Transform Analysis of

LTI systems

Content
The Frequency Response of LTI systems
Systems Characterized by Constant-
Coefficient Difference Equations
Frequency Response for Rational System
Functions
Relationship btw Magnitude and Phase
Allpass Systems
Minimum-Phase Systems
Generalized Linear-Phase Systems
Transform Analysis of
LTI systems
Frequency Response
of LTI systems
Time-Invariant System
h(n)


x(n)
y(n)=x(n)*h(n)
X(z) Y(z)=X(z)H(z)
H(z)
Frequency Response
) ( ) ( ) ( z X z H z Y =
) ( ) ( ) (
e e e
=
j j j
e X e H e Y
| ) ( | | ) ( | | ) ( |
e e e
=
j j j
e X e H e Y
| ) ( | | ) ( | | ) ( |
e e e
+Z Z = Z
j j j
e X e H e Y
Magnitude
Phase
Ideal Frequency-Selective Filters
t t
e
c
e
c
e
) (
e j
lp
e H

t s e < e
e < e
=
e
c
c
j
lp
e H
0
| | 1
) (
n
n
n h
c
lp
t
e
=
sin
) (
Ideal Lowpass
Filter
Computationally
Unrealizable
Ideal Frequency-Selective Filters

t s e < e
e < e
=
e
c
c
j
hp
e H
1
| | 0
) (
n
n
n
n h n n h
c
hp hp
t
e
o =
o =
sin
) (
) ( ) ( ) (
Ideal Highpass
Filter
Computationally
Unrealizable
t t
e
c
e
c
e
) (
e j
hp
e H
Such filters are
Noncausal
Zero phase
Not Computationally realizable
Causal approximation of ideal frequency-
selective filters must have nonzero phase
response.
Ideal Frequency-Selective Filters
Phase Distortion and Delay ---
Ideal Delay
) ( ) (
d id
n n n h o = ( )
d
j n j
id
H e e
e e
=
1 | ) ( | =
e j
id
e H
t < e e = Z
e
| | ) (
d
j
id
n e H
Delay Distortion
Linear Phase
Delay Distortion would be considered a rather
mild form of phase distortion.
Phase Distortion and Delay ---
A Linear Phase Ideal Filter
Still a noncausal one.
Not computationally realizable.

t s e < e
e < e
=
e
e
c
c
n j
j
lp
d
e
e H
0
| |
) (
< <
t
e
= n
n n
n n
n h
d
d c
lp
,
) (
) ( sin
) (
A convenient measure of the linearity of phase.
Definition:
Phase Distortion and Delay ---
Group Delay
)]} ( {arg[ )] ( [ ) (
e e
e
= = e t
j j
e H
d
d
e H grd
Linear Phase t(e)=constant
The deviation of t(e) away from a constant
indicates the degree of nonlinearity of the
phase.
Transform Analysis of
LTI systems

Systems Characterized
by
Constant-Coefficient
Difference Equations
N
th
-Order Difference Equation

= =
=
M
r
r
N
k
k
r n x b k n y a
0 0
) ( ) (

=

=
M
r
r
r
N
k
k
k
z b z X z a z Y
0 0
) ( ) (

= =
=

N
k
k
k
M
r
r
r
z a
z b
z X
z Y
z H
0
0
) (
) (
) (
Representation in Factored Form
[
[
=

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
N
k
r
M
r
r
z d
z c
a
b
z H
1
1
1
1
0
0
) 1 (
) 1 (
) (
Contributes poles at 0 and zeros at c
r
Contributes zeros at 0 and poles at d
r
Example
) 1 )( 1 (
) 1 (
) (
1
4
3
1
2
1
2 1

+
+
=
z z
z
z H
) (
) (
1
2 1
) (
2
8
3
1
4
1
2 1
z X
z Y
z z
z z
z H =
+
+
=


) ( ) 2 1 ( ) ( ) 1 (
2 1 2
8
3
1
4
1
z X z z z Y z z

+ = +
) 2 ( ) 1 ( 2 ) ( ) 2 ( ) 1 ( ) (
8
3
4
1
+ = + n x n x n x n y n y n y
Two zeros at z = 1

poles at
z =1/2 and z = 3/4
For a given ration of polynomials,
different choice of ROC will lead to
different impulse response.
We want to find the proper one to build a
causal and stable system.

How?
Stability and Causality
For Causality:
ROC of H(z) must be outside the outermost pole
For Stability:
ROC includes the unit circle
For both
All poles are inside the unit circle
Stability and Causality
Example:
Stability and Causality
) 2 1 )( 1 (
1

1
1
) (
1 1
2
1
2 1
2
5



=
+
=
z z
z z
z H
) ( ) 2 ( ) 1 ( ) (
2
5
n x n y n y n y = +
Re
Im
1
Discuss its stability and causality
Inverse Systems
H(z)
X(z) Y(z)
H
i
(z)
X(z)


G(z)= H(z)H
i
(z)=1
g(n) = h(n)* h
i
(n) = o(n)
) (
1
) (
z H
z H
i
=
Inverse Systems
H(z)
X(z) Y(z)
H
i
(z)
X(z)


G(z)= H(z)H
i
(z)=1
g(n) = h(n)* h
i
(n) = o(n)
) (
1
) (
z H
z H
i
=
Does every system have an inverse system?
Give an example.
Inverse Systems
[
[
=

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
N
k
r
M
r
r
z d
z c
a
b
z H
1
1
1
1
0
0
) 1 (
) 1 (
) (
[
[
=

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
M
k
r
N
r
r
i
z c
z d
b
a
z H
1
1
1
1
0
0
) 1 (
) 1 (
) (
Zeros
Poles
Zeros
Poles
Minimum-Phase Systems
A LTI system is stable and causal and also
has a stable and causal inverse iff both poles
and zeros of H(z) are inside the unit circle.

Such systems are referred to as minimum-phase
systems.
Impulse Response for Rational
System Functions
By partial fraction expansion:

=
=

N
k
k
k
M
r
r
r
z a
z b
z H
0
0
) (

+ =
=

N
k
k
k
N M
r
r
r
z d
A
z B z H
1
1
0
1
) (

+ o =
=

N
k
n
k k
N M
r
r
n u d A r n B n h
1
0
) ( ) ( ) (
FIR and IIR

+ =
=

N
k
k
k
N M
r
r
r
z d
A
z B z H
1
1
0
1
) (

+ o =
=

N
k
n
k k
N M
r
r
n u d A r n B n h
1
0
) ( ) ( ) (
Zero poles
nonzero
poles
FIR and IIR

+ =
=

N
k
k
k
N M
r
r
r
z d
A
z B z H
1
1
0
1
) (

+ o =
=

N
k
n
k k
N M
r
r
n u d A r n B n h
1
0
) ( ) ( ) (
Zero poles
nonzero
poles
FIR:
The system contains
only zero poles.
FIR and IIR

+ =
=

N
k
k
k
N M
r
r
r
z d
A
z B z H
1
1
0
1
) (

+ o =
=

N
k
n
k k
N M
r
r
n u d A r n B n h
1
0
) ( ) ( ) (
Zero poles
nonzero
poles
IIR:
The system contains
nonzero poles (not
canceled by zeros).
FIR

=
M
k
k
k
z b z H
0
) (

s s
= o =
M
k
n
k
otherwise
M n b
k n b n h
0
0
0
) ( ) (

=
=
M
k
k
k n x b n y
0
) ( ) (
Example:FIR

s s
=
otherwise
M n a
n h
n
0
0
) (
1
1 1
1
1 1
0
1
1
1
) ( 1
) (

+

+
=

= =

az
z a
az
az
z a z H
M M M
M
n
n n
Does this system have
nonzero pole?
7th-order
pole
M=7
One pole is
canceled by
zero here.
Example:FIR

s s
=
otherwise
M n a
n h
n
0
0
) (
Write its system function.
7th-order
pole
M=7
) ( ) (
0
k n x a n y
M
k
k
=

=
) 1 ( ) ( ) 1 ( ) (
1
=
+
M n x a n x n ay n y
M
Example:IIR
) ( ) 1 ( ) ( n x n ay n y =
1
1
1
) (

=
az
z H
) ( ) ( n u a n h
n
=
Transform Analysis of
LTI systems
Frequency Response
of For Rational
System Functions
Rational Systems
0
0
( )
M
k
k
k
N
k
k
k
b z
H z
a z

=
=

=
e
=
e
e
=
N
k
k j
k
M
k
k j
k
j
e a
e b
e H
0
0
) (
[
[
=
e
=
e
e

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
N
k
j
k
M
k
j
k
j
e d
e c
a
b
e H
1
1
0
0
) 1 (
) 1 (
) (
Log Magnitude of H(e
je
) ---
Decibels (dBs)
[
[
=
e
=
e
e

=
N
k
j
k
M
k
j
k
j
e d
e c
a
b
e H
1
1
0
0
1
1
| ) ( |
Gain in dB = 20log
10
|H(e
je
)|

=
e
=
e e
+ =
N
k
j
k
M
k
j
k
j
e d e c
a
b
e H
1
10
1
10
0
0
10 10
1 log 20 1 log 20 log 20 | ) ( | log 20


Scaling


Contributed by zeros


Contributed by poles
Advantages of Representing the
magnitude in dB
) ( ) ( ) (
e e e
=
j j j
e X e H e Y
| ) ( | | ) ( | | ) ( |
e e e
=
j j j
e X e H e Y
| ) ( | log 20 | ) ( | log 20 | ) ( | log 20
10 10 10
e e e
+ =
j j j
e X e H e Y


The magnitude of
Output FT



The Magnitude
Of Impulse Response



The magnitude of
Input FT
Phase for Rational Systems

=
e
=
e e
Z Z +
|
|
.
|

\
|
Z = Z
N
k
j
k
M
k
j
k
j
e d e c
a
b
e H
1 1
0
0
) 1 ( ) 1 ( ) (

=
e
=
e e

e

e
=
M
k
j
k
N
k
j
k
j
e c
d
d
e d
d
d
e H grd
1 1
) 1 arg( ) 1 arg( )] ( [

=
e
e
=
e
e
e
+

+

=
M
k
j
k k
j
k k
N
k
j
k k
j
k k
j
e c c
e c c
e d d
e d d
e H grd
1
2
2
1
2
2
} { 2 | | 1
} { | |
} { 2 | | 1
} { | |
)] ( [
Re
Re
Re
Re
Systems with a Single Zero or Pole
1
1
u
z re
j
1
1
1
u
z re
j
r
u
r
u
Frequency Response of a Single
Zero or Pole
1
1
u
z re
j
1
1
1
u
z re
j
e u e
=
j j j
e re e H 1 ) (
e u
e

=
j j
j
e re
e H
1
1
) (
Frequency Response of a Single Zero
1
1
u
z re
j
e u e
=
j j j
e re e H 1 ) (
) 1 )( 1 ( | ) ( |
2 e u e u e
=
j j j j j
e re e re e H
) cos( 2 1
2
u e + = r r
)] cos( 2 1 [ log 10 | ) ( | log 20
2
10 10
u e + =
e
r r e H
j
Frequency Response of a Single Zero
1
1
u
z re
j
e u e
=
j j j
e re e H 1 ) (
) 1 )( 1 ( | ) ( |
2 e u e u e
=
j j j j j
e re e re e H
) cos( 2 1
2
u e + = r r
)] cos( 2 1 [ log 10 | ) ( | log 20
2
10 10
u e + =
e
r r e H
j
|H(e
je
)|
2
:
Its maximum is at eu=t.
max |H(e
je
)|
2
=(1+r)
2
Its minimum is at eu=0.
min |H(e
je
)|
2
=(1r)
2
Frequency Response of a Single Zero
1
1
u
z re
j
e u e
=
j j j
e re e H 1 ) (
|
|
.
|

\
|
u e
u e
= Z
e
) cos( 1
) sin(
tan ) (
1
r
r
e H
j
2
2
2
2
| ) ( |
) cos(
) cos( 2 1
) cos(
)] ( [
e
e
u e
=
u e +
u e
=
j
j
e H
r r
r r
r r
e H grd
Frequency Response of a Single Zero
r = 0.9
u = 0
r = 0.9
u = t/2
r = 0.9
u = t
-2 0 2
-20
-10
0
10
d
B
-2 0 2
-2
0
2
R
a
d
i
a
n
s
-2 0 2
-10
-5
0
5
S
a
m
p
l
e
s
-2 0 2
-20
-10
0
10
-2 0 2
-2
0
2
-2 0 2
-10
-5
0
5
-2 0 2
-20
-10
0
10
-2 0 2
-2
0
2
-2 0 2
-10
-5
0
5
r = 0.9
u = 0
r = 0.9
u = t/2
r = 0.9
u = t
-2 0 2
-20
-10
0
10
d
B
-2 0 2
-2
0
2
R
a
d
i
a
n
s
-2 0 2
-10
-5
0
5
S
a
m
p
l
e
s
-2 0 2
-20
-10
0
10
-2 0 2
-2
0
2
-2 0 2
-10
-5
0
5
-2 0 2
-20
-10
0
10
-2 0 2
-2
0
2
-2 0 2
-10
-5
0
5
Frequency Response of a Single Zero
e=u(1r)
2
r = 0.9
u = 0
r = 0.9
u = t/2
r = 0.9
u = t
-2 0 2
-20
-10
0
10
d
B
-2 0 2
-2
0
2
R
a
d
i
a
n
s
-2 0 2
-10
-5
0
5
S
a
m
p
l
e
s
-2 0 2
-20
-10
0
10
-2 0 2
-2
0
2
-2 0 2
-10
-5
0
5
-2 0 2
-20
-10
0
10
-2 0 2
-2
0
2
-2 0 2
-10
-5
0
5
Frequency Response of a Single Zero
|eu|=t(1+r)
2
r = 0.9
u = 0
r = 0.9
u = t/2
r = 0.9
u = t
-2 0 2
-20
-10
0
10
d
B
-2 0 2
-2
0
2
R
a
d
i
a
n
s
-2 0 2
-10
-5
0
5
S
a
m
p
l
e
s
-2 0 2
-20
-10
0
10
-2 0 2
-2
0
2
-2 0 2
-10
-5
0
5
-2 0 2
-20
-10
0
10
-2 0 2
-2
0
2
-2 0 2
-10
-5
0
5
Frequency Response of a Single Zero
e=uphase

Frequency Response of a Single Zero
-2 0 2
-20
-10
0
10
-2 0 2
-4
-2
0
2
4
-2 0 2
0
5
10
-2 0 2
-20
-10
0
10
d
B
-2 0 2
-4
-2
0
2
4
R
a
d
i
a
n
s
-2 0 2
0
5
10
S
a
m
p
l
e
s
r=1/0.9
r=1.25
r=1.5
r=2
u = 0 u = t
Zero outside
the unit circle
Note that the group
delay is always
positive when r>1
Frequency Response of a Single Zero
-2 0 2
-40
-20
0
20
d
B
-2 0 2
-4
-2
0
2
4
R
a
d
i
a
n
s
-2 0 2
-100
-50
0
50
S
a
m
p
l
e
s
-2 0 2
-40
-20
0
20
-2 0 2
-4
-2
0
2
4
-2 0 2
-100
-50
0
50
Some zeros inside
the unit circle
And some outside
Frequency Response of a Single Pole
The converse of the single-zero case.
Why?
A stable system: r < 1

Excise: Use matlab to plot the frequency
responses for various cases.
Frequency Response of
Multiple Zero and Poles
Using additive method to compute
Magnitude
Phase
Group Delay
Example
Multiple Zero and Poles
) 7957 . 0 4461 . 1 1 )( 683 . 0 1 (
) 0166 . 1 1 )( 1 ( 05634 . 0
) (
2 1 1
2 1 1


+
+ +
=
z z z
z z z
z H
zeros
Radius Angle
1 t
1 1.0376 (59.45)
poles
Radius Angle
0.683 0
0.892 0.6257 (35.85)
Example
Multiple Zero and Poles
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
-100
-50
0
d
B
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
-4
-2
0
2
4
R
a
d
i
a
n
s
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
0
5
10
S
a
m
p
l
e
s
zeros
Radius Angle
1 t
1 1.0376 (59.45)
poles
Radius Angle
0.683 0
0.892 0.6257 (35.85)
Transform Analysis of
LTI systems
Relationship btw
Magnitude and Phase
Magnitude and Phase
Know magnitude Know Phase?
Know Phase Know Magnitude?
In general, knowledge about the magnitude provides
no information about the phase, and vice versa.
Except when
Magnitude
) ( * ) ( | ) ( |
2 e e e
=
j j j
e H e H e H
e
=
=
j
e z
z H z H *) / 1 ( * ) (
[
[
=

=
N
k
k
M
k
k
z d a
z c b
z H
1
1
0
1
1
0
) 1 (
) 1 (
) (
*
*
0 0
1 1
*
0 0
1 1
(1 *) (1 )
*(1/ *)
(1 *) (1 )
M M
k k
k k
N N
k k
k k
b c z b c z
H z
a d z a d z
= =
= =
| |

|
|
= =
|

|
\ .
[ [
[ [
Magnitude
) ( * ) ( ) ( z H z H z C =
[
[
=

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
N
k
k k
M
k
k k
z d z d
z c z c
a
b
1
* 1
1
* 1
2
0
0
) 1 )( 1 (
) 1 )( 1 (
[
[
=

=
N
k
k
M
k
k
z d a
z c b
z H
1
1
0
1
1
0
) 1 (
) 1 (
) (
*
*
0 0
1 1
*
0 0
1 1
(1 *) (1 )
*(1/ *)
(1 *) (1 )
M M
k k
k k
N N
k k
k k
b c z b c z
H z
a d z a d z
= =
= =
| |

|
|
= =
|

|
\ .
[ [
[ [
Magnitude
[
[
=

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
N
k
k k
M
k
k k
z d z d
z c z c
a
b
z C
1
* 1
1
* 1
2
0
0
) 1 )( 1 (
) 1 )( 1 (
) (
Zeros of H(z):
Poles of H(z):
k
c
k
d
Zeros of C(z):
Poles of C(z):
*
/ 1 and
k k
c c
*
/ 1 and
k k
d d
Conjugate reciprocal pairs
Magnitude
[
[
=

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
N
k
k k
M
k
k k
z d z d
z c z c
a
b
z C
1
* 1
1
* 1
2
0
0
) 1 )( 1 (
) 1 )( 1 (
) (
Given C(z), H(z)=?
How many choices if the
numbers of zeros and poles
are fixed?
Allpass Factors
1
1
1
*
) (

=
az
a z
z H
ap
a
1/a*
Pole at a
Zero at 1/a*
Allpass Factors
1
1
1
*
) (

=
az
a z
z H
ap
e
e
e

=
j
j
j
ap
ae
a e
e H
1
*
) (
e
e
e

=
j
j
j
ae
e a
e
1
* 1
1 | ) ( | =
e j
ap
e H
Allpass Factors
H
1
(z)
H
1
(z) H
ap
(z)
) ( ) ( ) (
1
z H z H z H
ap
=
| ) ( | | ) ( |
1
z H z H =
There are infinite many systems to
have the same frequency-response
magnitude?
Transform Analysis of
LTI systems
Allpass Systems
General Form
[ [
=


=

=
c r
M
k
k k
k k
M
k
k
k
ap
z e z e
e z e z
z d
d z
z H
1
1 * 1
1 * 1
1
1
1
) 1 )( 1 (
) )( (
1
) (


Real Poles


Complex Poles
k
d
k
d / 1
k
e
*
k
e
k
e / 1
*
/ 1
k
e
|H
ap
(e
je
)|=1
Z|H
ap
(e
je
)|=?
grd[H
ap
(e
je
)]=?
AllPass Factor
1
1
1
*
) (

=
az
a z
z H
af
Consider a=re
ju
e u
u e
e

=
j j
j j
j
af
e re
re e
e H
1
) (
(

u e
u e
e = Z
e
) cos( 1
) sin(
tan 2 ) (
1
r
r
e H
j
af
2
2
2
2
| 1 |
1
) cos( 2 1
1
)] ( [
e u
e

=
u e +

=
j j
j
af
e re
r
r
r
e H grd
Always positive
for a stable and
causal system.
Example: AllPass Factor
Real poles
-2 0 2
-1
0
1
d
B
-2 0 2
-5
0
5
R
a
d
i
a
n
s
-2 0 2
0
10
20
S
a
m
p
l
e
s
-2 0 2
-1
0
1
d
B
-2 0 2
-5
0
5
R
a
d
i
a
n
s
-2 0 2
0
10
20
S
a
m
p
l
e
s
0.9 0.9
Example: AllPass Factor
Real Poles
-2 0 2
-1
0
1
d
B
-2 0 2
-5
0
5
R
a
d
i
a
n
s
-2 0 2
0
10
20
S
a
m
p
l
e
s
-2 0 2
-1
0
1
d
B
-2 0 2
-5
0
5
R
a
d
i
a
n
s
-2 0 2
0
10
20
S
a
m
p
l
e
s
Phase is
nonpositive
for 0<e<t.
Group delay is
positive
0.9 0.9
Example: AllPass Factor
Complex Poles
-2 0 2
-1
0
1
d
B
-2 0 2
-5
0
5
R
a
d
i
a
n
s
-2 0 2
0
10
20
S
a
m
p
l
e
s
t/4
Continuous phase
is nonpositive
for 0<e<t.
Group delay is
positive
-2 0 2
-1
0
1
d
B
-2 0 2
-5
0
5
R
a
d
i
a
n
s
-2 0 2
0
5
10
15
S
a
m
p
l
e
s
Example: AllPass Factor
Complex Poles
t/4
1/2 3/4 4/3
Continuous phase
is nonpositive
for 0<e<t.
Group delay is
positive
Transform Analysis of
LTI systems
Minimum-Phase
Systems
Properties of Minimum-Phase Systems
To have a stable and causal inverse systems
Minimum phase delay
Minimum group delay
Minimum energy delay
Rational Systems vs.
Minimum-Phase Systems
H(z)
H
min
(z) H
ap
(z)
) ( ) ( ) ( z H z H z H
ap min
=
How?
Rational Systems vs.
Minimum-Phase Systems
H(z)
H
min
(z)
H
ap
(z)
Rational Systems vs.
Minimum-Phase Systems
H(z)
H
min
(z)
H
ap
(z)
Pole/zero
Canceled
Frequency-Response Compensation
s(n)
Distorting
System

H
d
(z)
s
d
(n)
Compensatiing
System

H
c
(z)
s(n)
The inverse system of H
d
(z) iff
it is a minimum-phase system.
Frequency-Response Compensation
s(n)
Distorting
System

H
d
(z)
s
d
(n)
Compensatiing
System

H
c
(z)
s(n)
Distorting
System

H
dmin
(z)
Allpass
System

H
ap
(z)
s(n) s
d
(n)
Compensatiing
System
1
H
dmin
(z)
) (

n s
Frequency-Response Compensation
Distorting
System

H
dmin
(z)
Allpass
System

H
ap
(z)
s(n) s
d
(n)
Compensatiing
System
1
H
dmin
(z)
) (

n s
H
d
(z)


H
c
(z)


) (
) (
1
) ( ) ( z H
z H
z H z H
ap
dmin
ap dmin
= =
) ( ) ( ) ( z H z H z G
c d
=
Example:
Frequency-Response Compensation
) 25 . 1 1 )( 25 . 1 1 (
) 9 . 0 1 )( 9 . 0 1 ( ) (
1 8 . 0 1 8 . 0
1 6 . 0 1 6 . 0
t t
t t

=
z e z e
z e z e z H
j j
j j
4
th
order
pole
Example:
Frequency-Response Compensation
4
th
order
pole
-2 0 2
-20
0
20
40
d
B
-2 0 2
-5
0
5
R
a
d
i
a
n
s
-2 0 2
-10
0
10
S
a
m
p
l
e
s
Example:
Frequency-Response Compensation
) 8 . 0 1 )( 8 . 0 1 (
) 9 . 0 1 )( 9 . 0 1 ( ) 25 . 1 ( ) (
1 8 . 0 1 8 . 0
1 6 . 0 1 6 . 0 2
t t
t t

=
z e z e
z e z e z H
j j
j j
4
th
order
pole
Example:
Frequency-Response Compensation
4
th
order
pole
-2 0 2
-20
0
20
40
d
B
-2 0 2
-5
0
5
R
a
d
i
a
n
s
-2 0 2
-10
-5
0
5
S
a
m
p
l
e
s
Example:
Frequency-Response Compensation
-2 0 2
-20
0
20
40
d
B
-2 0 2
-5
0
5
R
a
d
i
a
n
s
-2 0 2
-10
-5
0
5
S
a
m
p
l
e
s
-2 0 2
-20
0
20
40
d
B
-2 0 2
-5
0
5
R
a
d
i
a
n
s
-2 0 2
-10
0
10
S
a
m
p
l
e
s
Minimum Phase Nonminimum Phase
Minimum Phase-Lag
) ( ) ( ) (
e e e
=
j
ap
j
min
j
e H e H e H
) ( ) ( ) (
e e e
Z + Z = Z
j
ap
j
min
j
e H e H e H



Nonpositive
For 0sest
more
negative than
Minimum Group-Delay
) ( ) ( ) (
e e e
=
j
ap
j
min
j
e H e H e H
)] ( [ )] ( [ )] ( [
e e e
+ =
j
ap
j
min
j
e H grd e H grd e H grd



Nonnegative
For 0sest
more
positive than
Minimum-Energy Delay
) ( ) ( ) ( z H z H z H
ap min
=
| ) 0 ( | | ) 0 ( |
min
h h <
Apply initial value theorem
Transform Analysis of
LTI systems
Generalized
Linear-Phase Systems
Linear Phase
Linear phase with integer (negative slope) ---
simple delay
Generalization: constant group delay
Example: Ideal Delay
t < e =
eo e
| | , ) (
j j
id
e e H
1 | ) ( | =
e j
id
e H eo = Z
e
) (
j
id
e H
o =
e
)] ( [
j
id
e H grd
< <
o t
o t
= n
n
n
n h ,
) (
) ( sin
) (
Example: Ideal Delay
t < e =
eo e
| | , ) (
j j
id
e e H
1 | ) ( | =
e j
id
e H eo = Z
e
) (
j
id
e H
o =
e
)] ( [
j
id
e H grd
< <
o t
o t
= n
n
n
n h ,
) (
) ( sin
) (
t t
e
1
t
t
e
|H(e
je
)|
ZH(e
je
)
Example: Ideal Delay
-5 0 5 10 15
-0.5
0
0.5
1
< <
o t
o t
= n
n
n
n h ,
) (
) ( sin
) (
If o=n
d
(e.g., o=5) is an integer, h(n)=o(nn
d
).
Impulse response is symmetric about
n = n
d
, i.e., h(2n
d
n)=h(n).
Example: Ideal Delay
< <
o t
o t
= n
n
n
n h ,
) (
) ( sin
) (
The case for 2o (e.g., o=4.5) is an integer.
-5 0 5 10 15
-0.5
0
0.5
1
h(2on)=h(n).
Example: Ideal Delay
< <
o t
o t
= n
n
n
n h ,
) (
) ( sin
) (
o as an arbitrary number (e.g., o=4.3).
-5 0 5 10
-0.5
0
0.5
1
Asymmetry
More General Frequency Response
with Linear Phase
t < e =
eo e e
| | , | ) ( | ) (
j j j
e e H e H
|H(e
je
)| e
jeo

Zero-phase
filter
Ideal delay
More General Frequency Response
with Linear Phase
t < e =
eo e e
| | , | ) ( | ) (
j j j
e e H e H
|H(e
je
)| e
jeo

Zero-phase
filter
Ideal delay
t t
e
1
t
t
e
|H(e
je
)|
ZH(e
je
)
e
c
e
c
Example:
Ideal Lowpass Filter

t s e < e
e < e
=
eo
e
c
c
j
j
lp
e
e H
| | 0
| |
) (
< <
o t
o e
= n
n
n
n h
c
lp
,
) (
) ( sin
) (
Example:
Ideal Lowpass Filter
< <
o t
o e
= n
n
n
n h
c
lp
,
) (
) ( sin
) (
Show that
If 2o is an interger, h(2o n)=h(n).
That is, it has the same symmetric
property as an ideal delay.
Generalized Linear Phase Systems
| + eo e e
=
j j j j
e e A e H ) ( ) (



Real function.
Possibly bipolar.



oand |
oare constants
eo | = Z
e
) (
j
e H
o =
e
)] ( [
j
e H grd
h(n) vs. o and |
| + eo e e
=
j j j j
e e A e H ) ( ) (
) sin( ) ( ) cos( ) ( eo | + eo | =
e e j j
e jA e A
n j
n
j
e n h e H
e

=
e

= ) ( ) (
n n h j n n h
n n
e e =


=

=
sin ) ( cos ) (
h(n) vs. o and |
) sin( ) ( ) cos( ) ( ) ( eo | + eo | =
e e e j j j
e jA e A e H
n n h j n n h e H
n n
j
e e =


=

=
e
sin ) ( cos ) ( ) (
) cos(
) sin(
) tan(
eo |
eo |
= eo |
n n h
n n h
n
n
e
e
=

=
cos ) (
sin ) (
h(n) vs. o and |
) sin( ) ( ) cos( ) ( ) ( eo | + eo | =
e e e j j j
e jA e A e H
n n h j n n h e H
n n
j
e e =


=

=
e
sin ) ( cos ) ( ) (
) cos(
) sin(
) tan(
eo |
eo |
= eo |
n n h
n n h
n
n
e
e
=

=
cos ) (
sin ) (
h(n) vs. o and |
) cos(
) sin(
) tan(
eo |
eo |
= eo |
n n h
n n h
n
n
e
e
=

=
cos ) (
sin ) (
0 ) cos( sin ) ( ) sin( cos ) ( = eo | e + eo | e


=

=
n n h n n h
n n
0 ) ) ( sin( ) ( = | + o e

=
n n h
n
Necessary Condition for
Generalized Linear Phase Systems
0 ) ) ( sin( ) ( = | + o e

=
n n h
n
| + eo e e
=
j j j j
e e A e H ) ( ) (
Lets consider special cases.
Necessary Condition for
Generalized Linear Phase Systems
0 ) ) ( sin( ) ( = | + o e

=
n n h
n
|=0 or t
2o = M = an integer
0 ) ( sin ) ( = o e

=
n n h
n
|=0 or t
0 ) ( sin ) 2 ( = o e o

=
n n h
n
0 ) ( sin ) 2 ( = o e o

=
n n h
n
Such a condition must
hold for all o and e
) ( ) 2 ( n h n h = o
Necessary Condition for
Generalized Linear Phase Systems
0 ) ) ( sin( ) ( = | + o e

=
n n h
n
|=0 or t
2o = M = an integer
) ( ) 2 ( n h n h = o
o
o is an integer
o
2o is an integer
Necessary Condition for
Generalized Linear Phase Systems
0 ) ) ( sin( ) ( = | + o e

=
n n h
n
|=t/2 or 3t/2
2o = M = an integer
0 ) ( cos ) ( = o e

=
n n h
n
|=t/2 or 3t/2
0 ) ( cos ) 2 ( = o e o

=
n n h
n
0 ) ( cos ) 2 ( = o e o

=
n n h
n
Such a condition must
hold for all o and e
) ( ) 2 ( n h n h = o
Necessary Condition for
Generalized Linear Phase Systems
0 ) ) ( sin( ) ( = | + o e

=
n n h
n
|=t/2 or 3t/2
2o = M = an integer
) ( ) 2 ( n h n h = o
o
o is an integer
o
2o is an integer
Causal
Generalized Linear Phase Systems
0 ) ) ( sin( ) ( = | + o e

=
n n h
n
Generalized Linear
Phase System
Causal Generalized
Linear Phase System
0 ) ) ( sin( ) (
0
= | + o e

=
n n h
n
M n n n h > < = and 0 , 0 ) (
Causal
Generalized Linear Phase Systems
0 1 2 3 M
0 1 2 3 M

s s
=
otherwise
M n n M h
n h
0
0 ) (
) (
2 /
) ( ) (
M j j
e
j
e e A e H
e e e
=
Type I FIR linear phase system
M is even
Type II FIR linear phase system
M is odd
Causal
Generalized Linear Phase Systems

s s
=
otherwise
M n n M h
n h
0
0 ) (
) (
2 / 2 /
2 /
) (
) ( ) (
t + e e
e e e
=
=
j M j j
o
M j j
o
j
e e A
e e jA e H
Type III FIR linear phase system
M is even
Type IV FIR linear phase system
M is odd
0 1 2
M
0 1 2
M
Type I FIR Linear Phase Systems
0 1 2 3 M

s s
=
otherwise
M n n M h
n h
0
0 ) (
) (
2 /
) ( ) (
M j j
e
j
e e A e H
e e e
=
Type I FIR linear phase system
M is even

=
e e
=
M
n
n j j
e n h e H
0
) ( ) (

=
e
e =
2 /
0
2 /
cos ) (
M
k
M j
k k a e

=
=
=
2 / , , 2 , 1 ) 2 / ( 2
0 ) 2 / (
) (
M k k M h
k M h
k a

Example:
Type I FIR Linear Phase Systems
1
5
4
0
1
1
) (

= =

z
z
z z H
n
n
e
e
e

=
j
j
j
e
e
e H
1
1
) (
5
2 / 2 /
2 / 5 2 / 5
2 /
2 / 5
e e
e e
e
e

=
j j
j j
j
j
e e
e e
e
e
) 2 / sin(
) 2 / 5 sin(
2
e
e
=
e j
e
-2 0 2
0
2
4
6
|
H
(
e
j
e
)
|
-2 0 2
-4
-2
0
2
4
R
a
d
i
a
n
s
0 1 2 3 4
1
Example:
Type I FIR Linear Phase Systems
1
5
4
0
1
1
) (

= =

z
z
z z H
n
n
e
e
e

=
j
j
j
e
e
e H
1
1
) (
5
2 / 2 /
2 / 5 2 / 5
2 /
2 / 5
e e
e e
e
e

=
j j
j j
j
j
e e
e e
e
e
) 2 / sin(
) 2 / 5 sin(
2
e
e
=
e j
e
-2 0 2
0
2
4
6
|
H
(
e
j
e
)
|
-2 0 2
-4
-2
0
2
4
R
a
d
i
a
n
s
0 1 2 3 4
1
Example:
Type II FIR Linear Phase Systems
1
6
5
0
1
1
) (

= =

z
z
z z H
n
n
e
e
e

=
j
j
j
e
e
e H
1
1
) (
6
2 / 2 /
3 3
2 /
3
e e
e e
e
e

=
j j
j j
j
j
e e
e e
e
e
) 2 / sin(
) 3 sin(
2 / 5
e
e
=
e j
e
0 1 2 3 4 5
1
-2 0 2
0
2
4
6
|
H
(
e
j
e
)
|
-2 0 2
-4
-2
0
2
4
R
a
d
i
a
n
s
Example:
Type III FIR Linear Phase Systems
2
1 ) (

= z z H
2
1 ) (
e e
=
j j
e e H
) (
e e e
=
j j j
e e e
e
e =
j
e j ) sin( 2
0 1
1
2
1
2 /
) sin( 2
t + e
e =
j j
e
-2 0 2
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
|
H
(
e
j
e
)
|
-2 0 2
-2
-1
0
1
2
R
a
d
i
a
n
s
Example:
Type IV FIR Linear Phase Systems
1
1 ) (

= z z H
e e
=
j j
e e H 1 ) (
) (
2 / 2 / 2 / e e e
=
j j j
e e e
2 /
) 2 / sin( 2
e
e =
j
e j
0
1
1
1
2 / 2 /
) 2 / sin( 2
t + e
e =
j j
e
-2 0 2
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
|
H
(
e
j
e
)
|
-2 0 2
-2
-1
0
1
2
R
a
d
i
a
n
s
Zeros Locations for
FIR Linear Phase Systems (Type I and II)

=
M
n
n
z n h z H
0
) ( ) (

=
M
n
n
z n M h
0
) (

=

=
M
n
n M
z n h
0
) (
) (

=
M
n
n M
z n h z
0
) (
) (
1
= z H z
M
) ( ) (
1
= z H z z H
M
Let z
0
be a zero of H(z)
0 ) ( ) / 1 (
0 0 0
= =

z H z z H
M
1/z
0
is a zero
If h(n) is real
z
0
* and 1/ z
0
*

are zeros
Zeros Locations for
FIR Linear Phase Systems (Type I and II)
) ( ) (
1
= z H z z H
M
Let z
0
be a zero of H(z)
0 ) ( ) / 1 (
0 0 0
= =

z H z z H
M
1/z
0
is a zero
If h(n) is real
z
0
* and 1/ z
0
*

are zeros
0
z
1
0

z
*
0
z
1 *
0
) (

z
1
z
1
1

z
2
z
1
2

z
3
z
4
z
Zeros Locations for
FIR Linear Phase Systems (Type I and II)
) ( ) (
1
= z H z z H
M
Consider z = 1
0
z
1
0

z
*
0
z
1 *
0
) (

z
1
z
1
1

z
2
z
1
2

z
3
z
4
z
) 1 ( ) 1 ( ) 1 ( =

H H
M
if M is odd,
z = 1 must be a zero.
Zeros Locations for
FIR Linear Phase Systems (Type III and IV)
) ( ) (
1
= z H z z H
M
Let z
0
be a zero of H(z)
0 ) ( ) / 1 (
0 0 0
= =

z H z z H
M
1/z
0
is a zero
If h(n) is real
z
0
* and 1/ z
0
*

are zeros
0
z
1
0

z
*
0
z
1 *
0
) (

z
1
z
1
1

z
2
z
1
2

z
3
z
4
z
Zeros Locations for
FIR Linear Phase Systems (Type III and IV)
) ( ) (
1
= z H z z H
M
0
z
1
0

z
*
0
z
1 *
0
) (

z
1
z
1
1

z
2
z
1
2

z
3
z
4
z
Consider z = 1 ) 1 ( ) 1 ( H H =
z = 1 must be a zero.
Consider z = 1
) 1 ( ) 1 ( ) 1 (
) 1 (
=
+
H H
M
if M is even,
z = 1 must be a zero.