Electrical Basic Generator

Generator Generator is rotating device used for converting the Mechanical Energy to Electrical Energy. Working under principle of Faradays Laws of electromagnetic induction. e.m.f = - N d/dt volts

AC GENERATION

The elementary AC generator (Figure 1) consists of a conductor, or loop of wire in a magnetic field that is produced by an electromagnet. The two ends of the loop are connected to slip rings, and they are in contact with two brushes. When the loop rotates it cuts magnetic lines of force, first in one direction and then the other.

Simple AC Generator

AC Generation Summary
AC Generation Summary A simple generator consists of a conductor loo p turning in a magnetic field, cutting across the magnetic lines of force. The sine wave output is the result of one side of the generator loop cutting lines of force. In the first half turn of rotation this produces a positive current and in the second half of rotation produces a negative current. This completes one cycle of AC generation.

Generator Theory

A simple AC generator consists of: Figure Simple AC Generator (a) a strong magnetic field, (b) conductors that rotate through that magnetic field, and (c) a means by which a continuous connection is provided to the conductors as they are rotating (Figure 3). The strong magnetic field is produced by a current flow through the field coil of the rotor. The field coil in the rotor receives excitation through the use of slip rings and brushes. Two brushes are spring-held in contact with the slip rings to provide the continuous connection between the field coil and the external excitation circuit. The armature is contained within the windings of the stator and is connected to the output. Each time the rotor makes one complete revolution, one complete cycle of AC is developed. A generator has many turns of wire wound into the slots of the rotor. The magnitude of AC voltage generated by an AC generator is dependent on the field strength and speed of the rotor. Most generators are operated at a constant speed; therefore, the generated voltage depends on field excitation, or strength.

Developing a Sine-Wave Voltage

Three-Phase AC

Voltage and Current Phase Relationships in an Inductive Circuit

As previously stated, any change in current in a coil (either a rise or a fall) causes a corresponding change of the magnetic flux around the coil. Because the current changes at its maximum rate when it is going through its ze ro value at 90 (point b on Figure 1) and 27 0 (point d), the flux change is also the greatest at those times. Consequently, the self-induced EMF in the coil is at its maximum (or minimum) value at these points, as shown in Figure 1. Because the current is not changing at the point when it is going through its peak value at 0 (point a), 180 (point c), and 360 (point e), the flux change is zero at those times. Therefore, the self- induced EMF in the coil is at its zero value at these points

Current, Self-Induced EMF, and Applied Voltage in an Inductive Circuit

Inductive Reactance Summary

Opposition to the flow of alternating curren t caused by inductance is called Inductive Reactance (XL). The formula for calculating XL is: XL = 2pfL Current (I) lags applied voltage (E) in a p urely inductive circuit by 90 phase angle. The phasor diagram shows the applied volt age (E) vector leading (above) the current (I) vector by the amount of the ph ase angle differential due to the relationship between voltage and current in an inductive circuit.

Capacitors
The variation of an alternating voltage applied to Figure 3 Voltage, Charge, and Current in a Capacitor a capacitor, the charge on the capacitor, and the current flowing through the capacitor are represented by Figure 3. The current flow in a circuit containing capacitance depends on the rate at which the voltage changes. The current flow in Figure 3 is greatest at points a, c, and e. At these points, the voltage is changing at its maximum rate (i.e., passing through zero). Between points a and b, the voltage and charge are increasing, and the current flow is into the capacitor, but decreasing in value. At point b, the capacitor is fully charged, and the current is zero. From points b to c, the voltage and charge are decreasing as the capacitor discharges, and its current flows in a direction opposite to the voltage. From points c to d, the capacitor begins to charge in the opposite direction, and the voltage and current are again in the same direction

Power Distribution /Grid

An electric motor is all about magnets and magnetism: A motor uses magnets to create motion. If you have ever played with magnets you know about the fundamental law of all magnets: Opposites attract and likes repel. So if you have two bar magnets with their ends marked "north" and "south," then the north end of one magnet will attract the south end of the other. On the other hand, the north end of one magnet will repel the north end of the other (and similarly, south will repel south). Inside an electric motor, these attracting and repelling forces create rotational motion

Electric Motor

Ohms The three most basic units in electricity are voltage (V), current (I) and resistance (r). As discussed previously, voltage is measured in volts, and current is measured in amps. Resistance is measured in ohms. We can extend the water analogy a bit further to understand resistance. The voltage is equivalent to the water pressure, the current is equivalent to the flow rate, and the resistance is like the pipe size. There is a basic equation in electrical engineering that states how the three terms relate. It says that the current is equal to the voltage divided by the resistance. I = V/r

Let's say you have a 120-watt light bulb plugged into a wall socket. The voltage is 120 volts, and a 120-watt bulb has 1 amp flowing through it. You can calculate the resistance of the filament by rearranging the equation: r=V/I. So the resistance is 120 ohms. If it is a 60-watt bulb, the resistance is 240 ohms.

How Electric Motors Work

Electromagnets and Motors To understand how an electric motor works, the key is to understand how the electromagnet works. (See How Electromagnets Work for complete details.) An electromagnet is the basis of an electric motor. You can understand how things work in the motor by imagining the following scenario. Say that you created a simple electromagnet by wrapping 100 loops of wire around a nail and connecting it to a battery. The nail would become a magnet and have a north and south pole while the battery is connected. Now say that you take your nail electromagnet, run an axle through the middle of it and suspend it in the middle of a horseshoe magnet as shown in the figure below. If you were to attach a battery to the electromagnet so that the north end of the nail appeared as shown, the basic law of magnetism tells you what would happen: The north end of the electromagnet would be repelled from the north end of the horseshoe magnet and attracted to the south end of the horseshoe magnet. The south end of the electromagnet would be repelled in a similar way. The nail would move about half a turn and then stop in the position shown.

You can see that this half-turn of motion is simply due to the way magnets naturally attract and repel one another. The key to an electric motor is to then go one step further so that, at the moment that this half-turn of motion completes, the field of the electromagnet flips. The flip causes the electromagnet to complete another half-turn of motion. You flip the magnetic field just by changing the direction of the electrons flowing in the wire (you do that by flipping the battery over). If the field of the electromagnet were flipped at precisely the right moment at the end of each half-turn of motion, the electric motor would spin freely.

Transformer Theory Summary The induction of an EMF in a coil by magnetic flux lines generated in another coil is called mutual induction. The turns ratio is defined as the ratio of turns of wire in the primary winding to the number of turns of wire in the secondary winding. The ratio between the primary and secondary impedances is referred to as the impedance ratio. Efficiency of a transformer is the ratio of the power output to the power input. In a delta connection, all three phases are connected in series to form a closed loop. In a wye connection, three common ends of each phase are connected together at a common terminal, and the other three ends are connected to a three-phase line. In a D connected transformer: VL Vf IL 3 If In a Y connected transformer: IL 3 Vf IL

Voltage In any battery, the same sort of electrochemical reaction occurs so that electrons move from one pole to the other. The actual metals and electrolytes used control the voltage of the battery -- each different reaction has a characteristic voltage. For example, here's what happens in one cell of a car's lead-acid battery: The cell has one plate made of lead and another plate made of lead dioxide, with a strong sulfuric acid electrolyte in which the plates are immersed. Lead combines with SO4 to create PbSO4 plus one electron. Lead dioxide, hydrogen ions and SO4 ions, plus electrons from the lead plate, create PbSO4 and water on the lead dioxide plate. As the battery discharges, both plates build up PbSO4 (lead sulfate), and water builds up in the acid. The characteristic voltage is about 2 volts per cell, so by combining six cells you get a 12-volt battery. A lead-acid battery has a nice feature -- the reaction is completely reversible. If you apply current to the battery at the right voltage, lead and lead dioxide form again on the plates so you can reuse the battery over and over. In a zinc-carbon battery, there is no easy way to reverse the reaction because there is no easy way to get hydrogen gas back into the electrolyte.

Safety Devices: Fuses

Safety Devices: Fuses Fuses and circuit breakers are safety devices. Let's say that you did not have fuses or circuit breakers in your house and something "went wrong." What could possibly go wrong? Here are some examples: A fan motor burns out a bearing, seizes, overheats and melts, causing a direct connection between power and ground. A wire comes loose in a lamp and directly connects power to ground. A mouse chews through the insulation in a wire and directly connects power to ground.

Modern Battery Chemicals

Modern batteries use a variety of chemicals to power their reactions. Typical battery chemistries include: Zinc-carbon battery - Also known as a standard carbon battery, zinc-carbon chemistry is used in all inexpensive AA, C and D dry-cell batteries. The electrodes are zinc and carbon, with an acidic paste between them that serves as the electrolyte. Alkaline battery - Used in common Duracell and Energizer batteries, the electrodes are zinc and manganese-oxide, with an alkaline electrolyte. Lithium photo battery - Lithium, lithium-iodide and lead-iodide are used in cameras because of their ability to supply power surges. Lead-acid battery - Used in automobiles, the electrodes are made of lead and lead-oxide with a strong acidic electrolyte (rechargeable). Nickel-cadmium battery - The electrodes are nickel-hydroxide and cadmium, with potassium-hydroxide as the electrolyte (rechargeable). .

Battery
Nickel-metal hydride battery - This battery is rapidly replacing nickel-cadmium because it does not suffer from the memory effect that nickel-cadmiums do (rechargeable). Lithium-ion battery - With a very good power-to-weight ratio, this is often found in high-end laptop computers and cell phones (rechargeable). Zinc-air battery - This battery is lightweight and rechargeable. Zinc-mercury oxide battery - This is often used in hearingaids. Silver-zinc battery - This is used in aeronautical applications because the power-to-weight ratio is good. Metal-chloride battery - This is used in electric vehicles