Introduction

Contain slides by Leon-Garcia and Widjaja

Communication Services & Applications

A communication service enables the exchange of information between users at different locations. Communication services & applications are everywhere.

Web Browsing

Web server

Retrieval of information from web servers

Many other examples!

Peer-to-peer applications

Napster, Gnutella, Kazaa file exchange Searching for ExtraTerrestrial Intelligence (SETI)

Audio & video streaming Network games On-line purchasing Text messaging in PDAs, cell phones (SMS) Voice-over-Internet

Services & Applications

Service: Basic information transfer capability

Internet transfer of individual block of information Internet reliable transfer of a stream of bytes Real-time transfer of a voice signal
E-mail & web build on reliable stream service Fax and modems build on basic telephone service SMS builds on Internet reliable stream service and cellular telephone text messaging

Applications build on communication services

New applications build on multiple networks

What is a communication network?

Communication Network

The equipment (hardware & software) and facilities that provide the basic communication service Virtually invisible to the user; Usually represented by a cloud

Equipment

Facilities

Routers, servers, switches, multiplexers, hubs, modems,

Copper wires, coaxial cables, optical fiber Ducts, conduits, telephone poles

How are communication networks designed and operated?

Bells Telephone

Alexander Graham Bell (1875) working on harmonic telegraph to multiplex telegraph signals Discovered voice signals can be transmitted directly

Microphone converts voice pressure variation (sound) into analogous electrical signal Loudspeaker converts electrical signal back into sound

Telephone patent granted in 1876 Bell Telephone Company founded in 1877

Signal for ae as in cat Microphone analog electrical signal Loudspeaker

sound

sound

Signaling

Signaling required to establish a call

Flashing light and ringing devices to alert the called party of incoming call Called party information to operator to establish calls

Signaling + voice signal transfer

The N2 Problem

For N users to be fully connected directly Requires N(N 1)/2 connections Requires too much space for cables Inefficient & costly since connections not always on
1

N = 1000 N(N 1)/2 = 499500

N 2

Telephone Pole Congestion

Circuit Switching

Patchcord panel switch invented in 1877 Operators connect users on demand

Establish circuit to allow electrical current to flow from inlet to outlet

Only N connections required to central office

N 1

N1 3 2

Manual Switching

Strowger Switch

Human operators intelligent & flexible But expensive and not always discreet Strowger invented automated switch in 1888 Each current pulse advances wiper by 1 position User dialing controls connection setup Decimal telephone numbering system Hierarchical network structure simplifies routing Area code, exchange (CO), station number
1st digit 2nd digit
0 0
. . .

...

. . .

. . .

9
0

9 9 9

Strowger Switch

Hierarchical Network Structure

Toll
CO = central office

Tandem Tandem CO CO CO CO CO

Telephone subscribers connected to local CO (central office) Tandem & Toll switches connect COs

Digitization of Telephone Network

Pulse Code Modulation digital voice signal

Voice gives 8 bits/sample x 8000 samples/sec = 64x103 bps

T-1 multiplexing (1961): 24 voice signals = 1.544x106 bps Switch TDM signals without conversion to analog form

Time Division Multiplexing for digital voice

Digital Switching (1980s)

Digital Cellular Telephony (1990s) Optical Digital Transmission (1990s)

One OC-192 optical signal = 10x109 bps One optical fiber carries 160 OC-192 signals = 1.6x1012 bps!

All digital transmission, switching, and control

Digital Transmission Evolution

1.0E+14

Wavelength Division Multiplexing

Information transfer per second

1.0E+12 1.0E+10 1.0E+08 1.0E+06 1.0E+04 1.0E+02 1.0E+00 1850 1875 1900 1925 1950 1975 2000

T-1 Carrier Baudot

SONET Optical Carrier

Morse

Elements of Telephone Network Architecture

Digital transmission & switching

Digital voice; Time Division Multiplexing User signals for call setup and tear-down Route selected during connection setup End-to-end connection across network Signaling coordinates connection setup Decimal numbering system Hierarchical structure; simplified routing; scalability Intelligence inside the network

Circuit switching

Hierarchical Network

Signaling Network

Computer Network Evolution Overview

1950s: Telegraph technology adapted to computers 1960s: Dumb terminals access shared host computer SABRE airline reservation system 1970s: Computers connect directly to each other ARPANET packet switching network TCP/IP internet protocols Ethernet local area network 1980s & 1990s: New applications and Internet growth Commercialization of Internet E-mail, file transfer, web, P2P, . . . Internet traffic surpasses voice traffic

What is a protocol?

Communications between computers requires very specific unambiguous rules A protocol is a set of rules that governs how two or more communicating parties are to interact

Internet Protocol (IP) Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP) Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)

Terminal-Oriented Networks

Early computer systems very expensive Time-sharing methods allowed multiple terminals to share local computer Remote access via telephone modems
Terminal ... Terminal Modem Host computer

Telephone Network

Modem

Terminal

Medium Access Control

Dedicated communication lines were expensive Terminals generated messages sporadically Frames carried messages to/from attached terminals Address in frame header identified terminal Medium Access Controls for sharing a line were developed Example: Polling protocol on a multidrop line
Polling frames & output frames input frames Terminal Terminal ... Terminal

Host computer

Terminals at different locations in a city Must avoid collisions on inbound line

Statistical Multiplexing

Statistical multiplexer allows a line to carry frames that contain messages to/from multiple terminals Frames are buffered at multiplexer until line becomes available, i.e. store-and-forward Address in frame header identifies terminal Header carries other control information
Frame CRC Information Header Terminal Terminal Header Information CRC

Terminal
Host computer Multiplexer

...

Error Control Protocol

Communication lines introduced errors Error checking codes used on frames

Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) calculated based on frame header and information payload, and appended Header also carries ACK/NAK control information

Retransmission requested when errors detected

CRC

Information

Header Terminal

Header

Information

CRC

Tree Topology Networks

National & international terminal-oriented networks Routing was very simple (to/from host) Each network typically handled a single application

San Francisco Chicago

T T
T

New York City

Atlanta

Computer-to-Computer Networks

As cost of computing dropped, terminal-oriented networks viewed as too inflexible and costly Need to develop flexible computer networks

Interconnect computers as required Support many applications File transfer between arbitrary computers Execution of a program on another computer Multiprocess operation over multiple computers

Application Examples

Packet Switching

Network should support multiple applications

Transfer arbitrary message size Low delay for interactive applications But in store-and-forward operation, long messages induce high delay on interactive messages
Network transfers packets using store-and-forward Packets have maximum length Break long messages into multiple packets

Packet switching introduced

ARPANET testbed led to many innovations

ARPANET Packet Switching

Host generates message Source packet switch converts message to packet(s) Packets transferred independently across network Destination packet switch reasembles message Destination packet switch delivers message Packet Switch Message Packet 2 Packet Switch Packet 1 Packet 2 Message Packet Switch Packet Packet 1 Packet Switch Packet 1 Switch

ARPANET Routing
Routing is highly nontrivial in mesh networks No connection setup prior to packet transmission Packets header includes source & destination addresses Packet switches have table with next hop per destination Routing tables calculated by packet switches using distributed algorithm Packet Switch Hdr Packet Packet Switch Packet Switch Packet Switch
Dest: Next Hop:

Packet Switch

xyz wvr

abc edf

Other ARPANET Protocols

Error control between adjacent packet switches Congestion control between source & destination packet switches limit number of packets in transit Flow control between host computers prevents buffer overflow Packet Switch

Error Control Packet Switch Packet Switch

Packet Switch

Congestion Control Packet Switch Flow Control

ARPANET Applications

ARPANET introduced many new applications Email, remote login, file transfer,
AMES McCLELLAN UTAH BOULDER GWC CASE

RADC ILL LINC AMES USC MIT UCSB STAN SCD MITRE CARN

ETAC

UCLA

RAND

TINKER

BBN

HARV

NBS

Ethernet Local Area Network

In 1980s, affordable workstations available Need for low-cost, high-speed networks

To interconnect local workstations To access local shared resources (printers, storage, servers)

Low cost, high-speed communications with low error rate possible using coaxial cable Ethernet is the standard for high-speed wired access to computer networks

Ethernet Medium Access Control

Network interface card (NIC) connects workstation to LAN Each NIC has globally unique address Frames are broadcast into coaxial cable NICs listen to medium for frames with their address Transmitting NICs listen for collisions with other stations, and abort and reschedule retransmissions
Transceivers

The Internet

Different network types emerged for data transfer between computers ARPA also explored packet switching using satellite and packet radio networks Each network has its protocols and is possibly built on different technologies Internetworking protocols required to enable communications between computers attached to different networks Internet: a network of networks

Internet Protocol (IP)

Routers (gateways) interconnect different networks Host computers prepare IP packets and transmit them over their attached network Routers forward IP packets across networks Best-effort IP transfer service, no retransmission

Net 1

Net 2

Router

Addressing & Routing

Hierarchical address: Net ID + Host ID IP packets routed according to Net ID Routers compute routing tables using distributed algorithm H
H Net 3 G Net 1

G
G H Net 2 G Net 4

G Net 5

Transport Protocols

Host computers run two transport protocols on top of IP to enable process-to-process communications User Datagram Protocol (UDP) enables best-effort transfer of individual block of information Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) enables reliable transfer of a stream of bytes

Transport Protocol Internet

Names and IP Addresses

Routing is done based on 32-bit IP addresses Dotted-decimal notation

128.100.11.1

Hosts are also identified by name

Easier to remember Hierarchical name structure tesla.comm.utoronto.edu

Domain Name System (DNS) provided conversion between names and addresses

Internet Applications

All Internet applications run on TCP or UDP TCP: HTTP (web); SMTP (e-mail); FTP (file transfer; telnet (remote terminal) UDP: DNS, RTP (voice & multimedia) TCP & UDP incorporated into computer operating systems Any application designed to operate over TCP or UDP will run over the Internet!!!

Elements of Computer Network Architecture

Digital transmission Exchange of frames between adjacent equipment Framing and error control Medium access control regulates sharing of broadcast medium. Addresses identify attachment to network or internet. Transfer of packets across a packet network Distributed calculation of routing tables

Elements of Computer Network Architecture

Congestion control inside the network Internetworking across multiple networks using routers Segmentation and reassembly of messages into packets into and out of a network or internetwork End-to-end transport protocols for process-toprocess communications Applications that build on the transfer of messages between computers.

Trends in Network Evolution

Its all about services

Building networks involves huge expenditures Services that generate revenues drive the network architecture
Packet switching vs. circuit switching Multimedia applications End of trust Networking is a business

Current trends

Packet vs. Circuit Switching

Architectures appear and disappear over time

Telegraph (message switching) Telephone (circuit switching) Internet (packet switching)

IP enables rapid introduction of new applications New cellular voice networks packet-based IP supports real-time voice and telephone network will gradually be replaced However, large packet flows easier to manage by circuit-like methods

Trend towards packet switching at the edge

Optical Circuit Switching

Optical signal transmission over fiber can carry huge volumes of information (Tbps) Optical signal processing very limited

Optical logic circuits bulky and costly Optical packet switching will not happen soon Maximum electronic speeds << Tbps Parallel electronic processing & high expense

Optical-to-Electronic conversion is expensive

Thus trend towards optical circuit switching in the core

Multimedia Applications

Trend towards digitization of all media Digital voice standard in cell phones Music cassettes replaced by CDs and MP3s Digital cameras replacing photography Video: digital storage and transmission

Analog VCR cassettes largely replaced by DVDs Analog broadcast TV to be replaced by digital TV VCR cameras/recorders to be replaced by digital video recorders and cameras

High-quality network-based multimedia applications now feasible

End of Trust

Security Attacks

Spam Denial of Service attacks Viruses Impersonators

Control flow of traffic/data from Internet

Firewalls & Filtering

Protocols for privacy, integrity and authentication

P2P and Overlay Networks

Client resources under-utilized in client-server Peer-to-Peer applications enable sharing

Napster, Gnutella, Kazaa Processing & storage (SETI@home) Information & files (MP3s) Creation of virtual distributed servers Users (computers) currently online connect directly to each other to allow sharing of their resources Huge traffic volumes a challenge to network management Huge opportunity for new businesses

P2P creates transient overlay networks

Operations, Administration, Maintenance, and Billing

Communication like transportation networks

Traffic flows need to be monitored and controlled Tolls have to be collected Roads have to be maintained Need to forecast traffic and plan network growth
Entire organizations address OAM & Billing Becoming automated for flexibility & reduced cost

Highly-developed in telephone network

Under development for IP networks

Success Factors for New Services

Technology not only factor in success of a new service Three factors considered in new telecom services

Can there be demand for the service?

Market

New Service

Can it be Technology implemented costeffectively?

Is the service allowed?

Regulation

Transmission Technology

Relentless improvement in transmission High-speed transmission in copper pairs

DSL Internet Access

Higher call capacity in cellular networks

Lower cost cellular phone service

Plummeting cost for long distance telephone

Enormous capacity and reach in optical fiber

Faster and more information intensive applications

Processing Technology

Relentless improvement in processing & storage Moores Law: doubling of transistors per integrated circuit every two years RAM: larger tables, larger systems Digital signal processing: transmission, multiplexing, framing, error control, encryption Network processors: hardware for routing, switching, forwarding, and traffic management Microprocessors: higher layer protocols and applications Higher speeds and higher throughputs in network protocols and applications

Moores Law
1.0E+08 1.0E+07
Transistor count P4 Pentium III Pentium Pro Pentium 486 DX Intel DX2 80286 8086 Pentium II

1.0E+06 1.0E+05 1.0E+04 1.0E+03

4004 1982 10 8080

1972 0

1992 20

2002 30

Market

The network effect: usefulness of a service increases with size of community

Metcalfe's Law: usefulness is proportional to the square of the number of users Phone, fax, email, ICQ,

Economies of scale: per-user cost drops with increased volume

Cell phones, PDAs, PCs Efficiencies from multiplexing

S-curve: growth of new service has S-shaped curve, challenge is to reach the critical mass

The S Curve
Service Penetration & Network Effect Telephone: T=30 years

city-wide & inter-city links

Automobile: T=30 years

roads
Fax Cellular & cordless phones Internet & WWW Napster and P2P

Others

Regulation & Competition

Telegraph & Telephone originally monopolies

Extremely high cost of infrastructure Profitable, predictable, slow to innovate

Competition feasible with technology advances

Long distance cost plummeted with optical tech Alternative local access through cable, wireless Radio spectrum: auctioned vs. unlicensed Tussle for the revenue-generating parts

Basic connectivity vs. application provider

Standards

New technologies very costly and risky Standards allow players to share risk and benefits of a new market

Reduced cost of entry Interoperability and network effect Compete on innovation Completing the value chain

Chips, systems, equipment vendors, service providers

Example

802.11 wireless LAN products

Standards Bodies

Internet Engineering Task Force

Internet standards development Request for Comments (RFCs): www.ietf.org

International telecom standards Local area and metropolitan area network standards

International Telecommunications Union

IEEE 802 Committee

Industry Organizations

MPLS Forum, WiFi Alliance, World Wide Web Consortium