M :An integer equal to or greater than 0

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Topic 2 Features of IEEE Standards

Operational Modes of LLC

LLC defines 3 types of operations for data communication:

Type 1: Unacknowledged Connectionless

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Connectionless service for data communications is very similar to sending mail through the postal system (hand delivered mail): the data is sent and we hope it arrives at its destination. There is no feedback from the destination to indicate whether it arrived or not. Type 2: Connection Oriented This operational mode has sequenced numbering of frames which ensures that the frames are in the order they have been sent in. Connection Oriented service for data communications is very similar to having a phone conversation. Type 3: Acknowledged Connectionless it supports point-to-point communication only.

Topic 2 Features of IEEE Standards

Ethernet (802.3)
The IEEE 802.3 standard is also known as the Ethernet, is the most commonly used LAN technology in the world. The term Ethernet refers to the family of Local Area Network (LAN) products covered by the IEEE 802.3. The characteristics of Ethernet are
Is easy to understand, implement, manage and maintain
Allows low cost network implementations Provides extensive topological flexibilities for network installation Guarantees successful interconnections and operation of standard-

compliment products, regardless of the manufacturer.

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Topic 2 Features of IEEE Standards

Ethernet standards
Four data rates are currently defined for operation over optical fiber and twisted-pair cables:
10 Mbps10Base-T Ethernet
100 MbpsFast Ethernet 1000 MbpsGigabit Ethernet 10-gigabit 10 Gbps Ethernet

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Topic 2 Features of IEEE Standards

Logical relationships of IEEE 802.3 with the

ISO Reference Model

Figure below shows the IEEE 802.3 logical layers and their relationship to the OSI reference model. As with all IEEE 802 protocols, the ISO data link layer is divided into two IEEE 802 sublayers, the Media Access Control (MAC) sublayer and the MAC-client sublayer. The IEEE 802.3 physical layer corresponds to the ISO physical layer.

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Topic 2 Features of IEEE Standards

The MAC sublayer has two primary responsibilities:
Data encapsulation Media access control

The MAC-client sub layer could be one of the following:

Logical Link Control (LLC): This sub layer provides the

interface between the Ethernet MAC and the upper layers in the protocol stack of the end station. The LLC sub layer is defined by IEEE 802.2 standards. Bridge entity: Bridge entities provide LAN-to-LAN interfaces between LANs that use the same protocol (for example, Ethernet to Ethernet) and also between different protocols (for example, Ethernet to Token Ring). Bridge entities are defined by IEEE 802.1 standards.
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Topic 2 Features of IEEE Standards

The Basic Ethernet Frame Format
The IEEE 802.3 standard defines a basic data frame format that is required for all MAC implementations, plus several additional optional formats that are used to extend the protocols basic capability.

Fig :The Basic IEEE 802.3 MAC Data Frame Format

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Topic 2 Features of IEEE Standards

The functions of Ethernet Frame Format are:
Preamble (PRE): Consists of 7 bytes. The PRE is an

alternating pattern of ones and zeros that tells receiving stations that a frame is coming, Start-of-frame delimiter (SOF): Consists of 1 byte. The SOF is an alternating pattern of ones and zeros, ending with two consecutive 1-bits indicating that the next bit is the left-most bit in the left-most byte of the destination address. Destination address (DA: Consists of 6 bytes. The DA field identifies which station (s) should receive the frame. Source address (SA): Consists of 6 bytes. The SA field identifies the sending station. The SA is always an individual address and the left-most bit in the SA field is always 0.
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Topic 2 Features of IEEE Standards

Length/TypeConsists of 4 bytes. This field indicates

either the number of MAC-client data bytes that are contained in the data field of the frame, or the frame type ID if the frame is assembled using an optional format. DataIs a sequence of n bytes of any value, where n is less than or equal to 1500. If the length of the Data field is less than 46, the Data field must be extended by adding a filler (a pad) sufficient to bring the Data field length to 46 byte Frame check sequence (FCS)Consists of 4 bytes. This sequence contains a 32-bit cyclic redundancy check (CRC) value, which is created by the sending MAC and is recalculated by the receiving MAC to check for damaged frames. The FCS is generated over the DA, SA, Length/Type, and Data fields.
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Topic 2 Features of IEEE Standards Frame Transmission

The IEEE 802.3 standard currently requires that all Ethernet MACs support half-duplex operation, in which the MAC can be either transmitting or receiving a frame, but it cannot be doing both simultaneously. Half-Duplex TransmissionThe CSMA/CD Access Method

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The CSMA/CD protocol was developed for an environment where there is no central arbitration, no access token or any assigned time slots to decide when a situation can transmit. The CSMA/CD access rules are summarized by the protocols acronym: Carrier sense: Each station continuously listens for traffic on the medium to determine when gaps between frame transmissions occur. Multiple access: Stations may begin transmitting any time they detect that the network is quiet. Collision detect: refers to the instance when two or more

Topic 2 Features of IEEE Standards

802.5 (Token Ring)
The Token Ring network was originally developed by IBM in the 1980s. the token ring technology is expensive compared to Ethernet but its promoters claim that its reliability leads to less downtime and lower network management costs when compared to Ethernet. Token ring networks can run at speeds of 4, 16 or 100 Mbps. The 100 Mbps token ring standard was implemented finally in 1999 and is called HSTR (High Speed Token Ring). However because of its cost and lagging speed, it is not as common as the Ethernet.

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Topic 2 Features of IEEE Standards

Token Ring Operation
Token ring topology use the token-passing routine and a star ring hybrid physical topology. In token passing, a 3-byte packet, called a token, is transmitted from one node to another in a circular fashion around the ring.

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Topic 2 Features of IEEE Standards

The process can be described in the following steps:
The 3 byte token is continuously circulated on the ring. When a node has a message to send, it seizes the token, changes it

into a frame by adding a header, the data and trailer information. The header would have the address. It sends this frame to the next node on the ring. The frame is then examined by each successive workstation. If it is destination it copies the message. When the frame gets back to originating node, it checks the frame to see that the frame has been viewed and then reuses. The token continues to circulate the ring and is ready to be taken by a workstation when it has a message to send.

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Topic 2 Features of IEEE Standards

Specifications of Token Ring
Data transfer rate is 4, 16 or 100 Mb/s Maximum attachments per segment is 255

Uses twisted pair cabling

Access method is token passing Connector type can be RJ-45, DB-9, or Type 1 IBM.

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Topic 2 Features of IEEE Standards

Token Frame Format
Token ring format uses four different frames the data frame, the token frame, the command frame, and the delimiter frame. The token frame format is described below:

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Topic 2 Features of IEEE Standards

The token frame formats are described as follows:
Star delimiter (1 byte): Star delimiter frame alerts each

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station of the arrival of a token. Access Control (1 byte): this field contains the priority field, reservation field, token bit and a monitor bit which is used to prioritize token ring transmissions, enabling certain systems to have priority access to the token and the network. Frame Control (1 byte): This field indicates whether the frame contains data or control information. Destination Address (6 bytes): This field contains 6 byte hexadecimal address of the network adapter on the local network to which the packet will be transmitted. Source Address (6 bytes): this source address field consists of two 6-byte address field that identify the destination and the source station addresses.

Topic 2 Features of IEEE Standards

Information (up to 4500 bytes): this layer contains the data generated

by the network layer protocol, including a standard LLC header. Frame-check sequence (FCS 4 bytes): this field contains a 4 byte value packet which the receiving system uses to verify that the packet is transmitted without error. End delimiter (1 bytes): This field contains a bit pattern that signals the end of token frame. Frame Status (1 byte): The frame status field is a 1 byte field terminating a command/data frame. It indicates whether the destination system has received the frame and copied it into its buffers.

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Topic 2 Features of IEEE Standards

802.11 (Wireless)
802.11 is a family of specifications for wireless networks developed by the IEEE. It has now emerged and expanded to be one of the leading technology. There are currently four specifications in the wireless family 802.11, 802.11a, 802.11b, and 802.11g all of which use the basic Ethernet protocols. Specifications Uses 802.11 802.11a 802.11b 802.11g
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It uses either FHSS or DSSS. This provides 1 to 2 Mbps transmission rate on the 2.4GHz band. It uses OFDM and it provides up to 54Mbps and runs on the 5GHz band. This is also known as Wi-Fi or hi rate 802.11 which uses DSSS and applies to wireless LANs. This provides more than 20 Mbps transmission rate, applies to LANs and runs on the 2.4GHz band.

Topic 2 Features of IEEE Standards

The following figure shows how the IEEE 802.11 standards are

mapped to the OSI model.

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Topic 2 Features of IEEE Standards

Access Method
802.11 standards use CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance) in order to access a shared medium. The process is described as follows:
Before sending data on the 802.11 network, the node checks for any existing

wireless transmissions If no activity is detected, the source node waits for a random amount of time before sending its transmission. But if activity is detected, it waits for a random amount of time and checks the transmission channel again. When the destination node receives the transmitted data, it verifies its accuracy and acknowledges its receipt by sending an acknowledgment (ACK) packet to the source. If the source node receives this acknowledgement, the transmission has completed successfully. But, if the source node does not receive the ACK packet, it assumes the transmission did not take place properly and does the CSMA/CA process again.
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Topic 2 Features of IEEE Standards

The IEEE 802.11 Wireless LAN Architecture
The IEEE 802.11 wireless LAN architecture includes several components and services that allow station mobility to be transparent to the higher layers of the network stack.
Wireless LAN Station

This is the basic component in the wireless network and is termed as the station (STA). A station could be a laptop, an access point or a handheld device. Any device that has the functionality of the 802.11 protocol and a connection to the wireless media is a station. Usually, it is in the hardware and software of the Network Interface Card (NIC) that the functions of 802.11 are implemented. Basic Service Set (BSS) The Basic Service Set is a group of any number of stations and is the basic building block of an 802.11 wireless LAN.

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Topic 2 Features of IEEE Standards

Association Process
Association is a function of the MAC sub layer that is

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defined by the 802.11 standard. For as long as a station is turned on and has its wireless services active, it will continuously survey the surroundings for an access point. This is known as scanning. The scanning process can be either active or passive. In active scanning, the station transmits a frame known as a probe on all channels within its frequency range. If any access point gets the probe, it sends out a probe response containing required information like the status code and station ID number for that station. In passive scanning, the station listens on all channels within its frequency range for a beacon frame, a special signal that has information required for the station to relate to the access point. If there are multiple access points detected by the station, the one with the strongest signal and lowest error rate will be chosen by the station. By a process of reassociation, the station can choose a different access point.

Topic 2 Features of IEEE Standards

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Topic 2 Features of IEEE Standards

Frame Format

IEEE 802.11 has different overheads to manage the different types of access to wireless networks like ACKs, beacons, and probes. There is a different frame type for each function: control, management and data frame types. Control frames are related to data delivery and medium access like ACK and RTS/CTS frames. Management frames are involved in association and disassociation like probe and beacon frames. Data frames, as the name suggests, carry data. The format of a 802.11 data frame is shown below:

The wireless data frame has four address fields: source address, transmitter address, receiver address, and destination address. The transmitter and receiver address is for the access point or any other intermediary device used on the network.
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Topic 2 Features of IEEE Standards

Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI)
The Fiber Distributed Data Interface or fiddy as it is usually pronounced as, is a network technology that specifies a 100 Mbps (100 million bits per second) token passing network that uses fiber-optic cables. FDDI was invented as a result of the limitations found in Ethernet and Token ring technologies used at that time (mid -1980s). It was the first ever technology to reach the threshold mark of data transmission at a speed of 100 Mbps. In spite of that, FDDI is considered a reliable and stable technology because the standard underlying medium used is optical fiber which is considered more secure than transmitting over copper wires.

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Topic 2 Features of IEEE Standards

FDDI is based on the ring topology quite similar to a Token Ring network. It also follows the same token passing technique except that FDDI runs on two complete rings. The following figure shows how FDDI uses a dual-ring architecture consisting of the Primary ring and the Secondary ring. Traffic flows in opposite directions on the rings and this is called counter rotating.

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Topic 2 Features of IEEE Standards

FDDI Transmission Media

The primary transmission media used in FDDI is the optical fiber, as we had discussed before. FDDI can be used over copper cabling as well and then FDDI over copper is known as CDDI. There are a number of advantages that optical fiber has over copper wiring.
Optical

Fiber does not emit electrical signals, and therefore signals cannot be tapped thus ensuring that there is no unauthorized access to the transmitted data. It is immune to electrical interference from Radio frequency interference (RFI) and electromagnetic interference (EMI). Supports a much higher bandwidth than copper though of recent, copper cables can transmit 100 Mbps as well. FDDI permits a distance of 2 Km between stations if multi-mode fiber is used and even longer distances if single mode fibers are used.
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Topic 2 Features of IEEE Standards

There are two types of optical fibers defined by FDDI: single mode

and multimode. Mode refers to the ray of light that enters the fiber at an angle.

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Topic 2 Features of IEEE Standards

FDDI Specifications
FDDI specifies the physical and media- access layers in the OSI model. FDDI is a collection of four separate specifications:
Media Access Control (MAC): Defines how the medium is accessed

like frame format, addressing etc. Physical Layer Protocol (PHY): Defines framing, data encoding/decoding requirements etc. Physical Medium Dependent (PMD): Defines the characteristics of the transmission medium like power levels, bit error rates etc. Station Management (SMT): Defines FDDI station configuration, ring configuration etc.

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Topic 2 Features of IEEE Standards

FDDI is similar to the IEEE 802.3 Ethernet and IEEE 802.5 Token Ring in its relationship with the OSI model. The following figure illustrates the four FDDI specifications and their relationship to each other and to the Logical Link Control (LLC) sublayer.

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Topic 2 Features of IEEE Standards

Frame Format
The FDDI frame format is similar to the format of a Token Ring frame. It can be as large as 4500 bytes. The following figure shows the format fields.

The following is the description of the FDDI Frame fields.

Preamble: The preamble field gives a unique sequence which prepares

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each station for an upcoming frame. Starting Delimiter: This field indicates the beginning of a frame by employing a signaling pattern that differentiates it from the rest of the frame. Frame Control: The frame control field identifies the type of frame used. It indicates the size of the address fields and whether the frame contains asynchronous or synchronous data, among other control information.

Topic 2 Features of IEEE Standards

Destination address: This field is 6 bytes long and

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contains a unicast (singular), multicast (group), or broadcast (every station) address. Source address: The FDDI source address field is 6 bytes long and it identifies the single station that sent the frame. Frame Check Sequence: The frame check sequence field contains the 32 bit Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC). The source station with a calculated cyclic redundancy check value files it dependent on frame contents. Ending Delimiter: This field contains unique symbols which indicate the end of the frame. Frame Status: The frame status field allows the source station to determine error occurrence however; it identifies whether the frame was recognized and copied by a receiving station.

 Summary
Network topologies are mainly divided into physical

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topology and logical topology. The physical topology plays an important role in the network connection. Logical topology describes the transmission of information through the network from one node to the other node. The different types of topologies are bus, ring, star and mesh topology. Each topology has its own advantage and disadvantages which differentiates each other. UTP cables can connect Ethernet systems to a hub 100Meters away and the hub repeats the signal to the other hub or computer. FDDI uses beaconing to isolate the serious failures in the ring.