Presentation On

Presented To:
Ms. Sadaf Zahra
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PRESENTED
BY:

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Memory Hierarchy
MEMORY
STORAGE

OPTICAL DISK SECONDARY HIGH SPEED

RAM ROM
STORAGE MEMORY MEMORIES

DRAM PROM CD-ROM DVD-ROM REGISTERS CACHE

SRAM EPROM

MRAM EEPROM

MROM 3
Comparison between Memory:

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REGISTER

A special, high-speed storage area

within the CPU. All data must be
represented in a register before it can
be processed.

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PERFORMANCE OF REGISTER

 The number of registers that a CPU

has and the size of each (number of
bits) help determine the power and
speed of a CPU.
 For example; a 32-bit CPU is one in
which each register is 32 bits wide.
Therefore, each CPU instruction can
manipulate 32 bits of data
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The Fetch and Execute Cycle:
Machine ...


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TYPES OF REGISTER

 ACCUMULATOR REGISTER

 ADDRESS OR SEGMENT REGISTER

 INSTRUCTION REGISTER

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ACCUMULATOR REGISTER

The accumulator register use in during

Logical and arithmetic operations of the
CPU.
It is the part of ALU.

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MEMORY ADDRES REGISTER

 A high-speed circuit that holds the

addresses of data to be processed or of the
next instruction to be executed.
What is it Purpose ?
 While the first instruction is being executed,
the address of the next memory location is
held by it
 It is loaded from program control register
when the instuction is read from memory
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INSTRUCTION REGISTER

 It holds current instructions being executed

 The instruction is stored in this register the
operation part and address part of
instruction are separated
 Address part is sent to MAR and operation
part is sent to CONTROL UNIT where it is
decoded and sent to concerning device
(monitor or hard disk)

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RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY

RAM:
“Ram is used to Store data and
program instructions that is being executed
by the computer”.

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Functions of RAM
 Randomly select and use any location of the
memory to directly store and retreive the
data Read write and delete information from
RAM
 Volatile
 Fast speed
 Technology used is CMOS(complimentary
metal oxide semiconductor)
 Memory consists of blank chips fixed on a
single inline memory modules SIMMS)
which hold a group of memory chips
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Types of RAM

There is three basic types of RAM

 DYNAMIC RAM
 STATIC RAM
 MRAM

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DYNAMIC RAM

Merits
 Cheaper
 Transistor
 Refresh periodically (in 2ms)
 access time (150ns…..200ns

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Types of DRAM

 SDRAM

 DDR-SDRAM (Double Data Rate-

Synchronous Dynamic RAM)

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SDRAM
 SDRAM is a variant of DRAM in which
the memory speed is synchronized
with the clock pulse from the CPU.

Purpose of SDRAM

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DDR SDRAM

DDR SDRAM doubles the bandwidth

of SDR DRAM by transferring data
twice per cycle on both edges of the
clock signal, implementing burst mode
data transfer.

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 MRAM (Magnetic RAM)

M-Ram stores data using magnetic charges

instead of Electrical Charges.It is a newer type of
RAM.
Merits
 Greater storage capacity
 Consumes less Power
 Faster Access times
 Retained contents even when PC switched Off.
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READ ONLY MEMORY (ROM)

ROM is a type of memory that normally can

only be read, as opposed to RAM which can
be both read and written.

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History of ROM
 PROM, invented in 1956, allowed users to program
its contents exactly once by physically altering its
structure with the application of high-voltage pulses.
 EPROM The 1971 invention of essentially solved
problem 3, since EPROM (unlike PROM) can be
repeatedly reset to its unprogrammed state by
exposure to strong ultraviolet light
 EEPROM, invented in 1983, went a long way to
solving problem 4, since an EEPROM can be
programmed in-place if the containing device
provides a means to receive the program contents
from an external source (e.g. a personal computer
via a serial cable).
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History Of ROM
 Flash memory, invented at Toshiba in the mid-1980s, and
commercialized in the early 1990s, is a form of EEPROM that
makes very efficient use of chip area and can be erased and
reprogrammed thousands of times without damage.
 Mask ROM invented by the year 2000 so that in large
quantities mask ROM would remain an economical choice for
many years.
 Nand Flash The most recent development is NAND flash,
also invented by Toshiba. Its designers explicitly broke from
past practice, stating plainly that "the aim of NAND Flash is to
replace hard disks”.
 NAND has partially achieved this goal by offering throughput
comparable to hard disks, higher tolerance of physical shock,
extreme miniaturization (in the form of USB flash drives and
tiny microSD memory cards.
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Functions of ROM
 Non-Volatile Memory:
The one thing all forms of ROM have in common is that they are
all non-volatile.
 Permanence
The values stored in ROM are always there, whether the power
is on or not. A ROM can be removed from the PC, stored for an
indefinite period of time, and then replaced, and the data it
contains will still be there. For this reason, it is called non-
volatile storage..
 Security:
The fact that ROM cannot easily be modified provides a
measure of security against accidental (or malicious) changes
to its contents. You are not going to find viruses infecting true
ROMs,

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Types of ROM
 Mask-Programmed ROM (MROM)
 Programmable ROM (PROM)
 Erasable-Programmable ROM
(EPROM)
 Electrically Erasable PROM
(EEPROM)

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Types of ROM
Erasable-Programmable ROM (EPROM)
EPROM can also be programmed and erased by the
user using ultraviolet light and special circuitry
external to the computer.

Electrically Erasable PROM (EEPROM)

EEPROM can be erased and reprogrammed by
special circuitry within the computer. (EEPROM) is
based on a similar semiconductor structure to
EPROM,

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Types of ROM
Mask-Programmed ROM (MROM)
 Classic mask-programmed ROM chips are
integrated circuits that physically encode the data to
be stored, and thus it is impossible to change their
contents after writing.
Programmable ROM (PROM): —
 can be custom-programmed by the user (once)
using special circuitry. This device uses high
voltages to permanently destroy or create internal
links (fuses or antifuses) within the chip.
Consequently, a PROM can only be programmed
once.

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Types of EEPROM
Flash memory
Flash memory (or simply flash) is a modern type of
EEPROM invented in 1984. Flash memory can be
erased and rewritten faster than ordinary EEPROM,
and newer designs feature very high endurance (exceeding
1,000,000 cycles).
NAND flash
Flash memory is sometimes called flash ROM or
flash EEPROM when used as a replacement for
older ROM types, but not in applications that take
advantage of its ability to be modified quickly and
frequently makes efficient use of silicon chip area,
resulting has allowed NAND flash to replace
magnetic in some applications (such as USB
flash drives 27
Speed of ROM
Reading speed:
Although the relative speed of RAM vs. ROM has
varied over time As of 2007, large RAM chips can
be read faster than most ROMs ROM content is
sometimes copied to RAM to its first use, and
subsequently read from RAM.
Writing speed:
For those types of ROM that can be electrically
modified, writing speed is always much slower than
reading speed, Modern NAND Flash achieves the
highest write speeds of any rewritable ROM
technology, with speeds as high as 15 MiB/s (or 70
ns/bit),
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The Advantages of ROM

 They are non-volatile

 They are cheaper than RAM
 They are static and do not refreshing
 They are more reliable than RAM as
their circuit is simple.
 They are available in longer sizes than
RAM.
 They are easier to interface than RAM.
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Disadvantages Of ROM

 They are maintenance in cost.

 Slow up grade.
 Limited Access.

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What is Optical Disk ?

A Compact Disc (also known as a CD) is an

optical disc used to store digital data, originally
developed for storing digital audio.

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What is Compact Disk ?
 Compact Disc Read Only Memory. A
compact disc format that is used to
hold text, graphics, and hi-fi stereo
sound.
 The disc is almost the same as the
music CD, but uses different tracks for
data.

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History Of Compact Disk
 Sony of Japan and Philips of the Netherlands
developed the compact disc (CD), a small hard
plastic disc that could be economically produced in
large quantities.
 CD-Audio was the first application for this new
technology. CD-Audio was very successful, due in
large part to the producers adherence to a set of
specifications that later became standards.
 When CD-ROM was designed, the industry
recognized the need for standards and developed
ISO 9660 as the base standard for all CD-ROMs

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History Of Compact Disk
 the story is slightly more involved. In
1979, Philips owned Polygram, one of
the world’s largest distributors of
music.
 The first commercially available CD
was pressed in Hanover, Germany, by
PDO-the Polydor Pressing Operations
plant, in 1980.
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 Physical Attributes
 Physically, the standard compact disc is
a disc made of clear polycarbonate
plastic, coated with a reflective metal,
and a protective coat of clear lacquer.
 Data is placed on the CD-ROM in the
form of small pits recorded in a spiral
track starting at the center of the CD-
ROM and working to the outer edge.
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Structure And Capacity
 The standard CD-ROM can hold up to
74 minutes (about 680 Megabytes) of
data, uncompressed.
 Along with the data, error detection
and correction codes are also
recorded on the disc
 This accounts for the incredibility low
error rate when reading CD-ROMs.
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Reading Data from a CD-ROM
 When reading a CD-ROM, a low power
laser beam is focused on the rotating CD-
ROM and its reflection is viewed by the read
head.
 When the beam reflects back from the CD-
ROM, it's intensity changes as it moves from
"land" to "pits".
 These variations in the laser beam are
decoded as data by the CD-ROM drive.
 It should be noted, CD-ROMs rotate at a
constant linear velocity (CLV)
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Optical storage devices read data by shining laser
beam on the disc.
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Types of Compact Disks:

 Read only: CD-ROM

 Write once: CD-R
 Rewriteable: CD-RW
 Picture CDs and Photo CDs

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CD-R
 A CD-R (Compact Disc-Recordable) is
a variation of the Compact Disc
invented by Philips and Sony. CD-R is
a Write Once Read Many (WORM)
optical medium, though the whole disk
does not have to be entirely written in
the same session.

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CD-RW
 Compact Disc ReWritable (CD-RW) is a
rewritable optical disc format. Known as CD-
Erasable (CD-E) during its development,
CD-RW was introduced in 1997, and was
preceded by the never officially released in
1988.
 They can be extended, but not selectively
overwritten, and writing sessions must be
closed before they can be read in CD-ROM
drives or players.
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Photo CD
 Photo CD is a system designed by
Kodak for digitizing and storing photos
in a CD. Launched in 1992, the discs
were designed to hold nearly 100 high
quality images, scanned prints and
slides using special proprietary
encoding.

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Advantages Of CD ROM
 Advantages of CD-ROM Access
 Cheaper
 Faster Access
 Customization
 Contents
 More Control

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Disadvantages Of CD ROM
 Maintenance Cost
 Hardware
 Software
 Expertise
 Slow Upgrade
 Limited Access

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DVD Disc
• DVD stands for digital versatile disk or
digital video disk. It is similar to CD(compact
disk) but its store data then the CD

• Data storage capacity of DVD disk

increased if the hole size is small its can
store data 4.7 GB to 17.00 GB

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History
• In 1995 Sony corporation and Toshiba
introduced DVD first time in the market

• In 1997 Americans introduced movie

storage DVD in the market

• But now a days its most commonly used in

different ways and development made day
by day.
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Recordable Optical Technology

• The record able optical technologies of DVD

Disk consist of two things DVD-R and DVD-
RW.
• DVD-R its stands for digital versatile disk
recordable. Its is similar to CD-R disk user
can write data only one time but read many
time.
• DVD-RW its stand for digital versatile disk
rewriteable user can write data on this many
times. 47
Capacity of DVD Disk

Capacity Slides & layers

4.7GB Single sided single layer

8.54GB Single sided double layer

17.08GB Double sided double layer

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Data Read & Write
 Write data both sides in DVD-RW and single
slide in DVD-R by using special data-
compression technologies and disk divided
into small tracks for storing data


 Read data the surface of a DVD contains

micro Scopic Pits, which represent the 0s
and 1s of digital code that can be read by a
laser.
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Usage of DVD Disk

• Data storage
• Video storage
• Audio storage
• Games storage

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Advantages of DVD Disk

 High storage capacity

 Rewriteable
 Store audio,video,and games
 Write data on both sides of
disk
 Easily available and handle
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 Source of record
Disadvantages Of DVD Disk
 Expensive
 Sensitive
 Data lost due to scratch
 Only run in DVD Rom
 No protection cover
 Lack of durability
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High Definition
 To better understand  Because of this
the need for media difference the
formats with greater bandwidth of HD is
storage lets briefly about 5 times greater
describe what High than standard video.
Definition is.  Currently a standard
 Your regular TV signal movie takes up almost
has about 480 pixel an entire DVD so we
lines, but HD has need something that’s
about 1280 pixel lines almost 5 times that.
that go across your TV

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Blu-ray Technology

 Name derived from

the blue-violet laser
used to read and
write data.
 Developed by the
Blu-ray Disc
Association with
more than 180
members.
 Dell
 Sony
 LG
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 Blu-ray Technology
 Data Capacity
 Because of the greatly compact data Blu-ray
can hold almost 5 times more data than a
single layer DVD. Close to 25 GB!
 Just like a DVD Blu-ray can also be recorded in
Dual-Layer format. This allows the disk to hold up
to 50 GB!!
 Because the polycarbonate layer of the Blu-ray
disc is so much larger than a DVD because the
recording layer is so much smaller it can have
even more than two layers.

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 Blu-ray Technology
 Writing Data
 Blu-ray uses a
combination of two
lenses to greatly
shrink the laser to
read the data.
 This also allows for
higher data rate
transfer close to 36
mbps.
 It could record 25 GB
of data in an hour an a
half.
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 Blu-ray Technology

 Formats

 BD-ROM (read-only) - for pre-recorded

content
 BD-R (recordable) - for PC data storage
 BD-RW (rewritable) - for PC data storage
 BD-RE (rewritable) - for HDTV recording

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 Blu-ray Integration
 Blu-ray discs are
able to record HD
without any signal
loss.
 Single layer up to 2
hours of HD video
 Dual layer up to 4.5
hours of HD video

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 Blu-ray Integration
 Security
 Blu-ray discs are
better armed than
current DVDs. They
come equipped with
a secure encryption
system -- a unique ID
that protects against
video piracy and
copyright
infringement.

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 HD DVD Technology
 Name
 Obviously comes
from the term High
Definition
 Developed by
Toshiba and NEC
 Discontinued in 1998

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 HD DVD Technology
 Data Capacity
 HD DVD uses close
to the same blue
laser that the Blu-ray
disc does. It is also
405 nanometers
wide.
 Thus allows for data
to be greatly
compressed.

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 HD DVD Technology
 Data Capacity Cont.

 Single Layer Disc

 15 GB
 Dual Layer Disc
 30 GB

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 HD DVD Technology Cont.

 Formats
 HD DVD (read-only) - for pre-recorded
content
 HD DVD-R (recordable) - for PC data
storage
 HD DVD-RAM (rewritable) - for HDTV
recording

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 HD DVD Integration
 Compatibility
 Because a lot of
home-users don’t yet
have a high definition
Television the makers
of the HD DVD disc
made it backwards
compatible by using
the twin format
scheme.

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 HD DVD Integration
 Compatibility Cont.

 But what about dual

layer??

 In order to
accommodate for the
needs of the storage
capacity of the dual
layer format the
makers designed the
combination format.
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 HD DVD Integration
 Security
 Uses the same security
feature as Blu-ray.
 Both Blu-ray and HD DVD
makers said would be
extremely hard to pirate
with this security feature.
 Eight days after HD DVD
discs hit the market a
hacker called muslix64
reportedly cracked the
security feature.

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HD DVD vs Blu-ray
 Both formats use blue lasers rather than red.

 Both have the same options for video and audio compression.

 Blu-ray offers significantly more storage space -- 50 GB on a

dual-layer disc versus HD-DVD's 30 GB.

 The DVD Forum, which creates DVD standards, has

approved HD-DVD and has not approved Blu-ray.

 HD-DVD is less expensive than Blu-ray.

 HD-DVDs can be produced on existing equipment, and Blu-

ray discs can't.
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68
REFERENCES
 CD ROM
 ^ EP patent 689208 "Method for block oriented addressing" - for
block layouts see columns 1 and 2
 ^
Data Interchange on Read-only 120 mm Optical Data Disks (CD-ROM)
. ECMA. June 1996.
http://www.ecma-international.org/publications/standards/Ecma-130.htm
. Retrieved on 2009-04-26.
 ^ Note that the CIRC error correction system used in the CD audio
format has two interleaved layers.
 ^ "Optical Media FAQs" (PDF).
http://www.memorex.com/downloads/whitepapers/WhitePaper_Reference_G
. Retrieved on 2007-01-06.
 ^ Schoen, Seth. "Harry Potter and the Digital Fingerprints", Electronic
Frontier Foundation, July 20, 2007. Retrieved October 24, 2007

69
REFERENCES
 Blu Ray and HD DVD
 ^ Evan Ramstad (1998-04-08).
"In HDTV Age, Successor to VCR Still Seems to Be a Long Way Off".
online.wsj.com.
http://online.wsj.com/article/SB891992681208651500.html?mod=googlewsj.
Retrieved on 2007-10-18.
 ^ Martyn Williams (2002-08-12).
"Opening the Door for New Storage Options". pcworld.com.
http://www.pcworld.com/article/id,103862-page,1/article.html. Retrieved on
2007-10-18.
 ^ S.B. Luitjens (2001-06-15). "Blue laser bolsters DTV storage, features".
planetanalog.com.
http://www.planetanalog.com/features/OEG20010615S0046. Retrieved on
2007-10-19.
 ^ "Sony Shows 'DVR-Blue' Prototype". cdrinfo.com. 2000-10-11.
http://www.pcworld.com/article/id,105534-page,1/article.html. Retrieved on
2007-10-17.
 ^ a b Blu-ray Disc Founders (2004-08). "White paper, Blu-ray Disc Format,

70
REFERENCES
 DVD ROM and its types
 ^ "Build Your Skills: A comparison between DVD and CD-ROM".
http://articles.techrepublic.com.com/5100-6349-1047035.html.
 ^ DVD-Workshop: University of Utah and elsewhere, e.g. as the
SD export preset for standard definition DVDs in Final Cut Pro.
 ^ [1].
 ^ "E-commerce and Video Distribution: DVD and Blu-ray".
http://ecommerceandvideodistributiondvd.blogspot.com/.
 ^ a b c The New York Times (September 7, 1997).
For the DVD, Disney Magic May Be the Key. Press release.
http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9407EEDC1730F934A3575A
. Retrieved on 2009-01-18.
 ^ "A Battle for Influence Over Insatiable Disks". New York Times.
1995-01-11.
http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=990CEEDA143CF932A2575
. Retrieved on 2007-04-09.

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REFERENCES

 Rom and its explanation

 ^ See page 6 of Toshiba's 1993
NAND Flash Applications Design Guide
.
 ^ See chapters on "Combinatorial
Digital Circuits" and "Sequential Digital
Circuits" in Millman & Grable,
Microelectronics, 2nd ed.
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REFERENCES

 Ram and its types

 ^ Strictly speaking, modern types of DRAM are
therefore not truly (or technically) random access,
as data are read in burst, although the name DRAM
/ RAM has stuck. However, many types of SRAM,
ROM, OTP, and NOR flash are still random access
even in a strict sense.
 ^ "Shadow Ram" (HTML).
http://hardwarehell.com/articles/shadowram.htm.
Retrieved on 2007-07-24.
 ^ The term was coined in
Hitting the Memory Wall: Implications of the Obvious (PD

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