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Relational Algebra: Chapter 4, Part A

This document discusses relational algebra and relational query languages. It introduces the basic relational algebra operations of selection, projection, cross-product, union, intersection, and set-difference. More complex operations like joins and division are also covered. Examples of expressing various queries using relational algebra operations are provided, such as finding sailors who have reserved specific boats or all boats. The document serves as an introduction to formal relational query languages and relational algebra.

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36 views21 pages

Relational Algebra: Chapter 4, Part A

This document discusses relational algebra and relational query languages. It introduces the basic relational algebra operations of selection, projection, cross-product, union, intersection, and set-difference. More complex operations like joins and division are also covered. Examples of expressing various queries using relational algebra operations are provided, such as finding sailors who have reserved specific boats or all boats. The document serves as an introduction to formal relational query languages and relational algebra.

Uploaded by

Paksmiler
Copyright
© Attribution Non-Commercial (BY-NC)
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Download as PPT, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Database Management Systems 3ed, R. Ramakrishnan and J.

Gehrke 1
Relational Algebra
Chapter 4, Part A
Database Management Systems 3ed, R. Ramakrishnan and J. Gehrke 2
Relational Query Languages
Query languages: Allow manipulation and retrieval
of data from a database.
Relational model supports simple, powerful QLs:
Strong formal foundation based on logic.
Allows for much optimization.
Query Languages != programming languages!
QLs not expected to be Turing complete.
QLs not intended to be used for complex calculations.
QLs support easy, efficient access to large data sets.
Database Management Systems 3ed, R. Ramakrishnan and J. Gehrke 3
Formal Relational Query Languages
Two mathematical Query Languages form
the basis for real languages (e.g. SQL), and
for implementation:
Relational Algebra: More operational, very useful
for representing execution plans.
Relational Calculus: Lets users describe what they
want, rather than how to compute it. (Non-
operational, declarative.)

Database Management Systems 3ed, R. Ramakrishnan and J. Gehrke 4
Preliminaries
A query is applied to relation instances, and the
result of a query is also a relation instance.
Schemas of input relations for a query are fixed (but
query will run regardless of instance!)
The schema for the result of a given query is also
fixed! Determined by definition of query language
constructs.
Positional vs. named-field notation:
Positional notation easier for formal definitions,
named-field notation more readable.
Both used in SQL
Database Management Systems 3ed, R. Ramakrishnan and J. Gehrke 5
Example Instances
sid sname rating age
22 dustin 7 45.0
31 lubber 8 55.5
58 rusty 10 35.0
sid sname rating age
28 yuppy 9 35.0
31 lubber 8 55.5
44 guppy 5 35.0
58 rusty 10 35.0
sid bid day
22 101 10/10/96
58 103 11/12/96
R1
S1
S2
Sailors and Reserves
relations for our examples.
Well use positional or
named field notation,
assume that names of fields
in query results are
`inherited from names of
fields in query input
relations.
Database Management Systems 3ed, R. Ramakrishnan and J. Gehrke 6
Relational Algebra
Basic operations:
Selection ( ) Selects a subset of rows from relation.
Projection ( ) Deletes unwanted columns from relation.
Cross-product ( ) Allows us to combine two relations.
Set-difference ( ) Tuples in reln. 1, but not in reln. 2.
Union ( ) Tuples in reln. 1 and in reln. 2.
Additional operations:
Intersection, join, division, renaming: Not essential, but
(very!) useful.
Since each operation returns a relation, operations
can be composed! (Algebra is closed.)
o
t

Database Management Systems 3ed, R. Ramakrishnan and J. Gehrke 7


Projection
sname rating
yuppy 9
lubber 8
guppy 5
rusty 10
t
sname rating
S
,
( ) 2
age
35.0
55.5
t
age
S ( ) 2
Deletes attributes that are not in
projection list.
Schema of result contains exactly
the fields in the projection list,
with the same names that they
had in the (only) input relation.
Projection operator has to
eliminate duplicates! (Why??)
Note: real systems typically
dont do duplicate elimination
unless the user explicitly asks
for it. (Why not?)
Database Management Systems 3ed, R. Ramakrishnan and J. Gehrke 8
Selection
o
rating
S
>8
2 ( )
sid sname rating age
28 yuppy 9 35.0
58 rusty 10 35.0
sname rating
yuppy 9
rusty 10
t o
sname rating rating
S
,
( ( ))
>8
2
Selects rows that satisfy
selection condition.
No duplicates in result!
(Why?)
Schema of result
identical to schema of
(only) input relation.
Result relation can be
the input for another
relational algebra
operation! (Operator
composition.)
Database Management Systems 3ed, R. Ramakrishnan and J. Gehrke 9
Union, Intersection, Set-Difference
All of these operations take
two input relations, which
must be union-compatible:
Same number of fields.
`Corresponding fields
have the same type.
What is the schema of result?
sid sname rating age
22 dustin 7 45.0
31 lubber 8 55.5
58 rusty 10 35.0
44 guppy 5 35.0
28 yuppy 9 35.0
sid sname rating age
31 lubber 8 55.5
58 rusty 10 35.0
S S 1 2
S S 1 2
sid sname rating age
22 dustin 7 45.0
S S 1 2
Database Management Systems 3ed, R. Ramakrishnan and J. Gehrke 10
Cross-Product
Each row of S1 is paired with each row of R1.
Result schema has one field per field of S1 and R1,
with field names `inherited if possible.
Conflict: Both S1 and R1 have a field called sid.
( ( , ), ) C sid sid S R 1 1 5 2 1 1
(sid) sname rating age (sid) bid day
22 dustin 7 45.0 22 101 10/10/96
22 dustin 7 45.0 58 103 11/12/96
31 lubber 8 55.5 22 101 10/10/96
31 lubber 8 55.5 58 103 11/12/96
58 rusty 10 35.0 22 101 10/10/96
58 rusty 10 35.0 58 103 11/12/96
Renaming operator:
Database Management Systems 3ed, R. Ramakrishnan and J. Gehrke 11
Joins
Condition Join:





Result schema same as that of cross-product.
Fewer tuples than cross-product, might be
able to compute more efficiently
Sometimes called a theta-join.
R
c
S
c
R S = o ( )
(sid) sname rating age (sid) bid day
22 dustin 7 45.0 58 103 11/12/96
31 lubber 8 55.5 58 103 11/12/96
S R
S sid R sid
1 1
1 1

. . <
Database Management Systems 3ed, R. Ramakrishnan and J. Gehrke 12
Joins
Equi-Join: A special case of condition join where
the condition c contains only equalities.




Result schema similar to cross-product, but only
one copy of fields for which equality is specified.
Natural Join: Equijoin on all common fields.
sid sname rating age bid day
22 dustin 7 45.0 101 10/10/96
58 rusty 10 35.0 103 11/12/96
S R
sid
1 1
Database Management Systems 3ed, R. Ramakrishnan and J. Gehrke 13
Division
Not supported as a primitive operator, but useful for
expressing queries like:
Find sailors who have reserved all boats.
Let A have 2 fields, x and y; B have only field y:
A/B =
i.e., A/B contains all x tuples (sailors) such that for every y
tuple (boat) in B, there is an xy tuple in A.
Or: If the set of y values (boats) associated with an x value
(sailor) in A contains all y values in B, the x value is in A/B.
In general, x and y can be any lists of fields; y is the
list of fields in B, and x y is the list of fields of A.
{ }
x x y A y B | , - e e

Database Management Systems 3ed, R. Ramakrishnan and J. Gehrke 14


Examples of Division A/B
sno pno
s1 p1
s1 p2
s1 p3
s1 p4
s2 p1
s2 p2
s3 p2
s4 p2
s4 p4
pno
p2
pno
p2
p4
pno
p1
p2
p4
sno
s1
s2
s3
s4
sno
s1
s4
sno
s1
A
B1
B2
B3
A/B1 A/B2 A/B3
Database Management Systems 3ed, R. Ramakrishnan and J. Gehrke 15
Expressing A/B Using Basic Operators
Division is not essential op; just a useful shorthand.
(Also true of joins, but joins are so common that systems
implement joins specially.)
Idea: For A/B, compute all x values that are not
`disqualified by some y value in B.
x value is disqualified if by attaching y value from B, we
obtain an xy tuple that is not in A.

Disqualified x values:
A/B:
t t
x x
A B A (( ( ) ) )
t
x
A ( ) all disqualified tuples
Database Management Systems 3ed, R. Ramakrishnan and J. Gehrke 16
Find names of sailors whove reserved boat #103
Solution 1: t o
sname
bid
serves Sailors (( Re ) )
=103

Solution 2: o ( , Re ) Temp serves
bid
1
103 =
( , ) Temp Temp Sailors 2 1
t
sname
Temp ( ) 2
Solution 3:
t o
sname
bid
serves Sailors ( (Re ))
=103

Database Management Systems 3ed, R. Ramakrishnan and J. Gehrke 17
Find names of sailors whove reserved a red boat
Information about boat color only available in
Boats; so need an extra join:
t o
sname
color red
Boats serves Sailors ((
' '
) Re )
=

A more efficient solution:
t t t o
sname
sid bid color red
Boats s Sailors ( ((
' '
) Re ) )
=

A query optimizer can find this, given the first solution!
Database Management Systems 3ed, R. Ramakrishnan and J. Gehrke 18
Find sailors whove reserved a red or a green boat
Can identify all red or green boats, then find
sailors whove reserved one of these boats:
o ( , (
' ' ' '
)) Tempboats
color red color green
Boats
= v =
t
sname
Tempboats serves Sailors ( Re )
Can also define Tempboats using union! (How?)
What happens if is replaced by in this query?
v
.
Database Management Systems 3ed, R. Ramakrishnan and J. Gehrke 19
Find sailors whove reserved a red and a green boat
Previous approach wont work! Must identify
sailors whove reserved red boats, sailors
whove reserved green boats, then find the
intersection (note that sid is a key for Sailors):
t o ( , ((
' '
) Re )) Tempred
sid color red
Boats serves
=


t
sname
Tempred Tempgreen Sailors (( ) )

t o ( , ((
' '
) Re )) Tempgreen
sid color green
Boats serves
=

Database Management Systems 3ed, R. Ramakrishnan and J. Gehrke 20
Find the names of sailors whove reserved all boats
Uses division; schemas of the input relations
to / must be carefully chosen:
t t ( , (
,
Re ) / ( )) Tempsids
sid bid
serves
bid
Boats
t
sname
Tempsids Sailors ( )
To find sailors whove reserved all Interlake boats:
/ (
' '
) t o
bid bname Interlake
Boats
=
.....
Database Management Systems 3ed, R. Ramakrishnan and J. Gehrke 21
Summary
The relational model has rigorously defined
query languages that are simple and
powerful.
Relational algebra is more operational; useful
as internal representation for query
evaluation plans.
Several ways of expressing a given query; a
query optimizer should choose the most
efficient version.

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