Introduction to the Human Body

Anatomy and Physiology provide the foundation for understanding the bodys parts and functions

Overview
ANATOMY ( = MORPHOLOGY)
ana - up, -tomy - process of cutting up.
Anatomy was first studied by DISSECTION.

morpho = form or shape Refers to the study of STRUCTURE and the relationships among structure.

Overview
PHYSIOLOGY
Deals with FUNCTIONS of the body parts, or how they work.

Overview
Both Anatomy and Physiology are very broad topics with many subdivisions:
Anatomy subdivisions:
GROSS ANATOMY - deals with structures that can be studied without a microscope. SYSTEMIC ANATOMY - covers specific systems of the body.

Ex. Nervous system, circulatory system.

EMBRYOLOGY - development from fertilized egg to end of 8th week in utero.

Overview
Anatomy (continued)
PATHOLOGY - study of structural changes caused by disease. HISTOLOGY - microscopic study of structures of tissues. CYTOLOGY - study of cells.

Overview
Physiology subdivisions:
CELL PHYSIOLOGY - study of the functions of cells. NEUROPHYSIOLOGY - study of the functional characteristics of nerve cells. ENDOCRINOLOGY - study of hormones and how they control body functions. IMMUNOLOGY - study of the bodys defense mechanisms.

Structural Organization
For us to begin our study of the body, first we have to understand how it is organized.

Structural Organization
Beginning with the lowest level of structural organization:
1. CHEMICAL LEVEL - includes all chemical substances essential for maintaining life.
ATOMS (Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen) form MOLECULES (proteins, carbohydrates, fats)

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Structural Organization
2. CELLULAR LEVEL
Includes basic structural and functional units of the organism. MOLECULES group together to form CELLS. Cells contain specialized organelles that perform specific functions.
Ex. Mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum

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Structural Organization
3. TISSUE LEVEL
Tissues are made up of groups of similarly specialized cells and their intercellular material that work together to perform certain special functions. CELLS group together to form TISSUES.

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Structural Organization
Example of tissue: Cells of the epithelium (lining) of the stomach.
Include cells that:
Produce mucous - lubricates food as it passes through the stomach. Parietal cells - produce acid in the stomach. Chief cells produce enzymes needed to digest proteins.

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Tissues
Four basic kinds of tissues:
Epithelial Connective Muscle Nervous

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Structural Organization
4. ORGAN LEVEL
Different tissues are joined together to form an ORGAN. Organs have more or less definitive form and are composed of two or more different tissues.

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Structural Organization
Example of organ level of structural organization - STOMACH components.
A serous layer of cells (serosa) around the outside protects the stomach and reduces friction when the stomach rubs against other organs. Muscle tissues layers of the stomach contract to mix food and pass it on to next digestive organ. The epithelial layer lining the stomach produces mucus, acid, and enzymes.
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Structural Organization
5. SYSTEM LEVEL (Organ-System Level)
A SYSTEM consists of an association of organs that have a COMMON FUNCTION. Ex. Digestive System - mouth, salivary glands, pharynx (throat), esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, liver, gallbladder, pancreas.

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Structural Organization
6. ORGANISM
All parts of a body functioning with one another constitute a total ORGANISM - one living individual.

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Principal Systems of the Human Body

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Integumentary System
Components:
SKIN and structures derived from it, such as hair, nails, sweat glands, oil glands.

Functions:
Regulate body temperature. Protection. Elimination of waste. Receives stimuli such as temperature, pressure, and pain. Helps make Vitamin D.
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Skeletal System
Components:
All BONES of the body, their associated cartilages, and joints of the body.

Functions:
Supports and protects the body. Gives the body leverage. Produces blood cells. Stores minerals.
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Muscular System
Components:
All MUSCLE tissue of the body, including skeletal, visceral(), and cardiac.

Functions:
Movement. Maintains posture.

Generates heat.

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Nervous System
Components: Brain, spinal cord, nerves, and sense organs, such as the eye and ear. Functions: Regulates body activities through NERVE IMPULSES.

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Endocrine System
Components:
All glands that produce HORMONES, for example, thymus and thyroid glands.

Functions:
Regulates body activities through hormones transported by the cardiovascular system from an endocrine gland to a target organ.
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Cardiovascular System
Components:
Blood, heart, and blood vessels.

Functions:
Distributes oxygen and nutrients to cells. Carries carbon dioxide and waste from cells. Maintains the acid-base balance of the body. Protects against disease. Prevents hemorrhage by forming blood clots. Helps regulate body temperature.
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Lymphatic System
Components:
Lymph, lymph nodes, lymph vessels, and lymphatic organs, such as the spleen, thymus gland, and tonsils.

Functions:
Returns proteins to the cardiovascular system. Filters the blood. Produces blood cells. Protects against disease.
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Respiratory System
Components:
Lungs and a series of passageways leading into and out of the lungs, such as the pharynx (throat) and trachea.

Functions:
Supplies oxygen to the body. Eliminates carbon dioxide from the body.

Helps regulate the acid-base balance of the body.

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Digestive System
Components: A long tube and associated organs such as
the salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas.

Functions:
Performs physical and chemical breakdown of food for use by cells Eliminates solid wastes.

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Urinary System
Components:
Organs that produce, collect, and eliminate urine, including the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra.

Functions:
Regulates chemical composition of the blood. Eliminates wastes.

Regulates fluid and electrolyte balance and volume. Helps maintain acid-base balance of body.
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Reproductive System
Components:
Organs (testes and ovaries) that produce reproductive cells (sperm and ova) and organs that transport and store reproductive cells.

Functions:
Reproduces the organism.

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Lecture 2 Life Processes

Organisms carry on certain processes that distinguish living from non-living things.
1. METABOLISM - sum of ALL chemical processes that occur in the body.

Metabolism = catabolism +anabolism

A. CATABOLISM - breaking down large complex molecules into smaller, simpler ones. B. ANABOLISM - building up of complex chemical substances from smaller, simpler ones.
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Life Processes
2. RESPONSIVENESS - ability to detect and respond to changes in external or internal environment. 3. MOVEMENT - motion of the whole body, individual organs, single cells, or even organelles within cells. 4. GROWTH - increase in body size that results from an increase in the number or size of cells or both.
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Life Processes
5. DIFFERENTIATION - changes that a cell undergoes to develop from an unspecialized to a specialized state.
STEM cell - - - > MATURE cell

6. REPRODUCTION - formation of new cells for growth, repair, or replacement, or the production of a new individual. All of these life processes must be done at VERY CONTROLLED LEVELS.
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Homeostasis
All of the cells of the body need a relatively STABLE condition to function EFFECTIVELY. This maintenance of stable conditions for its cells is an ESSENTIAL function of every multicelled organism. This stable condition is called HOMEOSTASIS. Heart rate , blood pressure

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Homeostasis
One of the main effector mechanisms in the body for maintaining HOMEOSTASIS is the control of BODY FLUIDS.
These include:

INTRACELLULAR FLUIDS - within cells. EXTRACELLULAR FLUIDS - outside body cells.

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Homeostasis
Extracellular Fluid Types:
INTERSTITIAL fluids - ECF located BETWEEN cells. BLOOD PLASMA - ECF within blood vessels. LYMPH - ECF within lymphatic vessels. CEREBROSPINAL FLUID in brain and spinal cord. SYNOVIAL FLUID in joints. AQUEOUS HUMOR and VITREOUS HUMOR in the eyes.
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Homeostasis
If homeostasis is disturbed, ILLNESS may develop and if it is not restored, DEATH may occur.

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Homeostasis
Homeostasis is constantly disturbed by STRESS.
Defined, STRESS is any stimulus that tends to create an imbalance in the internal environment. It may be:
EXTERNAL - outside the body, ex. heat, cold, loud noises. INTERNAL - within the body, ex. low blood glucose level. Dont eat PSYCHOLOGICAL - ex. demands of work, school.

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Homeostasis
Most homeostatic mechanisms of the body are regulated by:
NERVOUS SYSTEM - detects a change, sends a message to counteract the stress. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM - a group of glands that secrete chemical regulators, called HORMONES, into the blood.

Utilizing these systems, the body can regulate its internal environment through a multitude of FEEDBACK MECHANISMS or SYSTEMS.

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Feedback Mechanisms
Feedback Systems involve a cycle of events in which information about the status of a body CONDITION is continually monitored and reported or fed back to a central control region.
Example - blood pressure, body temperature, blood glucose level.

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Feedback Mechanisms
Consists of:
1. RECEPTOR - monitors changes and sends INPUT to the CONTROL CENTER.(brain)
Any stress that changes a controlled condition is called a STIMULUS.

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Decrease heart rate

Dilate blood vessel

Lower blood pressure

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Feedback Mechanisms
Consists of:
2. CONTROL CENTER - determines the value at which some aspect of the body (CONTROLLED CONDITION) should be maintained.

Ex. blood pressure

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Feedback Systems
3. EFFECTOR - receives information, called OUTPUT, from the CONTROL CENTER and produces a RESPONSE.

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Feedback Systems
If the response REVERSES the original stimulus, the system is a NEGATIVE FEEDBACK SYSTEM. If the response ENHANCES or intensifies the original stimulus, the system is a POSITIVE FEEDBACK SYSTEM.

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Feedback Systems
Generally, negative feedback systems tend to maintain conditions that require FREQUENT adjustment within physiological limits.
Ex. Body temperature, blood glucose level. Most feedback systems in the body are NEGATIVE.

Positive feedback systems are important for conditions that DO NOT require constant finetuning.
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Disease
A DISEASE is a pathological process with a definite set of characteristics in which part or all of the body is not carrying on its normal functions.
Homeostasis is NOT IN BALANCE.

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Disease
SYMPTOMS - subjective changes in body functions that are NOT apparent to an observer.
Ex. headache, nausea, anxiety.

SIGNS - objective changes that a clinician can observe or measure.

Ex. Swelling, high blood pressure.

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Directional Terms
Anatomical Position
When a region of the body is described in an anatomical fashion, we assume the body is in the ANATOMICAL POSITION. Erect and facing the observer, arms at sides, palms of the hand are turned forward so the radius and ulna do not cross.

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Directional Terms
DIRECTIO Principles of Anatomy and Physiology, 13th Edition Tortora, Derrickson NAL TERMS are used to describe EXACTLY where body structures are positioned.

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Directional Terms
DIRECTIO Principles of Anatomy and Physiology, 13th Edition Tortora, Derrickson NAL TERMS are used to describe EXACTLY where body structures are positioned.

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Directional Terms
SUPERIOR = Cephalad = Craniad
TOWARD the head or the upper part of a structure; generally refers to structures in the trunk.
Ex. The heart is superior to the liver.

INFERIOR = Caudad
AWAY from the head or toward the lower part of a structure; generally refers to structures in the trunk.
Ex. Stomach is inferior to the lungs.
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Directional Terms
ANTERIOR = Ventral
Nearer to or at the FRONT of the body.
Ex. The sternum is anterior to the heart.

POSTERIOR = Dorsal
Nearer to or at the BACK of the body.
Ex. The esophagus is posterior to the trachea.

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Directional Terms
MEDIAL
NEARER the MIDLINE of the body or a structure.
Ex. The ulna is on the medial side of the forearm.

LATERAL
FARTHER from the MIDLINE of the body or a structure.
Ex. The lungs are lateral to the heart.

INTERMEDIATE
BETWEEN two structures.
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Directional Terms
PROXIMAL
NEARER the ATTACHMENT of an extremity to the trunk or a structure.
Ex. The humerus is proximal to the radius.

DISTAL
FARTHER from the ATTACHMENT of an extremity to the trunk or a structure.
Ex. Phalanges are distal to the carpals (wrist bones).

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Directional Terms
SUPERFICIAL
TOWARD or on the surface of the body.
Ex. Muscles of the thoracic wall are superficial to the viscera in the thoracic cavity.

DEEP = Internal
AWAY from the surface of the body.
Ex. Muscles of the arm are deep to the skin of the arm.

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Directional Terms
PARIETAL
Pertaining to the outer wall of a body cavity.
Ex. Parietal pleura surrounds the lungs.

VISCERAL
Pertaining to the covering of an organ.
Ex. The visceral pleura covers the external surface of the lungs.

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Planes
PLANES - imaginary flat surfaces that pass through body. SAGITTAL plane - runs vertically
MIDSAGITTAL (MEDIAN) Plane - through the midline of the body, runs vertically and divides the body or organs into equal right and left sides. PARASAGITTAL Plane - also runs vertically, but divides the body or organs into unequal left and right portions.
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Planes
FRONTAL (CORONAL) Plane
Runs VERTICALLY and divides the body or organs into ANTERIOR and POSTERIOR.

HORIZONTAL (TRANSVERSE) Plane

Runs PARALLEL to the ground and divides the body or organs into SUPERIOR and INFERIOR portions.

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Planes

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Planes
FRONTAL (CORONAL) Plane
Runs VERTICALLY and divides the body or organs into ANTERIOR and POSTERIOR.

HORIZONTAL (TRANSVERSE) Plane

Runs PARALLEL to the ground and divides the body or organs into SUPERIOR and INFERIOR portions.

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Body Cavities
Spaces within the body that contain internal organs are called BODY CAVITIES:
Two principal cavities:
1. DORSAL BODY CAVITY 2. VENTRAL BODY CAVITY

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CAVITY

COMMENTS
Formed by cranial bones and contains brain. Formed by vertebral column and contains spinal cord and the beginnings of spinal nerves.
contains pleural and pericardial cavities and mediastinum Each surrounds a lung; the serous membrane of each pleural cavity is the pleura. Surrounds the heart; the serous membrane of the pericardial cavity is the pericardium Central portion of thoracic cavity between the lungs; extends from sternum to vertebral column and from first rib to diaphragm; contains heart, thymus, esophagus, trachea, and several large blood vessels. Subdivided into abdominal and pelvic cavities. Contains stomach, spleen, liver, gallbladder, small intestine, and most of large intestine; the serous membrane of the abdominal cavity is the peritoneum.

Cranial cavity Vertebral canal

Thoracic cavity (Chest cavity) Pleural cavity Pericardial cavity Mediastinum

diaphragm
Abdominopelvic Cavity Abdominal cavity

Pelvic cavity

Contains urinary bladder, portions of large intestine, and internal organs of reproduction.
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CAVITY

COMMENTS
Formed by cranial bones and contains brain. Formed by vertebral column and contains spinal cord and the beginnings of spinal nerves.
contains pleural and pericardial cavities and mediastinum Each surrounds a lung; the serous membrane of each pleural cavity is the pleura. Surrounds the heart; the serous membrane of the pericardial cavity is the pericardium Central portion of thoracic cavity between the lungs; extends from sternum to vertebral column and from first rib to diaphragm; contains heart, thymus, esophagus, trachea, and several large blood vessels. Subdivided into abdominal and pelvic cavities. Contains stomach, spleen, liver, gallbladder, small intestine, and most of large intestine; the serous membrane of the abdominal cavity is the peritoneum.

Cranial cavity Vertebral canal

Thoracic cavity (Chest cavity) Pleural cavity Pericardial cavity Mediastinum

diaphragm
Abdominopelvic Cavity Abdominal cavity

Pelvic cavity

Contains urinary bladder, portions of large intestine, and internal organs of reproduction.
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Body Cavities Dorsal Body Cavity

Located near the posterior (dorsal) surface of the body. Divided into: A. CRANIAL CAVITY - a bony cavity formed by
cranial (skull) bones and contains the brain.

B. VERTEBRAL or SPINAL CANAL bony cavity

formed by the vertebrae of the backbone and contains the spinal cord and beginnings of the spinal nerves.

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Body Cavities
Ventral Body Cavity = COELOM
A thin tissue layer called a SEROUS MEMBRANE lines the wall of the ventral body cavity and covers the organs within it. Located on the anterior (ventral) aspect of the body. Organs inside the ventral body cavity are called VISCERA. Ventral body cavity walls are composed of skin, connective tissue, bone, muscles, and serous membranes.
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Body Cavities
Ventral Body Cavity can be divided into:
A. THORACIC CAVITY - chest cavity, upper portion. B. ABDOMINOPELVIC CAVITY - lower portion. What divides the ventral body cavity into thoracic and abdominopelvic components?

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Body Cavities
Thoracic Cavity contains:
TWO PLEURAL CAVITIES - each containing a lung.
The cavity itself is composed of the small, fluid-filled space between the part of the serous membrane that covers the lung and the part that lines the wall of the thoracic cavity. The Serous membrane associated with the lungs is called the PLEURA.

PARIETAL versus VISCERAL pleura.

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plane

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Body Cavities
Thoracic Cavity
MEDIASTINUM - mass of tissue between the pleura of the lungs that extends from the sternum to the vertebral column.
Includes almost all of the contents of the thoracic cavity, except lungs.

PERICARDIAL CAVITY - encloses heart.

VISCERAL versus PARIETAL PERICARDIUM.

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Body Cavities

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Body Cavities

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) Plane

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Body Cavities
Abdominopelvic Cavity:
1. ABDOMINAL CAVITY - contains stomach, spleen, liver, gallbladder, pancreas, small intestine, most of the large intestine, kidneys, and ureters.
The serous membrane associated with the abdominal cavity is called the PERITONEUM. PARIETAL versus VISCERAL peritoneum.

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Body Cavities
Abdominopelvic Cavity(peritonium)
1. ABDOMINAL CAVITY - contains stomach, spleen, liver, gallbladder, pancreas, small intestine, most of the large intestine, kidneys, and ureters. The serous membrane associated with the abdominal cavity is called the PERITONEUM.
PARIETAL versus VISCERAL peritoneum.

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CAVITY

COMMENTS
Formed by cranial bones and contains brain. Formed by vertebral column and contains spinal cord and the beginnings of spinal nerves.
contains pleural and pericardial cavities and mediastinum Each surrounds a lung; the serous membrane of each pleural cavity is the pleura. Surrounds the heart; the serous membrane of the pericardial cavity is the pericardium Central portion of thoracic cavity between the lungs; extends from sternum to vertebral column and from first rib to diaphragm; contains heart, thymus, esophagus, trachea, and several large blood vessels. Subdivided into abdominal and pelvic cavities. Contains stomach, spleen, liver, gallbladder, small intestine, and most of large intestine; the serous membrane of the abdominal cavity is the peritoneum.

Cranial cavity Vertebral canal

Thoracic cavity (Chest cavity) Pleural cavity Pericardial cavity Mediastinum

Abdominopelvic Cavity peritoneum Abdominal cavity peritoneum

Pelvic cavity

Contains urinary bladder, portions of large intestine, and internal organs of reproduction.

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Body Cavities
Abdominopelvic Cavity
PELVIC CAVITY - lower portion. Contains the urinary bladder, sigmoid colon, rectum, and internal male or female reproductive organs.

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Abdominopelvic Regions and Quadrants

The abdominopelvic cavity is divided into NINE REGIONS for anatomical studies.
Right and left HYPOCHONDRIAC regions, EPIGASTRIC region between them. Right and left LUMBAR regions, UMBILICAL between them. Right and left INGUINAL (ILIAC) regions, HYPOGASTRIC (PUBIC) region between them.

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abdominopelvic regions

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abdominopelvic regions

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Abdominopelvic Regions and Quadrants

The abdominopelvic area may also be divided into FOUR QUADRANTS for locating pain, tumor, or other abnormalities.
Right upper quadrant (RUQ) Left upper quadrant (LUQ) Right lower quadrant (RLQ) Left lower quadrant (LLQ)

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Medical Imaging
Various kinds of medical imaging procedures all anatomists to visualize structures inside the bodies and are used to diagnose a variety of disorders.

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