~

IN

T W E L V E

VOLUMES

E D I T E D

B Y

W I L L I A M R E G I N A L D

H U N T , L .

D . L I T T . ,

A N D

P O O L E ,

M . A .

VII*

THE
FROM

HISTORY
THE

OF

ENGLAND
OF JAMES I. TO

T H E ACCESSION

RESTORATION 1603-1660

C O N T E N T S .
C H A P T E R T H E BEGINNING OF T H E I. OF J A M E S I.
PAGE

REIGN

E n g l a n d i n 1603 24 M a r c h , 1603.

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1 2 3 5 7 8 9 10 . 1 1 12 13 . . . , 1 4 15 16 17 1-8 19 20 . 22

A c c e s s i o n o f J a m e s I. .

H i s character a n d opinions .

17 N o v . 14 J a n . , 1604. 29 F e b . 19 M a r c h .

H i s first m e a s u r e s . . . . T h e B y e Plot . . . . . T h e M a i n Plot . . . . . Trial of Sir Walter Raleigh . . . T h e H a m p t o n Court Conference . . Death of Archbishop Whitgift Meeting of parliament G o o d w i n ' s case . . . . The The The The . .

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d e s i r e for r e f o r m . . . proposed union with Scotland apology o f the commons . privileged trading companies

T h e k i n g a n d the R o m a n catholics T h e c a n o n s o f 1604 . . . . Negotiations with Spain 19 A u g . . .

. . .

T r e a t y of peace between E n g l a n d a n d S p a i n

C H A P T E R
T H E ADMINISTRATION

II.
OF SALISBURY.

Severe treatment o f the c a t h o l i c s . . . . . T h e Gunpowder Plot . . . . . . . 4 N o v . , 1605. D i s c o v e r y o f the plot . . . . F a t e o f the c o n s p i r a t o r s D o u b t s cast o n the reality of the plot L a w s against recusants . Principle of non-resistance . F i n a n c i a l distress o f the c r o w n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

24 25 28 29 30 3* 32 33 34

P r o p o s a l s for a u n i o n w i t h S c o t l a n d

C a s e o f t h e Post-na,ti .
6 M a y , 1608.

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35
3^ 37

Bate's case . . . . . . S a l i s b u r y b e c o m e s l o r d treasurer . ix

POLITICAL
9 F e b . , 1610.

HISTORY

OF
. .

ENGLAND.
PAGE

Re-assembling of parliament C e n s u r e o f C o w e l l ' s Interpreter

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3& 39 40 40 41 42 . 43 44 . 47 . 4 8 49 5 52
1

Debate o n the impositions . . . . . P r o p o s e d c o m m u t a t i o n of the military tenures 9 F e b . , 1611. 2 N o v . , 1610. Dissolution of parliament Affairs of I 4 S e p t . , 1607. r e l a n . d . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D e a t h of Archbishop Bancroft

. . . .

Sir A r t h u r Chichester, lord deputy

T h e f l i g h t o f t h e earls o f T y r o n e a n d T y r c o n n e l . T h e plantation of Ulster . . . F o u n d a t i o n of the c o l o n y o f V i r g i n i a . Affairs o f S c o t l a n d J a m e s a n d the K i r k . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

F o r e i g n relations . . . . . T h e succession of Cleves a n d Juliers CHAPTER

T H E RISE OF CARR ANP

53 5^

III.
OF VILLIERS.

Arabella Stuart 24 M a y , 1612. 6 N o v . , 1612. Francis Bacon

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5^ 57 5^ 61 62 63 64 65 66 68 69 70 7^ 73 74 75 j6 jS79 81 82 84 85 87 88

D e a t h of Salisbury

Death of Prince H e n r y

B u r n i n g of Legate and W i g h t m a n Robert C a r r , the king's favourite . T h e Essex divorce 15 Sept., 1613. 5 A p r i l , 16x4. 7 June. . . . C a r r is c r e a t e d E a r l o f S o m e r s e t T h e murder of Overbury M e e t i n g of a new parliament D i s s o l u t i o n o f the p a r l i a m e n t P e a c h a m ' s case F a l l of Somerset 5 J*- 1617. 7 J
a n

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G e o r g e V i l l i e r s i n t r o d u c e d to the k i n g Villiers created E a r l o f B u c k i n g h a m B a c o n becomes lord chancellor Treaty of Xanten . . . . .

C o n f l i c t b e t w e e n the k i n g a n d C h i e f J u s t i c e C o k e j 1618. N o v . , 1614. A p r i l , 1616. 24 O c t . , 1618.

Surrender o f the c a u t i o n a r y towns R a l e i g h ' s v o y a g e to G u i a n a Execution of Raleigh Affairs o f I r e l a n d . Affairs o f S c o t l a n d . . . . . . IV.

YEARS'

. . .

T h e fall o f the H o w a r d s

T h e declaration o f sports C H A P T E R
T H E OUTBREAK OF T H E

THIRTY

W A R .

'

Causes o f the T h i r t y Y e a r s ' W a r T h e B o h e m i a n revolution . . . A c t i o n o f Frederick, E l e c t o r Palatine

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89 00 gi

CONTENTS
I D A u g . , 1019. 3 0 J a n . , 1621.

OF

THE

SEVENTH

VOLUME.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

xi
92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108

F r e d e r i c k is e l e c t e d K i n g o f B o h e m i a . Conquest of B o h e m i a b y the emperor . A new parliament G r a n t of two subsidies A t t a c k o n the m o n o p o l i e s . . . . . .

T h e p a t e n t s for l i c e n s i n g i n n s a n d alehouses Charges against the lord chancellor H i s confession 3 May. Floyd's case 30 S e p t . 20 N o v . 6 J a n . , 1622. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sentence o n h i m b y the lords Prorogation of parliament . . .

C r a n f i e l d m a d e l o r d treasurer Re-assembling of parliament Parliament dissolved T h e p i l g r i m fathers . .

Dispute between the k i n g a n d the c o m m o n s

Settlement of P l y m o u t h in N e w E n g l a n d

C H A P T E R
T H E C L O S E OF T H E

V.
OF JAMES I.

REIGN

F r e d e r i c k loses t h e P a l a t i n a t e 17 F e b . , 1623. Sept.

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. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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. . . . . . . . . . . .

109 110 112 114 115 116 117 .118 1x9 120 121 123 124

T h e marriage treaty with Spain . T h e i r return to E n g l a n d

Charles and B u c k i n g h a m go to M a d r i d C h a r l e s i n s i s t s o n b r e a k i n g off t h e m a t c h C h a n g e i n foreign policy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. .

19 F e b . , 1621.

Meeting of a new parliament T h e statute of m o n o p o l i e s T h e F r e n c h m a r r i a g e treaty Mansfeld's expedition Its failure . . . . . . . .

T h e c o m m o n s desire a w a r w i t h S p a i n

27 M a r c h , 1625.

D e a t h o f J a m e s I.

C H A P T E R
T H E FIRST AND S E C O N D

VI.
CHARLES I.

PARLIAMENTS OF

A c c e s s i o n o f C h a r l e s I.

. . . . .

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. . . . . . .

126 127 129 130 131

T

T h e Anglo-Catholic movement Political embarrassments 1 May. 18 J u n e 12 A u g . Meeting of parliament . Ecclesiastical disputes . Dissolution of parliament T h e expedition to Cadiz F a i l u r e of the expedition Differences b e t w e e n 6 F e b . , 1626. A new parliament . . . . . . . .

I l l - w i l l felt t o w a r d s t h e A n g l o - C a t h o l i c s Marriage of Charles and Henrietta Maria

133 134 135

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136 137 138

E n g l a n d and France

xiv

POLITICAL
X640. 16 F e b . , 1641.

HISTOR

Y OF
. . . . . . . . . .

ENGLAND.
PAGE

P a r l i a m e n t a n d trie a r m i e s T h e triennial act T h e a r m y plots . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . .

232 233 234 237 . 2 3 8

T h e charges against Strafford 10 A p r i l . 1 May. 12 M a y . B i l l o f attainder against Strafford T h e king's attempt to s a v e h i m T h e bill o f attainder passed E x e c u t i o n o f Strafford . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

239 240 241 242 243 243 244 245 246 247 248

S u p p r e s s i o n o f t h e S t a r C h a m b e r , etc. T h e root a n d b r a n c h bill . . .

B i l l to r e m o v e t h e b i s h o p s f r o m the h o u s e o f l o r d s Differences o f o p i n i o n i n the c o m m o n s T h e ten propositions 10 A u g . 9 Sept. . . . . . . . . .

A c t to a b o l i s h t h e c o u r t o f h i g h c o m m i s s i o n T h e k i n g goes to S c o t l a n d

A d j o u r n m e n t o f the h o u s e s .

C H A P T E R
T H E PRELIMINARIES OF

XII.
T H E CIVIL W A R .

1641. 20 O c t .

Charles in Scotland Causes

. . . . . . . . . . .

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249 250 251 253 . 2 5 4 255 257 . 2 5 8 259 260 261 263 263 264 265 266 267

Re-assembling o f the E n g l i s h parliament o f the Irish rebellion . T h e Ulster massacres . Effect o n E n g l i s h p o l i t i c s

22 N o v .

T h e Grand Remonstrance Charles returns to L o n d o n Cavaliers a n d Roundheads

3 J a n . , 1642. 4 Jan. 9 Jan. 23 F e b . 19 M a r c h . 2 June. 22 A u g .

T h e i m p e a c h m e n t o f t h e five m e m b e r s T h e king's visit to the h o u s e o f c o m m o n s Significance o f the k i n g ' s action T h e k i n g a n d the q u e e n leave L o n d o n P r e p a r a t i o n s for a c i v i l w a r T h e queen leaves E n g l a n d . C h a r l e s at Y o r k . . . . G r o w t h of the r o y a l i s t p a r t y T h e nineteen propositions . . . . .

T h e k i n g r a i s e s h i s s t a n d a r d at N o t t i n g h a m C H A P T E R
T H E FIRST PERIOD OF

268

XIII.
T H E CIVIL W A R .

1642.

C o m p o s i t i o n o f the parties Resources o f the belligerents

. .

269 270 272 273 274 275 276 277 .

I m p o r t a n c e o f cavalry i n the seventeenth century T h e c o m m a n d o f the sea 20 Sept. 23 O c t . C h a r l e s at S h r e w s b u r y T h e battle o f E d g e h i l l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

T h e king's advance o n L o n d o n Events in the north a n d west

CONTENTS
1643. 18 J u n e . 5 July. 26 J u l y .

OF

THE

SEVENTH
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

VOLUME.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

xv
PAGE

T h e treaty o f O x f o r d Royalist victories D e a t h of H a m p d e n Battle of L a n s d o w n

7g

280 . 2 8 1 282 283 284 285 286 287 288 289 290 2gi 292

T h e royalists masters o f the north Bristol taken by Rupert C h a r l e s besieges Gloucester 20 Sept. 15 S e p t . 25 S e p t . 8 Dec. F i r s t battle o f N e w b u r y Progress of the Irish rebellion T h e cessation o f arms in Ireland T h e parliament a n d the Scots T h e Solemn League and Covenant Successes g a i n e d b y the parliament D e a t h -of P y m . . . XIV.
T H E CIVIL

T h e m o n t h l y assessments a n d the excise

C H A P T E R
T H E S E C O N D PERIOD O F

W A R .

2 2 J a n . , 1644.

T h e Oxford parliament

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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293 294 295 296 297 298 299 300 302 303 304 35 306 37 30S 309 310 312 313 314 316 317 . 3 1 9 320 321

T h e Scottish a r m y enters E n g l a n d R o y a l i s t reverses i n the n o r t h Battle of Cropredy Bridge 1 July. 2 July. 16 J u l y . 31 A u g . 27 O c t . R u p e r t relieves Y o r k Battle of Marston M o o r Surrender o f Y o r k . . . . . . . . . . .

T h e surrender at L o s t w i t h i e l S e c o n d battle o f N e w b u r y T h e new model . .

Dissensions a m o n g the parliamentarians T h e first s e l f - d e n y i n g o r d i n a n c e . Attainder a n d execution of L a u d 3 A p r i l , 1645* T h e second self-denying ordinance T h e king's preparations H i s march northwards 14 J u n e . 11 Sept. 24 S e p t . 13 S e p t . 25 A u g . j.6 F e b . , 1 6 4 6 . 26 A p r i l . Battle of Naseby . Fairfax takes B r i s t o l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Battle of R o w t o n H e a t h Victories o f Montrose . T h e G l a m o r g a n treaty Battle of Torrington

. . . .

H i s overthrow at P h i l i p h a u g h .

T h e king's hopes o f succour H e goes to the Scottish a r m y C H A P T E R

T H E S E C O N D CIVIL W A R A N D T H E

XV.
E X E C U T I O N O F C H A R L E S I.

1646. Aug.

Injuries inflicted b y the civil w a r Conflict of opinions . . T h e propositions of Newcastle . . . .

. . .

. . .

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. .

322 323 324

xvi

POLITICAL
3 F e b . , 1647. 5 J u n e , 1646. 3 J u n e , 1647. 15 J u n e . 6 Aug. 11 N o v . 26 D e c . 22 F e b . , 164S. 21 M a y . 8 July. 25 A u g .

HISTORY

OF

ENGLAND.
PAGE

T h e k i n g d e l i v e r e d to t h e p a r l i a m e n t V i c t o r y o f t h e I r i s h at B e n b u r b Cornet J o y c e at H o l m b y T h e d e c l a r a t i o n o f the a r m y T h e heads o f the proposals R i s e o f t h e levellers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . .

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325 326 3^7 328 3^9 330 33

1

D i f f e r e n c e s b e t w e e n the p a r l i a m e n t a n d the a r m y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C r o m w e l l as a p o l i t i c a l l e a d e r

T h e presbyterians quelled b y the a r m y T h e k i n g ' s f l i g h t from H a m p t o n C o u r t T h e k i n g signs the engagement T h e v o t e o f n o addresses A rising in W a l e s A rising in K e n t . . . . . .

332 333 334 335 336 337 338 339 34^

H a m i l t o n ' s invasion of E n g l a n d H a m i l t o n ' s s u r r e n d e r at U t t o x e t e r Events in Ireland T h e treaty o f N e w p o r t T h e army and the k i n g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E n d o f the c i v i l war i n the south of E n g l a n d

34^34*^ .343 344 345 346 347 350

6 Dec. 6 J a n . , 1649. 20 J a n . 30 J a n .

Pride's Purge T h e king's trial

. .

T h e h i g h court of justice E x e c u t i o n o f the k i n g CHAPTER

XVI.
COMMONWEALTH.

T H E

ESTABLISHMENT

OF

T H E

19 M a y , 1649.

E n g l a n d d e c l a r e d a free c o m m o n w e a l t h State o f parties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . T h e m u t i n y o f t h e levellers Affairs o f I r e l a n d . Affairs o f S c o t l a n d

. . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

353 354 355 35^ 357 35^ 359 3^ 361 362 363 364

May. 2 Aug,

C h a r l e s II. refuses t h e S c o t t i s h t e r m s F o r e i g n relations . Battle of Rathmines Cromwell in Ireland

H e storms D r o g h e d a a n d W e x f o r d English rising in Munster 9 M a y , 1650. 1 May. 23 J u n e . 22 J u l y . 3 Sept. C r o m w e l l r e p u l s e d at C l o n m e l H e leaves I r e l a n d . . .

. . .

. . . . . . . . . . .

3^5 366 367

C h a r l e s II. a g r e e s to t h e S c o t t i s h t e r m s T h e last expedition o f M o n t r o s e Charles in Scotland . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . .

C r o m w e l l invades Scotland . Operations r o u n d E d i n b u r g h Battle of Dunbar . . .

3^9 37 37^ 37^ 373 374

Charles regains his independence Charles invades E n g l a n d 3 S e p t . , 1651. Battle of Worcester .

CONTENTS
16 O c t . , 1651. M a y , 1652.

OF

THE

SEVENTH
. . . .

VOLUME.
. . . . . . . .

xvii
PAGE

Charles escapes to F r a n c e Subjugation of Scotland E n d o f the w a r i n Ireland

375 376 377

N a v a l operations . . . . . . . . 37^ T h e A m e r i c a n colonies . . . . . - 3 7 9 S u b m i s s i o n o f the royalists i n Barbados a n d V i r g i n i a . 380

C H A P T E R
T H E E S T A B L I S H M E N T OF

XVII.
T H E P R O T E C T O R A T E .

A F e b . , 1652.

dissolution of parliament desired . . . . . . .

. . .

. . .

. . .

381 382 383 384 . 385 386 387 389 39 391 39 3g3
2

T h e act of oblivion R e s t r a i n t s o n the press P u r i t a n austerity

T h e c o m m i t t e e for the p r o p a g a t i o n o f the G o s p e l T h e r e f o r m of the l a w . . . Relations with France a n d Spain Differences between O c t . , 165!" 18 M a y , 1 6 5 2 . 30 N o v . F e b . , 1653. T h e navigation act . . Blake and T r o m p . . D i s a d v a n t a g e s o f the D u t c h Battle of Dungeness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

England and Holland .

Battle of Portland . G r o w i n g disaffection o f the a r m y T h e b i l l for elections . C r o m w e l l expels the p a r l i a m e n t . . . .

. . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . .

. . .

394 395 39^ 397

20 A p r i l . 4 J ^y
u

T h e m e e t i n g o f the little p a r l i a m e n t P r o c e e d i n g s o f the little p a r l i a m e n t Its u n p o p u l a r i t y . . . . .

. . .

. . . .

399 400 401 402 403 405 406

12 D e c . 16 D e c . 30 J u l y , 1653.

E n d o f t h e little p a r l i a m e n t . . T h e instrument o f government . . C r o m w e l l ' s i n a u g u r a t i o n as protector . B a t t l e of the T e x e l C H A P T E R

T H E F I R S T PERIOD OF

. .

. XVIII.

T H E

P R O T E C T O R A T E .

E a r l y life o f O l i v e r C r o m w e l l 1653-4. H i s legislation as protector. E x t e n t o f C r o m w e l l ' s tolerance T h e Quakers a n d the Jews Glencairn's rebellion . . C r o m w e l l ' s rule in Scotland T h e settlement of Ireland .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . .

. . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

. .

408 * 4 4 41a .413 415 4*5

1 1 1 0

. . . . .

1654*5*

T h e t r a n s p l a n t a t i o n to C o n n a u g h t

416 417 418 419 * 420

5 A p r i l , 1654. VOL. VII.

F a i l u r e o f the project . . . . . Miserable condition of Ireland . . . Peace between E n g l a n d and H o l l a n d . . C r o m w e l l ' s scheme for a protestant l e a g u e .

xviii

POLITICAL

HISTOR

Y OF
. .

ENGLAND.
PAGE

T O J u l y , 1654.

T h e treaty w i t h P o r t u g a l

. . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

.421 422 423 424 425 426 428 430 431 432 433 434 435 436

C r o m w e l l ' s r e l a t i o n s w i t h P r a n c e and. S p a i n Conspiracy of G e r a r d a n d V o w e l l 3 Sept. 11 S e p t . 22 J a n . , 1655. 12 M a r c h . D e c . 1654. M a y , 1655. T h e first p a r l i a m e n t o f t h e p r o t e c t o r a t e T h e irreconcilable republicans excluded D i s s o l u t i o n o f the p a r l i a m e n t Insurrection of G r o v e and Penruddock E s t a b l i s h m e n t of the major-generals T h e W e s t Indian expedition Conquest o f Jamaica . . . . . . . . B l a k e i n the M e d i t e r r a n e a n . 24 O c t . .

T h e persecution o f the W a l d e n s e s Conquests of Charles X . of S w e d e n

T r e a t y between E n g l a n d a n d F r a n c e .

CHAPTER
T H E SECOND PERIOD OF

XIX.
T H E PROTECTORATE.

1656. 9 Sept. 2 April. 17 S e p t .

N a v a l operations against S p a i n Destruction o f the Plate fleet

. .

. .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. .

. . . . * . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

437 43 ^ 439 44 - 4 4 * 442 443 444 446 447 448 449 450 .451 452 453 454 455 456

T r e a t y b e t w e e n C h a r l e s II. a n d P h i l i p I V . . T h e second parliament of the protectorate T h e republican members again excluded T h e case o f J a m e s N a y l o r . . . . . . .

Proposal to m a k e the protectorship hereditary 23 F e b . , 1657. 8 May. 25 M a y . 20 A p r i l . 23 M a r c h . 23 S e p t . 20 J a n . , 1658. 4 Feb. 4 June. 14 J u n e . 3 Sept. T h e address a n d remonstrance A humble petition a n d advice . .

C r o m w e l l d e c l i n e s t h e k i n g l y office Battle of S a n t a Cruz M a r dyke taken . . . . . . . .

H e a c c e p t s the a m e n d e d p e t i t i o n a n d a d v i c e A l l i a n c e between E n g l a n d a n d F r a n c e C r o m w e l l forms his house o f lords S e c o n d session o f the parliament A n abrupt dissolution Battle of the D u n e s Dunkirk taken Strength o f the protectorate D e a t h of Cromwell . , . . . . . . . . . . . .

. .

457 . 4 5 9

CHAPTER
ANARCHY AND

XX.
REACTION.

R i c h a r d C r o m w e l l b e c o m e s protector 27 J a n . , 1659* 21 A p r i l . 7 May. -A- n e w p a r l i a m e n t . . . . T h e republicans cabal w i t h the a r m y T h e a r m y enforces a dissolution . Restoration o f the l o n g p a r l i a m e n t C h a n g e i n foreign policy . . . .

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463 4^4 465 466 467 468

CONTENTS

OF

THE

SEVENTH

VOLUME.
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xix
PAGE

13 O c t . 26 D e c . 3 F e b . , 1660. 21 F e b . 16 M a r c h . 25 A p r i l . S May. 29 M a y .

Insurrection o f Sir G e o r g e B o o t h . . S e c o n d expulsion o f the l o n g parliament . M o n k ' s action . . . . . . T h e a r m y restores the p a r l i a m e n t . . Monk in London Hfe restores t h e s e c l u d e d m e m b e r s . . T h e p a r l i a m e n t dissolves itself . . . T h e declaration from B r e d a . . . M e e t i n g of the c o n v e n t i o n parliament . . Charles proclaimed k i n g H e enters L o n d o n APPENDIX.
O N AUTHORITIES.

469 471 472 474 475 476 477 478 479 480 481

State papers . . . . . . . Parliament a n d parliamentary proceedings . Contemporary historians . . . . . Contemporary lives . . . . . . A u t o b i o g r a p h i e s , m e m o i r s , d i a r i e s , etc. . Pamphlets a n d newspapers F o r e i g n affairs Military history . . . . . . . M o d e r n historians . . . . . . Scottish history . . . . . . . Ireland . . . . . . . .

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483 484 485 486 487 488 489 49 491 49^ 493

MAPS.
(AT T H E E N D OF T H E VOLUME.)

1.

E n g l a n d a n d "Wales to i l l u s t r a t e t h e C i v i l W a r .

2. S c o t l a n d t o i l l u s t r a t e t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f H i g h l a n d C l a n s a n d t h e C a m p a i g n s of Montrose and Cromwell. 3. I r e l a n d t o i l l u s t r a t e t h e R e b e l l i o n o f 1641 a n d t h e C a m p a i g n s o f C r o m w e l l .

CHAPTER

I.

T H E B E G I N N I N G O F T H E R E I G N O F J A M E S I.

E L I Z A B E T H left t o h e r successor a k i n g d o m i n m o s t respects C H A P . u n l i k e t h a t w h i c h she h a d r e c e i v e d f r o m M a r y . T h e E n g l i s h ^" people h a d passed t h r o u g h t h e g r e a t religious crisis a n d h a d m a i n t a i n e d its p e c u l i a r r e f o r m a t i o n a g a i n s t a l l a t t a c k s f r o m within or without. I t h a d w a g e d successful w a r a g a i n s t t h e m i g h t i e s t o f E u r o p e a n k i n g s . I t h a d r e c r u i t e d its i n d u s t r y w i t h t h o u s a n d s o f t h e m o s t s k i l f u l artisans o f t h e c o n t i n e n t a n d h a d earned its commerce t o the extremities of the earth. It h a d gained b y the decline of Italy, Germany, a n d Flanders, a n d h a d only- one r i v a l i n enterprise, t h e n e w r e p u b l i c o f the U n i t e d Netherlands. T h e c o m m o n people enjoyed more abundance a n d lighter t a x a t i o n t h a n i n a n y other country of equal extent. T h e nobility and gentry displayed a magnificence i n t h e i r m a n s i o n s , dress, a n d e n t e r t a i n m e n t s s u r p a s s i n g a l l t h a t h a d y e t been k n o w n i n E n g l a n d . E l i z a b e t h h a d effected, a l t h o u g h at a fearful cost i n h u m a n m i s e r y , t h e t h o r o u g h subjection of Ireland. T h e new monarch united Scotland w i t h i t s a n c i e n t r i v a l . T h e B r i t i s h Isles at l e n g t h f o r m e d a single g r e a t m o n a r c h y , defended b y t h e sea against a l l a t t a c k f r o m w i t h o u t . T h e t w o most v i g o r o u s c o n t i n e n t a l states, F r a n c e u n d e r H e n r y I V . a n d t h e D u t c h r e p u b l i c , were allies o f t h e E n g l i s h c r o w n . H o l d i n g t h e balance o f E u r o p e , E n g l a n d h a d a l l t h e consequence a b r o a d t h a t reasonable E n g l i s h m e n c o u l d wish.^ A t h o m e e v e r y t h i n g seemed t o p r o m i s e a l o n g p e r i o d o f quiet. J a m e s V I . o f S c o t l a n d was i n h i s t h i r t y - s e v e n t h y e a r a t t h e d e a t h o f E l i z a b e t h . A s h i s m o t h e r h a d b e e n d e p o s e d a few m o n t h s after h i s b i r t h , h i s r e i g n was n e a r l y c o - e q u a l w i t h h i s
V O L . VII.
I

THE BEGINNING

OF THE REIGN

OF JAMES

1603

C H A P , life, a n d at t h e age o f eighteen h e b e c a m e sovereign i n fact as w e l l as i n n a m e . H e m a r r i e d i n 1589 A n n e , d a u g h t e r o f F r e d e r i c k I I . o f D e n m a r k . H e h a d s t e a d i l y p u r s u e d two o b jects. T h e first was t o m a k e h i m s e l f absolute i n S c o t l a n d . B y balancing the catholics against the protestants, a n d t h e ministers against the nobles, he h a d succeeded at least so far that he was more n e a r l y m a s t e r t h a n a n y o f h i s predecessors. T h e second object was to ensure h i s succession to E n g l a n d w h e n E l i z a b e t h should die. F o r t h i s he h a d b y turns s u p p o r t e d E l i z a b e t h a n d intrigued w i t h h e r enemies, the pope a n d t h e K i n g o f S p a i n . F o r this he h a d s h o w n h i m s e l f at one t i m e zealous i n t h e protestant cause, at another t i m e o p e n t o catholic argument. I n order to further the same a m b i t i o n he h a d tried t o lessen the difference between the S c o t t i s h a n d the E n g l i s h C h u r c h e s . A l t h o u g h h e cannot be s a i d to have a p p r o v e d h i m s e l f a great k i n g , he h a d d i s p l a y e d astuteness a n d e n e r g y e n o u g h to justify the o p i n i o n that he w o u l d be successful i n r u l i n g E n g l a n d , a n d that the ample power w h i c h he received f r o m the last T u d o r w o u l d not be i m p a i r e d u n d e r his government. I t p r o v e d otherwise. T h r o u g h out the reign o f J a m e s , p a r t l y i n consequence o f h i s o w n faili*i p a r t l y t h r o u g h t h e change i n p o l i t i c a l conditions, the strength a n d the majesty o f t h e c r o w n w e r e always d w i n d l i n g .
I% s

T h e character of J a m e s is difficult to trace. H e c o m b i n e d some respectable qualities w i t h m a n y grotesque foibles. He was o n the w h o l e a w e l l - m e a n i n g ruler w h o desired to use h i s power for the g o o d o f his subjects. H e was n o t a m a n o f b l o o d ; he strove to preserve peace ; he s e l d o m k n o w i n g l y perverted justice. A l t h o u g h h e h a d n o grasp o n the p r i n c i p l e o f toleration, he w a s not n a t u r a l l y a persecutor, b u t i n c l i n e d to overlook differences o f o p i n i o n so l o n g as h i s p r e r o g a t i v e was n o t questioned. O n the other h a n d , he was i n d o l e n t , weak, a n d thriftless. L i k e most m e n w h o are v a i n o f their w i s d o m a n d jealous o f t h e i r authority, he was easily l e d b y a l l w h o k n e w h o w t o flatter a n d amuse h i m . H e was n o t sensitive to female charms, but a n y y o u t h w h o was c o m e l y a n d gracious m i g h t h o p e to s w a y his councils. T h e e x t r e m e p e n u r y o f the c r o w n o f Scotland, instead o f t e a c h i n g h i m t h r i f t , h a d l e d h i m to r e g a r d E n g l a n d as a c o u n t r y o f i n e x h a u s t i b l e riches where e c o n o m y w o u l d be needless. W o r s t o f a l l , J a m e s was w a n t i n g i n the k i n g l y virtues o f self-respect a n d courage. A s h e h a d never

1603

CHARACTER

OF JAMES.

k n o w n h i s m o t h e r a n d h a d been m a d e k i n g b y h e r enemies, h e C H A P , c o u l d n o t h a v e b e e n e x p e c t e d to feel m u c h for her, b u t h i s r e l a t i o n s w i t h E l i z a b e t h at the t i m e o f h e r t r i a l are d i s g u s t i n g i n t h e i r meanness. S o m e o f h i s utterances to the p r i v y c o u n c i l a n d t o G o n d o m a r are a l m o s t i n c r e d i b l e i n t h e i r abject w a n t o f d i g n i t y . H i s cowardice t o o k a w a y s o m e o f the m e r i t a n d m u c h o f the h o n o u r d u e t o h i s l o v e o f peace. H i s g r o t e s q u e appearance, h i s r i c k e t y w a l k , h i s r o l l i n g eyes, h i s t o n g u e t o o large for h i s m o u t h , a l t h o u g h m e r e o u t w a r d blemishes, gave a p e c u l i a r e m p h a s i s t o a l l t h a t w a s u n k i n g l y a n d u n m a n l y i n h i s character. H i s n a t u r a l abilities h a v e s o m e t i m e s b e e n u n d u l y d i s p a r a g e d . H i s m i n d w a s acute a n d a r g u m e n t a t i v e . H e w a s k e e n t o see, a n d h u m o r o u s i n e x p o s i n g , t h e w e a k n e s s o f a n adversary's p o s i t i o n . H e h a d a r e a d y c o m m a n d o f speech, s o m e t i m e s rising i n t o eloquence. H i s career i n S c o t l a n d proves t h a t h i s t a l e n t was n o t m e r e l y literary, a n d t h a t h e w a s a s h r e w d a n d resourceful politician. B u t , whatever his abilities m a y have been, his m i n d h a d ceased t o g r o w w h e n h e c a m e t o E n g l a n d , a n d t h e e x p e r i e n c e w h i c h h e h a d g a i n e d i n S c o t l a n d was oftener a h i n drance t h a n a h e l p t o h i s g o v e r n m e n t . H e r e m a i n e d to the last a f o r e i g n e r w h o n e v e r r e a l l y u n d e r s t o o d t h e E n g l i s h character o r E n g l i s h i n s t i t u t i o n s . T h i s w o u l d h a v e m a t t e r e d less h a d h e e n t r u s t e d h i m s e l f t o sagacious E n g l i s h m e n w h o m i g h t g o v e r n in his name. B u t J a m e s w a s o f a l l p r i n c e s t h e least a p t t o m a k e s u c h a n a v o w a l o f h i s i g n o r a n c e . A s h e h a d a stock o f literature m o s t u n u s u a l a m o n g sovereigns, h e was i m m e a s u r a b l y v a i n o f h i s l e a r n i n g a n d u n w e a r i e d i n p r e a c h i n g h i s favourite doctrines, w h e t h e i p o l i t i c a l o r r e l i g i o u s . W i t h t h e dangerous gift o f s t a t i n g h i s p r i n c i p l e s i n a g e n e r a l a n d l o g i c a l f o r m h e h a d t h e p e d a n t i c b a d m a n n e r s w h i c h e x a s p e r a t e to c o n t r a d i c t i o n . H e was p e c u l i a r l y fitted to raise every d a n g e r o u s q u e s t i o n a n d settle n o n e . H i s p o l i t i c a l d o c t r i n e i s m o s t c l e a r l y stated i n his tract, e n t i t l e d The True Law of Free Monarchies. A free m o n a r c h y , t h e o n l y r e a l m o n a r c h y , differs f r o m elective k i n g s h i p or t h e a u t h o r i t y o f a n y r e p u b l i c a n magistrate, h o w e v e r e x a l t e d . A m o n a r c h i n t h e p r o p e r sense i s created b y G o d a n d a c c o u n t a b l e t o G o d o n l y . H e i s a b o v e the l a w , as b o t h i t s a u t h o r a n d t h e g i v e r o f s t r e n g t h thereto. A l l o t h e r authorities i n t h e state d e r i v e t h e i r p o w e r f r o m h i m , a n d o w e h i m absolute o b e d i e n c e .

THE BEGINNING

OF THE REIGN

OF JAMES

1603

C H A P . A g o o d k i n g , i n d e e d , a c k n o w l e d g e s h i m s e l f o r d a i n e d for t h e people, a n d o n l y a t y r a n t t h i n k s h i s p e o p l e o r d a i n e d for h i m s e l f . B u t the r e b e l is a l w a y s a w i c k e d m a n . H e c a n n o t be j u s t i f i e d b y a p p e a l t o a n o r i g i n a l c o m p a c t b e t w e e n k i n g a n d people, for n o m a n c a n b e j u d g e i n h i s o w n cause. N o r c a n he be j u s t i f i e d b y a l l e g i n g d u t y to t h e c o m m o n w e a l t h , f o r a b a d k i n g is n o t s o b a d as a n a r c h y , a n d i n a n y case e v i l i s n o t to b e done t h a t g o o d may follow. N o r m a y t h e success o f t h e r e b e l be t a k e n t o i m p l y G o d ' s a p p r o v a l , since h e is b u t t h e scourge o f a w i c k e d k i n g , afterwards to b e cast i n t o t h e fire. B y patience, p r a y e r , a n d the a m e n d m e n t o f t h e i r lives m e n m a y p r e v a i l w i t h G o d t o r e m o v e t h e curse of t y r a n n y , a n d these are t h e o n l y l a w f u l means o f d e l i v e r a n c e . S u c h were t h e m a x i m s w h i c h J a m e s l o v e d t o i m p r e s s u p o n h i s subjects, b u t m o s t o f a l l u p o n h i s h e i r .
l t

T h e t h e o r y o f the state h e l d b y J a m e s d e t e r m i n e d h i s t h e o r y of C h u r c h government. James m i g h t allow some latitude i n points o f d o c t r i n e a n d o f w o r s h i p ; b u t h e c o u l d n o t a c k n o w ledge a n y i n d e p e n d e n c e i n t h e c l e r g y , s t i l l less a n y c l a i m o f t h e clergy t o g i v e l a w s t o t h e secular ruler. H e n c e h i s e n m i t y t o the R o m a n catholics o n t h e one s i d e a n d o n t h e other to t h e puritans. T h e R o m a n C a t h o l i c C h u r c h c l a i m e d to direct, t o judge, a n d e v e n t o depose m o n a r c h s . A n d r e w M e l v i l l e , w h e n m o d e r a t o r o f t h e g e n e r a l a s s e m b l y , t o l d J a m e s t h a t h e was but " G o d ' s s i l l y vassal," a n d i n C h r i s t ' s k i n g d o m n e i t h e r k i n g nor head nor lord, but only a member. James abhorred b o t h positions. F o r h i m t h e t r u e r e l a t i o n between C h u r c h a n d S t a t e was t h a t w h i c h h e f o u n d i n E n g l a n d , w h e r e there were b i s h o p s a p p o i n t e d a n d c o n t r o l l e d b y t h e c r o w n a n d c o n t r o l l i n g the i n ferior c l e r g y b y w h o m t h e people were instructed. I n his Premonition to JMon&rchs h e tried t o a l a r m h i s b r o t h e r s o v e r e i g n s respecting t h e p a p a l c l a i m o f supreme a u t h o r i t y . H e d e n o u n c e d B e l l a r m m e ' s d o c t r i n e t h a t k i n g s a r e m a d e b y the people a n d m a y i n c e r t a i n cases b e d e t h r o n e d b y t h e m . Bellarmine, he said, " h a t h m a d e t h e p e o p l e a n d subjects o f e v e r y o n e o f u s our superiors ". B e l l a r m i n e w o u l d m a k e a l l k i n g s the subjects o f the pope. I n t h e Bezsihcon Doroti h e w a r n e d h i s s o n a g a i n s t the o p p o s i t e e v i l o f e q u a l i t y i n t h e C h u r c h . T h e S c o t t i s h ministers at t h e t i m e o f t h e r e f o r m a t i o n , he o b s e r v e d , w e r e so possessed w i t h a n i m a g i n e d d e m o c r a c y , t h a t t h e y f e d t h e m s e l v e s w i t h the h o p e o f b e c o m i n g t h e t r i b u n e s o f t h e people. Parity

1603

A CCESSION

OF JAMES.

is t h e m o t h e r o f c o n f u s i o n , a n d e n e m y t o u n i t y w h i c h is the C H A P , m o t h e r o f ordei*. J a m e s , i n short, was a n E r a s t i a n . Whether or n o h e b e l i e v e d g o v e r n m e n t b y bishops t o be a d i v i n e ord i n a n c e , h e believed i t t o b e the o n l y C h u r c h g o v e r n m e n t compatible w i t h monarchy. T h e d e a t h o f E l i z a b e t h h a d t a k e n unawares t h a t p a r t o f the n a t i o n w h i c h l o r various reasons d i s l i k e d a S c o t t i s h successor, a n d J a m e s was i n s t a n t l y p r o c l a i m e d k i n g w i t h o u t a n y show o f resistance. W i t h i n three d a y s t h e news was b r o u g h t t o E d i n b u r g h , a n d o n A p r i l 5 J a m e s set out f o r E n g l a n d . D u r i n g h i s progress s o u t h w a r d s he was so beset w i t h m e n o f r a n k eager t o forestall e a c h o t h e r i n h i s g o o d graces t h a t h e t h o u g h t fit t o issue a p r o c l a m a t i o n f o r b i d d i n g their a p p r o a c h . E v e n a t t h i s e a r l y t i m e h i s m a n n e r , at once u n k i n g l y a n d u n g e n i a l , s o m e w h a t a b a t e d t h e fervour o f his n e w subjects. He s t a r t l e d t h e E n g l i s h respect for l e g a l forms b y o r d e r i n g a t h i e f t a k e n at N e w a r k t o b e h a n g e d w i t h o u t t r i a l , a n d a l a r m e d E n g l i s h p a t r i o t i s m b y the n u m b e r o f h i s c o u n t r y m e n w h o m h e b r o u g h t i n h i s t r a i n . O n M a y 3? reached T h e o b a l d s i n H e r t f o r d s h i r e , t h e stately house o f S i r R o b e r t C e c i l , w h e r e h e b e g a n t o r e w a r d h i s friends a n d choose h i s confidants. He o r d e r e d t h e release o f t h e E a r l o f S o u t h a m p t o n a n d t h e o t h e r accomplices of E s s e x . B u t he wisely refrained from m a k i n g a n y serious c h a n g e i n t h e p r i v y c o u n c i l o r i n t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t offices. T h e ablest o f t h e ministers, S i r R o b e r t C e c i l , secretary o f state, w h o h a d a l r e a d y w o n h i s e n t i r e confidence, h e created B a r o n Cecil of Essendon. H e raised t h e l o r d keeper, E g e r t o n , to be chancellor and B a r o n Ellesmere. H e r e w a r d e d the H o w a r d s for t h e i r support b y r e s t o r i n g t h e e a r l d o m s o f A r u n d e l a n d S u r r e y to y o u n g T h o m a s H o w a r d , L o r d M a l t r a v e r s , son o f E a r l P h i l i p w h o was a t t a i n t e d i n 15 89 > b y r a i s i n g T h o m a s H o w a r d , s e c o n d son o f t h e late D u k e o f N o r f o l k , t o be E a r l o f Suffolk, a n d b y conferring the rank of privy councillor on his uncle, L o r d H e n r y H o w a r d , w h o was created i n the f o l l o w i n g year E a r l o f N o r t h a m p t o n . Places i n the household he m o s t l y r e s e r v e d for h i s S c o t t i s h courtiers, a n d m e r e k n i g h t h o o d h e l a v i s h e d o n S c o t s a n d E n g l i s h a l i k e u n t i l the d i g n i t y b e c a m e almost ridiculous. T h e H o w a r d s r e m a i n e d for m a n y y e a r s t h e m o s t p o w e r f u l f a m i l y i n E n g l a n d , but none of them h a d ability equal to the

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C H A P , f u n c t i o n o f c h i e f m i n i s t e r . T h a t place w a s f r o m t h e first o c c u ' p i e d b y R o b e r t C e c i l , s e c o n d son o f t h e great L o r d B u r g h l e y . C e c i l was about f o r t y years o f age. E a r l y apprenticed to public life, h e h a d b e c o m e secretary i n 1596, a n d o n h i s father's d e a t h succeeded t o m u c h o f h i s father's a u t h o r i t y . I n f e r i o r i n c a p a c i t y , h e was y e t a m a n o f t h e s a m e t y p e ; sedate, prudent, laborious, a n e x c e l l e n t a d m i n i s t r a t o r , a d i g n i f i e d speaker, l i v i n g for public affairs w h i l e n o t careless o f h i s o w n interest. A l t h o u g h he received a p e n s i o n f r o m S p a i n , as d i d several statesmen o f the t i m e , it c a n n o t b e shown t h a t h e g a v e S p a i n a n y t h i n g i n r e t u r n ; a n d a l t h o u g h h e g r e w r i c h i n office, h e does n o t appear to h a v e s o i l e d his h a n d s w i t h a n y g a i n w h i c h was t h e n h e l d t o b e illicit. H e was, i n d e e d , t o o c o l d a n d self-centred to inspire w a r m f r i e n d s h i p . N o r d i d h e i n h e r i t w i t h so m a n y other gifts that large s a g a c i t y w h i c h h a d s o m e t i m e s raised h i s father a b o v e the merely official v i e w o f grave questions. F o r this v e r y r e a s o n he was a l l t h e m o r e assured o f h i s master's favour j for J a m e s , i n the a b o u n d i n g sense o f his o w n w i s d o m , w a n t e d b u t a minister w h o was e q u a l to business a n d left h i m t o choose a policy
l

O n t a k i n g possession o f h i s n e w k i n g d o m J a m e s h a d t o decide w h e t h e r h e w o u l d continue t h e w a r w i t h S p a i n , a n d whether he w o u l d a b i d e b y t h e severe ecclesiastical p o l i c y o f E l i z a b e t h . F r o m t h e first he b e t r a y e d h i s eagerness t o e n d t h e war. S i r W a l t e r R a l e i g h , its most eager advocate, lost m o r e t h a n a n y o t h e r E n g l i s h m a n b y the change o f sovereigns. In q u i c k succession h e was d e p r i v e d o f h i s c a p t a i n c y o f the g u a r d , his w a r d e n s h i p of the Stannaries, h i s p a t e n t for l i c e n s i n g taverns, his g o v e r n m e n t o f Jersey, a n d h i s t e n a n c y o f D u r h a m H o u s e . H o s t i l i t i e s w i t h S p a i n were suspended at t h e earliest possible moment. R o s n y , the most trusted councillor of H e n r y I V . , c o m i n g o n a special e m b a s s y t o get h e l p for t h e D u t c h f r o m t h e K i n g o f E n g l a n d , was c i v i l l y received, b u t found l i t t l e encouragement. T h e persecuted h a d conceived h i g h hopes o f t h e n e w monarch. T h e p u r i t a n s felt assured t h a t J a m e s , w h o h a d b e e n taught f r o m i n f a n c y b y m i n i s t e r s o f t h e S c o t c h k i r k , w o u l d s h o w lenity to C a l v i n i s t s . A p e t i t i o n for c e r t a i n changes i n r i t u a l a n d discipline, e x p r e s s i n g , i t was s a i d , t h e desires o f 1,000 p u r i t a n c l e r g y m e n , a n d h e n c e k n o w n as t h e M i l l e n a r y P e t i t i o n , w a s offered t o J a m e s o n h i s w a y t o L o n d o n . T h e c a t h o l i c s h o p e d

T603

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for m u c h f r o m t h e son of Q u e e n M a r y , w h o h a d sometimes C H A P , m a d e as t h o u g h he were h i m s e l f w i l l i n g to be received i n t o the b o s o m o f t h e true C h u r c h . B u t p u r i t a n s a n d catholics a l i k e w e r e d i s a p p o i n t e d . J a m e s was bent o n s u b d u i n g t h e p u r i t a n s as obstacles t o t h e absolute p o w e r o f t h e c r o w n . H e d i d not w a n t t o t o r m e n t t h e catholics, b u t he m e a n t to keep t h e m at his d i s c r e t i o n , a n d h e c o u l d not afford t o forego t h e recusancy fines, w h i c h w e r e e x a c t e d as heretofore. I n these circumstances t w o p l o t s were f o r m e d against t h e new k i n g , the M a i n and the B y e . T h e B y e P l o t , so c a l l e d t o m a r k i t s s l i g h t e r consequence, h a d for its author a R o m a n c a t h olic priest n a m e d W i l l i a m W a t s o n . A f t e r g a i n i n g favourable assurances f r o m the k i n g , W a t s o n w a s enraged t o l e a r n t h a t t h e recusancy fines w o u l d b e s t r i c t l y levied. H e c o n s p i r e d w i t h W i l l i a m C l a r k e , a n o t h e r priest, a n d t h e y d r e w i n A n t h o n y Copley, son of S i r g l i o m a s C o p l e y of Gatton, S i r Griffin M a r k 4*am, G e o r g e B r o o k e , b r o t h e r o f L o r d C o b h a m , a n d L o r d G r e y of W i l t o n . B r o o k e was a protestant w i t h p e r s o n a l griefs a g a i n s t J a m e s . G r e y was a p u r i t a n , m o v e d p a r t l y b y t h e h o p e o f o b t a i n i n g f r e e d o m for h i s b r e t h r e n , p a r t l y b y h a t r e d o f t h e E a r l o f S o u t h a m p t o n , n o w h i g h i n the r o y a l favour. Following a m e t h o d f a m i l i a r a n d a p p r o v e d i n S c o t l a n d , t h e conspirators m e a n t to seize t h e i r sovereign a n d e x t o r t h i s consent to w h a t e v e r t h e y s h o u l d ask. T h e y were t o m u s t e r t h e i r followers u n d e r pretence o f offering a p e t i t i o n t o the k i n g . G r e e n w i c h w a s t o b e t h e place a n d J u n e 24 t h e d a y . B u t the p l o t h a v i n g b e e n d i s c l o s e d t o J o h n G e r a r d , a J e s u i t , h e passed o n t h e i n f o r m a t i o n t o h i s p r o v i n c i a l , H e n r y G a r n e t , b y w h o m i t was i m p a r t e d t o t h e p r i v y c o u n c i l , for t h e J e s u i t s were o n t h e worst t e r m s w i t h t h e secular priests. S t i l l earlier i n f o r m a t i o n h a d been given t o t h e B i s h o p o f L o n d o n b y a n i m p r i s o n e d priest n a m e d Barnby. T h e k i n g q u i t t e d G r e e n w i c h o n t h e v e r y d a y chosen, a n d t h e petitioners w h o c a m e u p w e r e too few t o a t t e m p t a r i s i n g . S o o n a l l t h e ringleaders w e r e prisoners. I n g r a t i t u d e J a m e s p r o m i s e d t o a c a t h o l i c d e p u t a t i o n that the recusancy fines should not be exacted. T h e o t h e r plot, t h e M a i n , appeared at least more f o r m i d a b l e . T h e prospect o f a S c o t t i s h k i n g h a d been displeasing t o m a n y E n g l i s h m e n , a n d some w o u l d h a v e preferred A r a b e l l a S t u a r t , great-grand-daughter of Margaret T u d o r a n d her second hus-

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C H A P , b a n d , t h e E a r l o f A n g u s , as E l i z a b e t h ' s successor. T h e c a t h o ^ * lies w o u l d g l a d l y h a v e seen E l i z a b e t h succeeded b y a c a t h o l i c o r at least b y s o m e one p l e d g e d t o t o l e r a t i o n . T h e S p a n i s h g o v e r n m e n t , helpless t o enforce t h e c l a i m o f t h e I n f a n t a Isabella, w o u l d h a v e favoured even a p r o t e s t a n t h e i r t h u s p l e d g e d . J a m e s h a d b e e n p r e p a r e d t o l o o k for secret o p p o s i t i o n . W h e n W a t s o n ' s p l o t h a d been revealed, B r o o k e ' s p a r t i n i t d r e w suspicion u p o n h i s b r o t h e r C o b h a m . S o m e o f W a t s o n ' s accomplices b e l i e v e d t h a t C o b h a m h a d p l o t t e d w i t h R a l e i g h to dethrone the k i n g . R a l e i g h h a d l o n g been noted b y R o b e r t C e c i l a n d H e n r y H o w a r d as a disaffected a n d dangerous p e r s o n . H e was s u m m o n e d before t h e c o u n c i l a n d q u e s t i o n e d as t o Cobham's conduct. S o m e w h a t later a n d o f h i s o w n a c c o r d R a l e i g h wrote a letter to Cecil accusing C o b h a m of intrigues w i t h t h e C o u n t o f A r e m b e r g , w h o represented i n E n g l a n d t h e A r c h d u k e A l b e r t a n d h i s wife, t h e I n f a n t a Isabella, rulers o f the S p a n i s h N e t h e r l a n d s . C o b h a m w a s t h e n arrested, a n d a few d a y s afterwards R a l e i g h f o l l o w e d h i m t o t h e T o w e r . R a l e i g h w r o t e a n o t h e r letter t o C o b h a m t o t h e effect that he h a d c l e a r e d C o b h a m i n h i s e x a m i n a t i o n before t h e c o u n c i l , a n d either R a l e i g h o r his messenger a d d e d t h e r e m a r k t h a t one witness was n o t e n o u g h t o c o n v i c t o n a c h a r g e o f treason. T h e letter c a m e i n t o t h e h a n d s o f t h e c o u n c i l a n d n e c e s s a r i l y deepened t h e s u s p i c i o n against R a l e i g h . C o b h a m , w h e n h e saw the letter w h i c h R a l e i g h h a d w r i t t e n t o C e c i l , fell i n t o a r a g e a n d declared t h a t w h a t e v e r h a d been d o n e a m i s s h a d b e e n p r o m p t e d b y R a l e i g h . C o b h a m p r e s e n t l y r e t r a c t e d t h i s statement, but R a l e i g h p r e j u d i c e d h i s o w n case s t i l l m o r e b y a n a t t e m p t to c o m m i t suicide. H e w a s h i m s e l f e x a m i n e d several times, but w e d o n o t possess h i s answers. A f t e r B r o o k e a n d other persons c o n c e r n e d i n t h e B y e h a d b e e n r e p e a t e d l y e x a m ined,^ the c o u n c i l t h o u g h t t h a t i t h a d m a t t e r e n o u g h t o p r o v e R a l e i g h ' s g u i l t j a n d as t h e p l a g u e h a d caused t h e r e m o v a l o f the courts o f l a w t o W i n c h e s t e r , R a l e i g h w a s sent t h i t h e r t o t a k e h i s trial. S o m u c h h a t e d was R a l e i g h at this t i m e t h a t h e was i n danger o f h i s life f r o m t h e m o b w h e n p a s s i n g t h r o u g h London. O n N o v e m b e r 17, R a l e i g h a p p e a r e d before a c o m m i s s i o n which included Secretary Cecil, L o r d C h i e f Justice P o p h a m , a n d other judges, l o r d s , a n d g e n t l e m e n . S i r E d w a r d Coke, the

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9
C H I A P

a t t o r n e y - g e n e r a l , prosecuted i n a s p i r i t t o o c o m m o n t h e n , h o w ever r e v o l t i n g i t m a y s e e m n o w . H e spared no term of revili n g . T h e p r i s o n e r was a n o d i o u s fellow, a m o n s t e r , a v i p e r , a t r a i t o r , a n atheist. R a l e i g h d e f e n d e d h i m s e l f w i t h a courage a n d acuteness w h i c h even i n h i m r a i s e d surprise a n d t u r n e d the s y m p a t h y o f t h e p u b l i c , t h o u g h t h e y c o u l d n o t c h a n g e t h e event o f t h e t r i a l . T h e o n l y w e i g h t y e v i d e n c e against h i m was C o b h a m ' s confession. R a l e i g h p r o d u c e d a letter f r o m C o b h a m o w n i n g t h a t h e h a d l i e d , b u t the a t t o r n e y - g e n e r a l h a d i n reserve a n o t h e r letter i n w h i c h C o b h a m d i s a v o w e d h i s recantation a n d w e n t b a c k to h i s first story. R a l e i g h p r a y e d i n v a i n t h a t he m i g h t be c o n f r o n t e d w i t h C o b h a m . . T h e r e m a i n i n g e v i d e n c e w a s m o s t l y hearsay, the a t t o r n e y - g e n e r a l g o i n g so far as t o p u t i n t h e d e p o s i t i o n o f one D y e r , a p i l o t , w h o at L i s b o n h a d h e a r d a P o r t u g u e s e g e n t l e m a n s a y t h a t J a m e s w o u l d never be c r o w n e d , for D o n R a l e i g h a n d D o n C o b h a m w o u l d cut h i s throat ere that d a y came. A t r i a l thus c o n d u c t e d left the p r i s o n e r n o h o p e . R a l e i g h w a s f o u n d g u i l t y o f h i g h treason a n d received sentence of death. T h e c o m m o n e r s accused o f t a k i n g p a r t i n t h e B y e h a d a l r e a d y been c o n v i c t e d , a n d C o b h a m a n d G r e y were f o u n d g u i l t y b y t h e peers the d a y after R a l e i g h ' s t r i a l . Watson and C l a r k e w e r e e x e c u t e d w i t h a l l the c r u e l t y w h i c h t h e sentence for t r e a s o n m a d e possible. B r o o k e suffered a few d a y s later. T h e k i n g d i d n o t i n t e n d t h a t t h e r e m a i n i n g prisoners s h o u l d d i e , b u t he w i s h e d to learn a l l t h a t t h e presence o f d e a t h c o u l d m o v e t h e m t o say. W^arrants w e r e therefore i s s u e d f o r the e x e c u t i o n o f C o b h a m , G r e y , a n d M a r k h a m , a n d o n D e c e m b e r 10 t h e y w e r e b r o u g h t out to the scaffold. W h e n each h a d m a d e w h a t h e d e e m e d h i s d y i n g speech, h e was r e m o v e d to separate c o n f i n e m e n t a n d was t o l d t h a t h e h a d been r e p r i e v e d . Grey d e c l a r e d t h a t h e h a d w i t h d r a w n f r o m t h e B y e as soon as h e u n d e r s t o o d i t s r e a l purpose. C o b h a m persisted i n h i s c h a r g e a g a i n s t R a l e i g h w i t h o u t a n y a t t e m p t t o e x p l a i n h i s self-contrad i c t i o n . R a l e i g h , whose e x e c u t i o n h a d b e e n f i x e d f o r a l a t e r d a y , was also g r a n t e d a reprieve. A l l three were c a r r i e d b a c k to L o n d o n a n d placed i n the T o w e r , where they learnt that t h e i r l i v e s w o u l d b e spared. T h e o t h e r c r i m i n a l s were b a n i s h e d the k i n g d o m . C o b h a m a n d G r e y died i n prison. R a l e i g h was t o c o m e f o r t h m a n y years l a t e r b u t o n l y t o f u l f i l h i s t r a g i c

to CHAP,

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destiny.

It is p r o b a b l e t h a t R a l e i g h h a d b e e n adverse t o t h e

succession o f J a m e s a n d w o u l d h a v e w i s h e d to see A r a b e l l a queen, b u t i m p r o b a b l e t h a t he c o n s p i r e d a g a i n s t J a m e s w h e n once o n the throne.* T h e passion for u n r a v e l l i n g obscure p l o t s a n d t h e interest a t t a c h i n g to a m a n so r e m a r k a b l e as R a l e i g h h a v e g i v e n the M a i n a c e l e b r i t y out o f a l l p r o p o r t i o n to its consequence. How the k i n g w o u l d treat t h e differences i n t h e C h u r c h was of far graver m o m e n t t o t h e p u b l i c . A l t h o u g h t h e p u r i t a n s were a small part of t h e n a t i o n , t h e y were n u m e r o u s i n t h a t m i d d l e class which was d a i l y gaining i n vigour a n d independence, a n d t h e y h a d a l l the p o w e r w h i c h c o m e s o f b e i n g serious as w e l l as o f b e i n g narrow. A s y e t t h e breach b e t w e e n t h e m a n d t h e rulers of the C h u r c h w a s not irreparable. M a n y o f t h e bishops w e r e C a l v i n i s t i c i n d o c t r i n e a n d the p u r i t a n s d i d n o t y e t reject episcopacy as c o n t r a r y t o t h e w o r d o f G o d . P u r i t a n i s m was s t i l l rather a t e n d e n c y t h a n a creed, a n d t h e wisest servants o f t h e c r o w n were m o s t disposed t o treat t h e p u r i t a n s w i t h l e n i t y . L o r d Burghley had blamed the inquisitorial demands made on t h e m i n 1583* B a c o n still v e n t u r e d t o p l e a d f o r tolerance i n matters not essential t o t h e f a i t h . B u t o n t h i s subject J a m e s was even less d i s p o s e d to t a k e a d v i c e t h a n o n a n y other. He was f u l l y resolved t o u p h o l d the b i s h o p s w i t h h i s power, b u t he p r o b a b l y h o p e d t o overawe t h e p u r i t a n s w i t h h i s l e a r n i n g . He therefore gave orders f o r a conference w h e r e b o t h parties s h o u l d state their views to h i m as president, a n d h e s h o u l d d e c i d e t h e i r differences. H a d h e k n o w n as m u c h o f h u m a n n a t u r e as o f school d i v i n i t y , h e w o u l d h a v e k n o w n t h a t t h e o l o g i c a l disputes are o n l y inflamed b y debates between theologians. T h e conference o p e n e d at H a m p t o n C o u r t o n J a n u a r y 14, 1604. A u t h o r i t y was represented b y t h e A r c h b i s h o p o f C a n t e r bury, e i g h t bishops, five deans, a n d t w o o t h e r c l e r g y m e n . The puritans were represented b y R e y n o l d s , D e a n o f L i n c o l n , Sparke, K n e w s t u b s , a n d C h a d e r t o n . T h e parties d i d n o t m e e t o n a n equal f o o t i n g a n d the p u r i t a n s w e r e e x c l u d e d d u r i n g t h e first d a y w h i l e t h e k i n g w a s r e c o m m e n d i n g c e r t a i n changes t o the bishops. O n t h e second d a y t h e p u r i t a n s w e r e a d m i t t e d t o state their grievances a n d t h e i r desires, R e y n o l d s u s u a l l y a c t i n g
1

Martin A . S. H u m e , Sir Walter Raleigh, c h . xii.

1604

THE HAMPTON

COURT

CONFERENCE.

It

as s p o k e s m a n . T h e y a s k e d for c e r t a i n changes i n the articles C H A P , a n d for t h e a d d i t i o n to t h e m o f t h e so-called L a m b e t h A r t i c l e s o f ^' 1595 w h i c h w o u l d h a v e a d d e d to t h e o l d burdens u p o n conscience t h e w e i g h t o f a C a l v i n i s t i c f o r m u l a r e g a r d i n g grace a n d p r e d e s t i n a t i o n . T h e y d w e l t o n t h e f a m i l i a r objections t o certain ceremonies. T h e y enforced t h e n e e d o f a learned a n d a p r e a c h i n g m i n i s t r y , a n d t h e y desired a n e w a n d m o r e correct v e r s i o n o f t h e S c r i p t u r e s . T h e tone o f t h e bishops, especially o f B a n croft, B i s h o p o f L o n d o n , was n o t a l w a y s m a r k e d b y t e m p e r o r c h a r i t y ; b u t J a m e s f o r a w h i l e m a i n t a i n e d his d i g n i t y as p r e s i dent, a l t h o u g h h e d i d n o t h i d e h i s feelings, a n d s a i d f r a n k l y : I t is m y a p h o r i s m , n o b i s h o p , n o k i n g . A t l e n g t h , R e y n o l d s p r o p o s e d t h e r e v i v a l o f p r o p h e s y i n g s w i t h a reference o f d i s p u t e d p o i n t s t o t h e b i s h o p w i t h h i s presbyters. T h a t w o r d was e n o u g h t o d r i v e t h e k i n g out o f a l l patience. " I f y o u a i m at a S c o t t i s h p r e s b y t e r y , " h e b r o k e f o r t h , " i t agreeth as w e l l w i t h m o n a r c h y as G o d a n d t h e d e v i l . T h e n J a c k a n d T o m a n d W i l l a n d D i c k s h a l l m e e t a n d censure m e a n d m y c o u n c i l a n d a l l o u r p r o c e e d ings. T h e n \A^ill s h a l l s t a n d u p a n d s a y , I t m u s t b e t h u s \ t h e n D i c k s h a l l r e p l y , a n d say, N a y , m a r r y , b u t w e w i l l h a v e i t thus." N o t e v e n at t h e e n d d i d h e regain h i s temper. "If t h i s b e a l l t h a t t h e y h a v e t o say,"" were h i s last w o r d s , " I s h a l l m a k e t h e m c o n f o r m themselves, o r I w i l l h a r r y t h e m out o f the l a n d , o r else d o worse." A t a final s i t t i n g o f t h e k i n g a n d the bishops i t was resolved t o m a k e a few slight changes i n the B o o k of C o m m o n Prayer, a n d t o a p p o i n t c o m m i s s i o n s o f i n q u i r y h o w best t o o b t a i n a p l e a c h i n g clergy. N o t h i n g m o r e w a s g r a n t e d t o p u r i t a n feeling. S u b s c r i p t i o n to t h e w h o l e o f t h e P r a y e r B o o k a n d t h e A r t i c l e s w a s to b e enforced. T h e n c e f o r w a r d t h e puritans k n e w t h a t the b i s h o p s w o u l d h a v e t h e f u l l support o f the c r o w n as i n the r e i g n of E l i z a b e t h . T h e death of A r c h b i s h o p W h i t g i f t on F e b r u a r y 29, d i d n o t m o d i f y t h e p o l i c y o f t h e b i s h o p s . T h e H a m p t o n C o u r t conference f a i l e d t o restore h a r m o n y i n the C h u r c h o f E n g l a n d , b u t i t e n r i c h e d E n g l i s h literature. F o r t h e k i n g was l e d b y h i s l o v e o f l e a r n i n g to g r a n t t h e request for a n e w t r a n s l a t i o n o f t h e B i b l e ; a n d to h i s care w e o w e w h a t is k n o w n as t h e a u t h o r i s e d v e r s i o n w h i c h a p p e a r e d i n 1612. T h e k i n g i s s u e d h i s p r o c l a m a t i o n for a n e w p a r l i a m e n t i n J a n u a r y . A m o n g other i n j u n c t i o n s h e b a d e t h e people choose

t2

THE BEGINNING

OF TltE

RElGN

OF JAMES

1604

C H A P , n o b a n k r u p t s o r outlaws, b u t m e n o f k n o w n g o o d b e h a v i o u r ^ * a n d sufficient l i v e l i h o o d . A l l r e t u m s o f elections were t o be m a d e t o t h e chancery, a n d , i f t h e y w e r e f o u n d n o t t o c o n f o r m t o t h e p r o c l a m a t i o n , w e r e t o b e rejected as unlawful. A l t h o u g h the elections w e r e uneventful, t h e first m e e t i n g o f t h e n e w sovereign w i t h t h e estates o f t h e r e a l m c o u l d n o t b u t fix expectation. N e v e r h a d t h e r e been so m a n y m e m b e r s a t t e n d i n g i n t h e i r places o n t h e first d a y o f t h e session as w h e n p a r l i a m e n t a s s e m b l e d o n M a r c h 19. T h e k i n g ' s speech was n o t w i t h o u t d i g n i t y . H e c o n g r a t u l a t e d h i s p e o p l e o n the blessi n g s w h i c h h e h a d b r o u g h t i n h i s t r a i n , peace a n d the u n i o n o f E n g l a n d and Scotland. H e explained his policy w i t h regard to differences i n r e l i g i o n . T h e p u r i t a n s c o u l d n o t be suffered i n t h e c o m m o n w e a l t h , because t h e y w e r e ever d i s c o n t e n t e d w i t h t h e present g o v e r n m e n t a n d u n w i l l i n g t o s u b m i t t o a n y f o r m o f authority. T h e p a p i s t s h e w i s h e d t o t r e a t w i t h m i l d n e s s , espec i a l l y those l a y m e n w h o w o u l d q u i e t l y o b e y the g o v e r n m e n t . T h e i r c l e r g y c o u l d n o t b e t o l e r a t e d so l o n g as t h e y asserted t h e pope's c i v i l j u r i s d i c t i o n over sovereigns. N o r w o u l d he a l l o w the papists t o m a k e converts a n d increase u n t i l t h e y b e c a m e dangerous. W h i l e h e p r o m i s e d a l w a y s t o prefer t h e c o m m o n a d v a n t a g e i n m a k i n g g o o d laws t o h i s p r i v a t e ends, h e s a i d n o t h i n g w h i c h i m p l i e d a w i s h t o k n o w m o r e about t h e t h o u g h t s a n d feelings o f his n e w subjects o r readiness to y i e l d a n y t h i n g i n cases w h e r e their wishes m i g h t differ f r o m h i s o w n . I n t h e house o f c o m m o n s t h e r e was scarcely a n y o n e e n t i t l e d t o c l a i m even t h e i n f o r m a l a n d precarious l e a d e r s h i p w h i c h alone was possible at t h a t t i m e . Y e t f r o m t h e first t h e house s h o w e d n o w a n t o f decision. I t i m m e d i a t e l y t o o k i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n t w o cases o f p r i v i l e g e . A f t e r some d e l a y a n d t r o u b l e i t enforced the release f r o m t h e F l e e t o f S i r T h o m a s S h i r l e y , m e m b e r for S t e y n i n g , w h o h a d been arrested for a p r i v a t e debt. S i r F r a n c i s G o o d w i n , t h o u g h a n outlaw, h a d b e e n chosen b y t h e c o u n t y o f B u c k i n g h a m i n preference t o S i r J o h n F o r t e s c u e , a p r i v y councillor. W l i e n t h e r e t u r n w a s m a d e , t h e c o u r t o f c h a n c e r y declared t h e election v o i d , a n d i n a s e c o n d e l e c t i o n F o r t e s c u e was r e t u r n e d , G o o d w i n , w h o was n o t a m b i t i o u s t o d e f y t h e c r o w n , h i m s e l f s o l i c i t i n g t h e freeholders i n h i s favour. B u t t h e house c l a i m e d cognisance o f t h e m a t t e r a n d , after h e a r i n g G o o d w i n at t h e b a r , b a d e h i m t a k e h i s seat. T h e n , b y t h e k i n g ' s

1604

GOODWIN'S

CASE.

13

d e s i r e , t h e l o r d s sent to ask t h e c o m m o n s for i n f o r m a t i o n ; a n d C H A P , t h e c o m m o n s , after s o m e d e m u r , a g r e e d t o a conference, i n w h i c h * t h e y set f o r t h t h e i r reasons for a c t i n g as t h e y h a d done. The k i n g i n p e r s o n u r g e d that outlaws w e r e n o t e l i g i b l e a n d t h a t r e t u r n s o u g h t t o be m a d e i n t o chancery. Since the commons d e r i v e d a l l t h e i r p r i v i l e g e s f r o m h i s grant, t h e y s h o u l d n o t t u r n those p r i v i l e g e s a g a i n s t himself. F i n a l l y h e a s k e d t h e m to c o n fer w i t h t h e judges.
l

I n o r d e r t o s h o w t h e i r d u t i f u l temper, t h e c o m m o n s a d o p t e d a b i l l t o d i s q u a l i f y outlaws for t h e future, b u t i n o r d e r t o assert t h e i r p r i v i l e g e s , t h e y chose a c o m m i t t e e to d r a w u p a r e p l y w h i c h t h e y r e q u e s t e d t h e l o r d s t o l a y before t h e k i n g . I n this reply t h e y m a i n t a i n e d t h e i r r i g h t t o d e t e r m i n e r e t u r n s o f elections, a n d refused t o confer w i t h t h e judges. T h e k i n g , after p r e s s i n g s o m e t i m e l o n g e r for s u c h a conference, g a v e w a y , a c k n o w l e d g e d t h e j u r i s d i c t i o n o f t h e house o f c o m m o n s , a n d m e r e l y a s k e d t h a t F o r t e s c u e a n d G o o d w i n m i g h t b o t h b e set aside a n d a n e w e l e c t i o n h e l d . C o n t e n t w i t h h a v i n g established a p r i n c i p l e , t h e house y i e l d e d to the king's w i s h a n d the dispute ended. The p r i n c i p l e w a s i n d e e d essential t o t h e independence o f t h e c o m m o n s . T h a t t h e house h a d a l w a y s been the j u d g e o f d i s p u t e d r e t u r n s w a s n o t e x a c t l y true, a n d t h a t the house w a s n o t a faultless t r i b u n a l for s u c h causes is clear. I n after t i m e s t h e t r i a l o f a n election p e t i t i o n b y t h e w h o l e house b e c a m e a m e r e test o f p a r t y strength, c o n d u c t e d a l m o s t w i t h o u t a pretence o f fairness. B u t i n t h e seventeenth c e n t u r y a n y o t h e r t r i b u n a l w o u l d h a v e been worse. T o refer a d i s p u t e d election t o t h e c o u r t o f c h a n c e r y or a n y other c o u r t w h o l l y dependent o n the k i n g ' s w i l l , w a s t o afford t h e k i n g a sure m e a n s o f p a c k i n g the house. J a m e s h a d e n l a r g e d the scope o f the d e b a t e b y asserting t h a t t h e p r i v i l e g e s o f t h e house s h o u l d n o t be used against h i m , because t h e y w e r e his grant. T h e c l a i m w a s l o g i c a l i f h i s c o n c e p t i o n o f k i n g s h i p was v a l i d , b u t for that v e r y reason t h e c l a i m c o u l d n o t be a l l o w e d , i f p a r l i a m e n t w e r e t o e x i s t o t h e r w i s e t h a n o n sufferance. O n t h i s occasion, h o w e v e r , t h e k i n g s g o o d nature o r h i s l o v e o f q u i e t a v e r t e d t h e conflict w h i c h h i s theories h a d p r o v o k e d , a n d b o t h p a r t i e s h a d reason to be satisfied w i t h the issue o f G o o d w i n ' s case. O t h e r controversies f o l l o w e d . T h e m i x t u r e o f fear a n d affection w h i c h E l i z a b e t h i n s p i r e d h a d w i t h h e l d p a r l i a m e n t f r o m

14

THE BEGINNING

OF THE REIGN

OF JAMES

I.

1604

CHAP, t o u c h i n g grievances w h i c h were m o r e a n d m o r e acutely felt i n

t h e general progress of society. T h e r e f o r m i n g spirit of t h e n e w house o f c o m m o n s m i g h t have been a means o f p o p u l a r i t y a n d power to a k i n g w h o u n d e r s t o o d h o w t o g u i d e i t ; but to J a m e s it p r o v e d a n i r r i t a t i o n a n d a n embarrassment. T h e r o y a l r i g h t of purveyance, t h e r i g h t o f t h e k i n g ' s officers t o t a k e supplies and transport for the k i n g ' s h o u s e h o l d at m o r e or less arbitrary rates, h a d f r o m remote times been t h e cause o f m u c h oppression, w h i c h a l o n g series o f statutes, f r o m M a g n a C a r t a downwards, h a d sought w i t h little success to render impossible. T h e commons drafted a b i l l d e c l a r i n g the abuses o f purveyance illegal, a n d at the same t i m e a petition e x p l a i n i n g t h e i r case t o the k i n g . I n the house o f lords C e c i l m o v e d for a conference w i t h the c o m m o n s o n this subject. W h e n the conference was h e l d , the representatives o f the c o m m o n s insisted t h a t the k i n g was n o t entitled to a n y compensation f o r p u t t i n g d o w n abuses so often forbidden b y law. T h e representatives o f the lords, h i n t i n g that t h e k i n g was i n w a n t o f m o n e y , proposed to offer h i m a n annual revenue o f ^50,000 i n lieu o f t h e r i g h t o f p u r v e y ance itself, a d d i n g the curious a r g u m e n t that, as there were m a n y penal statutes w h i c h t h e k i n g d i d n o t enforce, he m i g h t f a i r l y expect some indulgence i n r e t u r n . A n o t h e r grievance was the s u r v i v a l o f tenure i n c h i v a l r y l o n g after w a r h a d ceased to b e w a g e d w i t h feudal levies. W i t h the m i l i t a r y tenures r e m a i n e d the oppressive r i g h t s o f the c r o w n over its tenants. O n the death o f a tenant i n c h i v a l r y his h e i r under age became t h e king's w a r d . I f h e left a n heiress, she c o u l d not m a r r y w i t h o u t the king's consent. T h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f the court o f wards was so b a d as to inflict h e a v y loss o n the estates entrusted t o its care, a n d the r o y a l power over the m a r riage o f heiresses m a d e t h e m the p r e y o f m e n w h o h a d influence w i t h the k i n g . T h e e x t i n c t i o n o f t h e m i l i t a r y tenures i n return for a fixed m o n e y revenue f u l l y e q u a l t o a l l t h a t the c r o w n derived f r o m t h e m w o u l d have been a n unspeakable b o o n to the m i l i t a r y tenants, a n d a g a i n to t h e w h o l e c o m m u n i t y . E a r l y i n the session, therefore, the c o m m o n s asked the lords t o j o i n w i t h t h e m i n a p e t i t i o n t o the k i n g f o r relief. A s the lords were a m o n g those w h o suffered most b y the continuance o f t h e m i l i t a r y tenures, they agreed t o d o so, b u t w h e n the c o m m o n s some time afterwards proposed to settle u p o n the k i n g i n r e t u r n

{ENT

AND

THE

CHURCH.

15

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i

J, . .-."'y, r
1 111

/ * is feudal rights a l a r g e r revenue t h a n he C H A P . f r o m t h e m , a n d to pension the officers o f the . the l o r d s d r e w b a c k a n d a d v i s e d that n o t h i n g . one u n t i l the f o l l o w i n g session. T h e y counselled 1 several circumstances h a d w r o u g h t u p t h e k i n g
1 1

.',!!, re. _ i u . 1^\" l e s i r e for a n entire a n d i m m e d i a t e u n i o n o f \. jVvjland w i t h S c o t l a n d h a d f o u n d n o response i n the l o w e r I i'lise, w h e r e the o l d n a t i o n a l g r u d g e was refreshed b y h i s p r o b o u n t y to h i s c o u n t r y m e n . W h e n i t was p r o p o s e d t h a t '. . <ies s h o u l d t a k e the style o f K i n g o f G r e a t B r i t a i n , the c o m t i i c n s h e l d t h a t some u n d e r s t a n d i n g as t o the terms o f the u n i o n s h o u l d c o m e first. X h e y w o u l d d o n o m o r e t h a n pass a b i l l f o r n a m i n g t w e n t y - e i g h t commissioners, t a k e n e q u a l l y f r o m b o t h houses, to confer w i t h a l i k e b o d y chosen b y the S c o t t i s h p a r l i a m e n t , a n d to report w h e n t h e p a r l i a m e n t s h o u l d meet for a s e c o n d session. T h e n the c o m m o n s insisted o n d e b a t i n g a subject f r o m w h i c h even E l i z a b e t h h a d scarcely been able to w i t h h o l d t h e m , t h e state o f t h e C h u r c h o f E n g l a n d . T h e m a j o r i t y o f t h e c o m m o n s were w h a t was t h e n t e r m e d puritans, n o t i n d e e d puritans s u c h as afterwards f o u g h t i n the C i v i l ^Var, o p p o s e d o n p r i n c i p l e to g o v e r n m e n t b y bishops a n d to t h e B o o k o f C o m m o n P r a y e r , b u t p u r i t a n s i n the sense of d e s i r i n g that m i n i s t e r s w h o scrupled at certain ceremonies s h o u l d b e i n d u l g e d , a n d t h a t measures s h o u l d be t a k e n to secure a resident a n d a preaching clergy. I n A p r i l , S i r F r a n c i s H a s t i n g s m o v e d for a c o m m i t t e e to consider h o w r e l i g i o n m i g h t b e strengthened a n d a l e a r n e d m i n i s t r y increased. J a m e s a s k e d the house before p r o c e e d i n g further to confer w i t h c o n v o c a t i o n , b u t t h e c o m m o n s refused t o d o this, w h i l e d e c l a r i n g themselves r e a d y to confer w i t h t h e b i s h o p s as l o r d s o f p a r l i a m e n t B i l l s for p r o v i d i n g a l e a r n e d a n d g o d l y m i n i s t r y a n d for a b a t i n g pluralities were passed b y t h e c o m m o n s b u t lost i n the house o f lords. Vexed at a l l these crosses, the k i n g c a m e d o w n t o the p a r l i a m e n t o n M a y 30 a n d addressed a f o r m a l r e b u k e to the c o m m o n s . Such r e b u k e s h a d n o t y e t b e e n b l u n t e d b y frequency. A n x i o u s to s h o w t h e i r deference, t h e c o m m o n s said n o t h i n g m o r e about w a r d s h i p a n d purveyance, b u t h u r r i e d f o r w a r d t h e b i l l a p p o i n t i n g c o m m i s s i o n e r s t o treat for a u n i o n . T h e y were not, h o w ever, d i s p o s e d to o w n themselves c u l p r i t s . T h e y p r e p a r e d a n

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THE BEGINNING

OF THE REIGN

OF JAMJzS I.

16c \

C H A P , a p o l o g y f o r t h e i r p r o c e e d i n g s w h i c h r e m a i n s one o f t h e m o i ; i n s t r u c t i v e d o c u m e n t s o f t h a t age. I n t e r m s o f p r o f o u n d respect t h e c o m m o n s l a m e n t e d t h a ; t h e k i n g h a d been m i s i n f o r m e d as t o certain* m a t t e r s : namely < / t h a t the p r i v i l e g e s o f t h e house w e r e o f grace, n o t o f r i g h t , r e n e w e d e v e r y p a r l i a m e n t o n t h e i r p e t i t i o n ; t h a t t h e house o: c o m m o n s was n o t a c o u r t o f r e c o r d 5 a n d t h a t the e x a m i n a t i o n o f election returns b e l o n g e d n o t to t h e m b u t t o t h e c h a n c e r y T h e y asserted t h a t t h e i r p r i v i l e g e s were t h e i r d u e inheritance, n o less t h a n t h e i r l a n d s a n d goods, t h a t t h e i r house was a court o f record, a n d t h a t i t was t h e sole rightful j u d g e o f the election o f its m e m b e r s . T h e y d e c l a r e d t h a t t h e i r p r i v i l e g e s h a d been m o r e d a n g e r o u s l y i m p u g n e d t h a n at a n y f o r m e r t i m e , t h e i r freed o m o f election i m p e a c h e d , t h e i r f r e e d o m o f speech i m p a i r e d b y m a n y reproofs, a n d t h e i r house m a d e c o n t e m p t i b l e i n the eyes o f the w o r l d . " T h e prerogatives o f princes, t h e y s a i d , " m a y easily a n d d o d a i l y g r o w ; t h e p r i v i l e g e s o f t h e subject are for the most p a r t at a n e v e r l a s t i n g s t a n d . T h e y m a y be b y g o o d providence a n d care preserved, b u t b e i n g once lost are not recovered but w i t h m u c h disquiet." T h e i r l o n g debates r e g a r d i n g the proposed u n i o n b e t w e e n E n g l a n d a n d S c o t l a n d t h e y e x cused b y t h e newness a n d grave consequences o f t h a t measure. A s to the C h u r c h , t h e y e x p r e s s l y d e n i e d the p o w e r o f t h e c r o w n to " a l t e r r e l i g i o n " o r t o m a k e a n y l a w c o n c e r n i n g i t otherwise t h a n b y consent o f p a r l i a m e n t . F o r themselves t h e y d i s c l a i m e d a n y w i s h to dispute u p o n d o c t r i n e o r to change government. T h e y h a d m e r e l y w i s h e d to restore u n i t y b y a b a n d o n i n g some s m a l l ceremonies, t o r e f o r m c e r t a i n abuses a n d to f u r n i s h t h e k i n g d o m w i t h a l e a r n e d a n d g o d l y m i n i s t i y . W i t h respect to the f e u d a l tenures, t h e y h a d proceeded b y w a y o f petition, as the k i n g h a d encouraged t h e m t o d o i f t h e y felt themselves b u r d e n e d . T h e y stood n o t i n place t o speak or d o t h i n g s pleasing. T h e i r care w a s a n d m u s t b e to confirm t h e love a n d to t i e the hearts o f the subjects m o s t firmly t o h i s majesty. T h e p i t h o f the a p o l o g y l a y i n t h e c o n t e n t i o n t h a t t h e privileges o f t h e c o m m o n s o f E n g l a n d were t h e i r l a w f u l i n h e r i tance, a l l forms w h i c h m i g h t b e t a k e n to i m p l y t h e c o n t r a r y
Parliamentary History, i . , 1030; Calendar E d w . V l . - J a m e s I., viii., *jo.
1

of State

Papers, Domestic,

: HE APOLOGY

OF THE COMMON'S.

1? CHAP.
I.

;ng. S u c h a c l a i m c o n t r a d i c t e d beliefs f i r m l y h e l d r.orced b y K i n g J a m e s . F o r , if k i n g l y power a d m i t s ' ; : ;t b y l a w , n o n e o f h i s subjects c a n h a v e a n y legal v * "<"..,.' the* k i n g . T h e i r liberties are m a t t e r o f grace, IUML' \ " the k i n g to j u d g e w h e n they h a v e been so far : Le s h o u l d r e c a l l t h e m . If, o n the c o n t r a r y , subjects h a v e a n y l e g a l right a g a i n s t t h e k i n g , the k i n g is n o t absolute b u t l i m i t e d b y l a w , a n d h o w far he s h a l l be l i m i t e d is a q u e s t i o n o f c o n v e n i e n c e m e r e l y . T h e r e h a d been m a n y conflicts between k i n g s a n d p a r l i a m e n t s i n the past, b u t the conflict b e t w e e n o p p o s i n g theories o f g o v e r n m e n t h a d never been so m a n i f e s t as o n t h i s occasion., T h e c a r e o f t h e c o m m o n s to p u t t h e i r d o c t r i n e o n r e c o r d was j u s t i f i e d b y the p r e g n a n t observation t h a t the prerogatives of princes do d a i l y g r o w , w h i l e t h e p r i v i l e g e s o f the subject are for the m o s t p a r t at a stand. S u c h h a d been the history of France, o f Castile, of A r a g o n , a n d of other cont i n e n t a l k i n g d o m s , a n d s u c h m i g h t w e l l have been t h e h i s t o r y o f E n g l a n d . B y a l a r m i n g h i s subjects i n t i m e J a m e s r e n d e r e d to E n g l i s h l i b e r t y a service o f w h i c h h e was unaware. i i
1 ; 4

T h e a p o l o g y , a l t h o u g h c o m p l e t e d a n d r e a d i n t h e house, was never presented t o t h e k i n g , but the c o m m o n s s h o w e d t h e i r t e m p e r i n another w a y w h i c h h e must h a v e felt as 'keenly. O n his behalf they were asked to grant a supply, nor was the d e m a n d unreasonable, as the b e g i n n i n g o f a n e w r e i g n i n v o l v e d s o m e e x t r a o r d i n a r y expenses. T h e house t o o k a d v a n t a g e o f t h e f a c t t h a t m u c h o f t h e last subsidies voted t o E l i z a b e t h h a d n o t y e t been collected. U n t i l t h i s h a d been done, t h e y said, precedents forbade a fresh grant. T h e k i n g t h e r e u p o n w r o t e a letter t o t h e c o m m o n s d i s c l a i m i n g a n y w i s h for a further s u p p l y , a n d t h e c o m m o n s w e n t o n t o c o n s i d e r the grievances o f the subject. A m o n g these grievances n o n e was m o r e v e x a t i o u s t h a n t h e c u r t a i l m e n t o f t h e l i b e r t y o f t r a d e w i t h foreign l a n d s b y t h e privileges o f the t r a d i n g companies. These companies h e l d a l l t h e fields w h i c h h a d b e e n w o n for E n g l i s h c o m m e r c e since the death of H e n r y V I I I . T h e R u s s i a trade w a s m o n o p o l i s e d b y t h e M u s c o v y C o m p a n y ; fhe B a l t i c trade b y t h e E a s t l a n d C o m p a n y j t h e t r a d e w i t h t h e shores o f the N o r t h S e a b y t h e M e r c h a n t A d v e n t u r e r s * the M e d i t e r r a n e a n trade b y t h e L e v a n t C o m p a n y j a n d the t r a d e w i t h ^Vest A f r i c a a n d w i t h I n d i a b y t h e c o m p a n i e s n a m e d after those regions. M e r c h a n t s w h o w e r e
y

VOL.

VII.

18 CHAP,

THE BEGINNING

OF THE REIGN

OF JAMES

I i ^ H

not members o f a n y c o m p a n y h a d only the trade w i t h France and, w h e n peace s h o u l d h a v e b e e n c o n c l u d e d , w i t h S p a i n . H o w ever useful p r i v i l e g e d c o m p a n i e s m i g h t b e w h e r e t h e state was u n a b l e t o p r o t e c t o r c o n t r o l its subjects i n t h e i r c o m m e r c e w i t h r e m o t e o r b a r b a r o u s peoples, s u c h a r e s t r a i n t o f t r a d e was clearly excessive a n d h u r t f u l , a n d i t was t h e m o r e g a l l i n g as the members o f t h e c o m p a n i e s w e r e a l m o s t a l l c i t i z e n s o f L o n d o n , so that most o f the foreign t r a d e o f t h e k i n g d o m w a s confined t o a single city. C o m p l a i n t s o f t r a d e r s l e d t h e house t o a p p o i n t a c o m m i t t e e , a n d o n i t s r e p o r t t h e house a d o p t e d a b i l l t h r o w i n g open t h e w h o l e f o r e i g n t r a d e . W h e n t h e b i l l w e n t u p t o t h e house o f lords, however, i t was o p p o s e d b y A t t o r n e y - G e n e r a l Coke and allowed to drop. O n l y i n t h a t m a t t e r w h e r e conflict m i g h t h a v e seemed m o s t probable were t h e k i n g a n d t h e c o m m o n s a b l e t o act i n u n i s o n , J a m e s h a d s o o n r e p e n t e d o f the t o l e r a t i o n w h i c h i n a fit o f g r a t i t u d e h e h a d p r o m i s e d to the R o m a n catholics. D u r i n g t h e last few m o n t h s the catholic priests h a d been r e t u r n i n g t o E n g l a n d b y scores. M a n y catholics w h o h a d h i t h e r t o c o n f o r m e d o u t o f fear n o w absented themselves f r o m the e s t a b l i s h e d w o r s h i p . Some converts were m a d e b y c a t h o l i c missionaries, a n d t h e n u m b e r o f these s p i r i t u a l t r o p h i e s was m a g n i f i e d i n c a t h o l i c r e p o r t . The t i m i d J a m e s was m o r e a n d m o r e a l a r m e d b y t h e increase o f recusants. A s a h u s b a n d , a m o n a r c h , a n d a t h e o l o g i a n he w a s t r e b l y v e x e d to find t h a t Q u e e n A n n e s c a r c e l y s t o o p e d t o h i d e h e r preference for the C h u r c h o f R o m e . In F e b r u a r y he put forth a p r o c l a m a t i o n o r d e r i n g t h e c a t h o l i c priests to d e p a r t t h e r e a l m before the e n d o f M a r c h . W h e n o p e n i n g p a r l i a m e n t h e declared h i s p u r p o s e o f h i n d e r i n g c o n v e r s i o n s t o t h e R o m a n faith. I n M a y h e expressed h i s w i s h f o r n e w l a w s t o h e m t h e papists i n . N o request c o u l d h a v e b e e n m o r e p l e a s i n g to the house o f c o m m o n s . A l t h o u g h f r e e d o m o f conscience was t h e o u t c o m e o f t h a t struggle w h i c h fills t h e seventeenth c e n t u r y , w e m u s t n o t s u p pose t h a t such a result w a s foreseen, far less desired, b y either p a r t y i n the C h u r c h o f E n g l a n d u n d e r J a m e s a n d C h a r l e s . T h e puritans n o less t h a n t h e rulers o f the C h u r c h c l u n g t o t h e m e d i e v a l d o c t r i n e t h a t t h e state was b o u n d t o enforce p u r e religion a n d t o p u n i s h a l l h e r e s y a n d s c h i s m . T h e p u r i t a n s i n d i r e c t l y r e n d e r e d t h e m o s t v a l u a b l e service t o t h e cause o f

! ''cv*. oiv; iv^ 1 i" obstinate assertion o f t h e i r p r i v a t e j u d g m e n t , b y C H A P . 1" . '.' ibi^u''j < *esistance i n the senate a n d the field to a l l official ^ * ', >M c i i l o r c e " c o n f o r m i t y . B u t h a d t h e y been i n t h e seat "a 11'i * , iii^v w o u l d h a v e s h o w n at least as m u c h i n t o l e r a n c e r*s viu"'* '>aries. T h e Romanists they regarded w i t h a ? v \ :' i;;iri^ - i v corned h a t r e d . I t m u s t i n d e e d b e r e m e m b e r e d i n w^ttriiueiLion ot protestant b i g o t r y at t h a t t i m e t h a t t h e R o m a n C h u r c h w a s n o m e r e l y s p i r i t u a l association t r u s t i n g s o l e l y i n spiritual arms. I n the great w o r k o f r e c o n q u e r i n g t h e l a n d s lost t o L u t h e r a n d t o C a l v i n she h a d a l w a y s e m p l o y e d , she "*A*as s t i l l e m p l o y i n g , e v e r y k i n d o f force t h a t w a s available. M e n n o t o l d w h e n J a m e s ascended the E n g l i s h throne could remember the massacre o f S t . B a r t h o l o m e w , t h e d r e a d o f a S p a n i s h i n v a s i o n , the m a n y plots against E l i z a b e t h ' s life. T h e C h u r c h o f R o m e was s t i l l i n a l i t e r a l sense a p o l i t i c a l power, a p o l i t i c a l d a n g e r . S h e m a d e no concealment of her resolution to destroy heresy w h e r e v e r she c o u l d , as a secular g o v e r n m e n t p u t s d o w n b r i g a n d age a n d m u r d e r . H o w far i t w o u l d h a v e been p o s s i b l e for s t a t e s m e n c o n v i n c e d o f the d u t y o f t o l e r a t i o n t o a c c o r d t h e f u l l rights o f c i t i z e n s to E n g l i s h R o m a n catholics at t h a t t i m e is h a r d t o decide. T h a t statesmen w h o t h o u g h t i t t h e i r d u t y t o b e i n t o l e r a n t s h o u l d h a v e v i s i t e d h o n e s t c a t h o l i c s w i t h statutes w h i c h w e t h i n k i n h u m a n a n d a b o m i n a b l e w a s but t o o n a t u r a l . The p a i l i a m e n t l e a d i l y passed a n act c o n f i i m i n g a l l t h e cruel legislat i o n of E l i z a b e t h a n d r e n d e r i n g i t i n c e r t a i n respects even m o r e severe.
1 :

B y t h e t i m e t h a t t h i s a c t h a d b e e n passed J a m e s t h o u g h t t h a t t h e session h a d lasted l o n g e n o u g h . H e p r o r o g u e d the p a r l i a m e n t o n J u l y 7, n o t w i t h o u t a g a r r u l o u s r e b u k e to t h e house o f commons. C o n v o c a t i o n h a d b e e n s i t t i n g at t h e s a m e t i m e as p a r l i a m e n t a n d h a d s h o w n i t s e l f as eager to harass t h e puritans as the c o m m o n s h a d been a n x i o u s to spare t h e m . I t passed canons i n f l i c t i n g e x c o m m u n i c a t i o n u p o n a l l w h o s h o u l d affirm a n y o f t h e t h i r t y - n i n e A r t i c l e s t o be erroneous, or a n y t h i n g i n t h e P r a y e r B o o k t o b e r e p u g n a n t t o S c r i p t u r e , or a n y o f t h e rites a n d c e r e m o n i e s o f the C h u r c h to b e superstitious> or s h o u l d m a i n t a i n t h a t g o v e r n m e n t b y b i s h o p s was c o n t r a r y to t h e W o r d o f G o d . E x c o m m u n i c a t i o n was then m u c h more than a spiritual penalty, since i t d i s a b l e d the c u l p r i t f r o m b r i n g i n g a c i v i l suit a n d r e n -

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OF THE REIGN

OF JAMES

1604

d e r e d h i m liable t o i m p r i s o n m e n t u n t i l h e m a d e his s u b m i s s i o n . B a n c r o f t , w h o m a y be r e g a r d e d as a d i s c i p l e o f W h i t g i f t , a l t h o u g h i n s o m e respects m o r e a n t i - p u r i t a n , b e c a m e A r c h b i s h o p of Canterbury in November. A royal proclamation allowed the c l e r g y a respite t i l l t h e e n d o f t h a t m o n t h , w h e n t h e a r c h b i s h o p w a s c o m m a n d e d to proceed a g a i n s t s u c h as r e m a i n e d i m penitent. B y a c i r c u l a r letter to t h e b i s h o p s , B a n c r o f t e n j o i n e d the d i s m i s s a l o f a l l curates a n d lecturers w h o w o u l d n o t subscribe t o the n e w canons. B e n e f i c e d c l e r g y m e n w h o w e r e u n w i l l i n g t o subscribe m i g h t k e e p t h e i r l i v i n g s i f t h e y w o u l d c o n f o r m t o the r u b r i c s o f t h e P r a y e r B o o k . T h e n u m b e r o f those w h o refused to c o n f o r m a n d were ejected i s v a r i o u s l y stated b y c o n t e m p o r a r i e s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e bias. I n the following y e a r t h e universities w e r e c o m m a n d e d to e x a c t f r o m a l l t h e i r m e m b e r s a n o a t h to t h e effect t h a t episcopal g o v e r n m e n t was agreeable t o S c r i p t u r e a n d t h a t p r e s b y t e r i a n g o v e r n m e n t , even i f otherwise l a w f u l , w a s i n c o n s i s t e n t w i t h m o n a r c h y . Thus, at a t i m e w h e n n o b o d y was a l l o w e d to r e m a i n o u t s i d e the national C h u r c h , i t was m a d e m o r e a n d m o r e difficult f o r s u c h p u r i t a n c l e r g y as c o u l d n o t f u l l y accept i t s c e r e m o n i e s t o a b i d e within. I n f o r e i g n as i n d o m e s t i c affairs J a m e s h a d g i v e n the w o r l d t o u n d e r s t a n d w h a t his p o l i c y w o u l d be. F r o m t h e d a y o f h i s accession h e h a d r e s o l v e d o n peace w i t h S p a i n , n o r d i d h e w a n t s o l i d reasons for t a k i n g this course. A f t e r m a n y years of war, E n g l a n d h a d e n s u r e d h e r s e l f a g a i n s t i n v a s i o n a n d h a d e n d e d t h e S p a n i s h d o m i n i o n o f t h e sea. B u t i t was u n l i k e l y t h a t she w o u l d reap m u c h m o r e a d v a n t a g e o r g l o r y i n t h e future. I f S p a i n h a d n o efficient n a v y , E n g l a n d h a d n o efficient army. It was beyond E n g l i s h power to rouse the Portuguese against t h e i r S p a n i s h t y r a n t or t o m a k e conquests i n S p a n i s h A m e r i c a . E v e n at sea v a l u a b l e prizes were less l i k e l y to b e t a k e n w h e n dear-bought e x p e r i e n c e h a d m a d e t h e S p a n i a r d s careful h o w t h e y c o n v e y e d t h e i r A m e r i c a n treasure t o E u r o p e . A l t h o u g h t h e E n g l i s h n a t i o n w a s i n n o distress, for t a x e s w e r e not heavy and the general wealth was always growing, the treasury h a d b e g u n t o feel t h e s t r a i n o f t h e w a r , a n d even E l i z a b e t h h a d found i t necessary to raise loans a n d t o s e l l c r o w n lands. A s J a m e s for l a c k o f m a r t i a l s p i r i t a n d a d m i n i s t r a t i v e s k i l l was o f a l l sovereigns t h e least fit t o m a k e w a r , i t w a s p r o b -

THE 'Pi.,
f

* ' '

SPA/2V.

21

ibl*"" . "< i n s t i n c t w h i c h l e d h i m to m a k e peace. O n t h e C H A P . 1. ottiC m i g h t be u r g e d t h a t h o n o u r b o u n d us not t o desert our 'u allies u n t i l the K i n g o f S p a i n h a d a c k n o w l e d g e d ?;}.;Jr *. i m p e n d e n c e i n the fullest t e r m s . B u t J a m e s w a s not '"Mot: : < ' K * p o i n t o f honour, a n d was never q u i t e c e r t a i n whether < ' " j 'Tt h e D u t c h as allies o r to abjure t h e m as rebels. 'i'' '* L v f c h ) <t m u s t be a d d e d , were so w e l l a b l e t o defend t h e m "v'v hat t h e y h a d c a r r i e d t h e w a r i n t o t h e e n e m y s t e r r i t o r y a n d w e r e f o u n d i n g t h e i r c o l o n i a l e m p i r e , t h e i r n a v a l power, a n d t h e i r w o r l d - w i d e c o m m e r c e o n t h e ruins o f S p a n i s h g r a n d e u r . T h e S p a n i s h k i n g a n d h i s m i n i s t e r s h a d learnt t h a t peace w i t h E n g l a n d was t h e o n l y m e a n s o f c o n t i n u i n g t h e s t r u g g l e w i t h t h e U n i t e d P r o v i n c e s w h i c h t h e y c o u l d n o t bear to forego. P h i l i p I I . , i n d e e d , h a d s u r r e n d e r e d h i s provinces i n t h e N e t h e r l a n d s t o h i s d a u g h t e r Isabella, a n d h e r h u s b a n d , t h e A r c h d u k e Albert. B u t t h e y c o u l d n e v e r h a v e m a i n t a i n e d the w a r f r o m t h e resources o f t h e i r s m a l l a n d e x h a u s t e d t e r r i t o r y . I t was w a g e d w i t h S p a n i s h troops a n d S p a n i s h treasure, a n d , since I s a b e l l a a n d h e r h u s b a n d w e r e c h i l d l e s s , w h a t e v e r w a s k e p t or w o n w o u l d r e t u r n t o P h i l i p I I I , T h e wishes o f t h e court o f M a d r i d w e r e therefore decisive w i t h t h e court o f B r u s s e l s . In J u l y , i6o3> C o u n t A r e m b e r g , t h e e n v o y o f t h e a r c h d u k e s , as t h e y w e r e called, i n v i t e d t h e K i n g o f E n g l a n d to m e d i a t e b e t w e e n h i s sovereigns a n d t h e v i c t o r i o u s r e p u b l i c . James t h e r e u p o n s o u n d e d the D u t c h , a n d f o u n d t h e m resolute a g a i n s t peace o n a n y t e r m s whatsoever. I n the autumn the Count of V i l l a M e d i a n a b r o u g h t f r i e n d l y letters f r o m P h i l i p t o J a m e s , b u t i t w a s not u n t i l J a n u a r y , 1604, t h a t t h e D u k e o f F r i a s , C o n s t a b l e o f C a s t i l e , c a m e t o Brussels w i t h powers t o treat for a peace. A f u r t h e r i n t e r v a l passed before S p a i n w o u l d a c k n o w l e d g e defeat b y s u b m i t t i n g to t h e E n g l i s h d e m a n d that t h e negotiat i o n s h o u l d t a k e p l a c e i n L o n d o n . T h e first conference o f t h e p l e n i p o t e n t i a r i e s was h e l d o n M a y 20. E n g l a n d was repres e n t e d b y t h e E a r l of N o t t i n g h a m , l o r d h i g h a d m i r a l , t h e v i c t o r o f 1588; the E a r l o f D o r s e t , l o r d t r e a s u r e r ; L o r d C e c i l , t h e s e c r e t a r y ; t h e E a r l o f D e v o n s h i r e , a n d t h e E a r l of N o r t h a m p t o n . T h e C o n s t a b l e o f C a s t i l e d i d n o t appear u n t i l t h e t r e a t y w a s r i p e for e x e c u t i o n , b u t t h e C o u n t o f V i l l a M e d i a n a a n d A l e s s a n d r o R o v i d a acted for S p a i n , w h i l e t h e C o u n t o f A r e m b e r g w i t h t w o others represented t h e a r c h d u k e s ,
9

22 CHAP. **

THE BEGINNING

OF THE REIGN

OF JAMES

I.

1604

W h e r e b o t h parties w e r e eager f o r peace there c o u l d be l i t t l e d o u b t o f the issue, y e t s o m e d e t a i l s o f the t r e a t y occasioned l o n g debate. A s E n g l a n d h a d left t h e D u t c h to fight t h e i r o w n battle, she was b o u n d n o t t o a d m i t a n y terms p o s i t i v e l y p r e j u d i c i a l to t h e m . J a m e s refused t o acknowledge t h a t t h e D u t c h were rebels or t o restrain E n g l i s h m e n f r o m s e r v i n g i n t h e i r armies. A s t i p u l a t i o n t h a t either o f the c o n t e n d i n g parties w o u l d u n d e r t a k e to force o p e n a n y ports o f the o t h e r w h i c h w e r e b l o c k a d e d was m e a n t b y the S p a n i a r d s to cause a q u a r r e l between the E n g l i s h a n d the D u t c h , b u t w a s accepted b y t h e E n g l i s h without any thought of performance. U p o n the trade t o the Indies, E a s t a n d W e s t , n o a g r e e m e n t c o u l d be reached. A s the S p a n i s h plenipotentiaries w o u l d n o t a c k n o w l e d g e the r i g h t o f the E n g l i s h to t r a d e there even w i t h i n d e p e n d e n t peoples, a n d t h e E n g l i s h p l e n i p o t e n t i a r i e s w o u l d n o t a c k n o w ledge i n a n y w a y t h a t s u c h trade w a s u n l a w f u l , the m a t t e r w a s left out o f the treaty, a n d E n g l i s h m e n a n d S p a n i a r d s c o n t i n u e d to w a g e irregular w a r i n those remote regions. Another delicate difference c o n c e r n i n g the religious f r e e d o m o f E n g l i s h subjects whose trade b r o u g h t t h e m to S p a n i s h ports was settled o n t h e p r i n c i p l e t h a t t h e y should n o t b e m o l e s t e d so l o n g as t h e y g a v e no p u b l i c scandal. W i t h t h i s a g r e e m e n t t h e n e g o t i a t i o n ended, the Constable o f C a s t i l e at l e n g t h a p p e a r e d i n L o n d o n , a n d on A u g u s t 19 K i n g J a m e s s w o r e to t h e treaty o f peace. It was n o t glorious, b u t i t was, o n t h e w h o l e , justifiable. B a n k r u p t as S p a i n was, the S p a n i s h g o v e r n m e n t at once t o o k measures t o f o r m a p a r t y i n t h e c o u r t a n d g o v e r n m e n t o f England. D o r s e t , D e v o n s h i r e , N o r t h a m p t o n , a n d even C e c i l , n o w V i s c o u n t C r a n b o r n e , besides others o f less account, stooped t o t a k e secret pensions f r o m the K i n g o f S p a i n . S o easy w a s t h e p u b l i c v i r t u e o f t h e age, t h a t t h e y p r o b a b l y felt l i t t l e s h a m e i n a c t i n g thus, a n d soothed their q u a l m s b y d o i n g almost n o t h i n g for the m o n e y . B u t S p a i n a i m e d h i g h e r yet. T h e Constable of Castile h a d learnt f r o m Q u e e n A n n e t h a t she w i s h e d h e r eldest son H e n r y t o m a r r y A n n e , t h e eldest d a u g h t e r o f K i n g P h i l i p . L i k e a l l g o o d catholics, P h i l i p was assured that nations h a d become protestant m e r e l y t h r o u g h t h e p e r v e r s i t y o f t h e i r k i n g s , i n whose t r a i n t h e y w o u l d w i t h e q u a l readiness r e t u r n i n t o t h e b o s o m o f the C h u r c h o f G o d . F o r himself, n o t h i n g c o u l d b e m o r e g l o r i o u s o r m o r e profitable t h a n t o be the means o f t h u s

:". 4

PROPOSA /

/.^ . , V >
, ,

TCH.

23

.hristendo :1 *. r (Oi5 d e c l a r e d h i m s e l f w i l l i n g C H A P i i .v.: .V- t h e p r o p o s e d m a r r i a g e o n t h e easy c o n d i t i o n t h a t .,7 y o u l d be sent t o h i m t o be b r o u g h t u p a catholic. l o n g a n d d r e a r y t a l e o f i d l e hopes, v a i n p r o cJ: v,i m u t u a l d e c e p t i o n , e n d i n g i n d i s a p p o i n t m e n t t o b o t h .K;",*.^ .*..id a r e n e w a l o f w a r b e t w e e n E n g l a n d a n d S p a i n .
I i

CHAPTER

II.

T H E ADMINISTRATION OF SALISBURY.

CHAP. *
n

T H E a c t i o n o f t h e g o v e r n m e n t t o w a r d s t h e R o m a n catholics h a d been s t r a n g e l y fitful. A f t e r h o l d i n g out the hope of toleration i f t h e y were quiet a n d peaceable, J a m e s h a d a p p r o v e d t h e b i l l w h i c h r e n d e r e d t h e i r c o n d i t i o n worse. A l t h o u g h he d i d not i n t e n d t o p u t the p e n a l laws i n force, t h e j u d g e s o f assize h a d d o n e so, a n d several catholics h a d suffered d e a t h i n the s u m m e r o f 1604. H e was a n g e r e d afresh b y l e a r n i n g that, i f he w o u l d have a S p a n i s h b r i d e for h i s son, h e m u s t s e n d H e n i y to S p a m , to b e educated as a papist. H e therefore resolved, w h i l e s p a r i n g the l a i t y , t o e x i l e t h e priests, a n d i n S e p t e m b e r a l l w h o were i n j a i l w e r e sent o u t o f E n g l a n d . M e a n t i m e S i r J a m e s L i n d s a y , a catholic g e n t l e m a n w h o h a d a c t e d as messenger b e t w e e n t h e k i n g a n d t h e pope, r e p o r t e d at R o m e so f a v o u r a b l y c o n c e r n i n g t h e k i n g ' s t e m p e r t h a t C l e m e n t V I I I . o r d e r e d p r a y e r s t o be p u t u p for h i s welfare a n d the c o n v e r s i o n o f h i s people, a n d a c a r d i n a l proposed t o s e n d h i m a c o p y o f t h e JLWTICLIS of the Chuvch b y B a r o n i u s for h i s further e n l i g h t e n m e n t J a m e s was o n l y the m o r e displeased t h a t he s h o u l d b e t h o u g h t r e a d y t o c h a n g e h i s religion or i n want of instruction from Baronius. * I n F e b r u a r y of 1605, therefore, h e d e c l a r e d t o t h e c o u n c i l a n d t h e judges h i s w i l l t h a t t h e p e n a l laws s h o u l d be p u t i n force, s h o r t o f t h e s h e d d i n g o f b l o o d . S e v e r a l t h o u s a n d persons were c o n v i c t e d o f recusancy, a l t h o u g h m u c h t h e greater n u m b e r escaped t h e necessity o f p a y m e n t , Cranborne, who about this time received a n e w p l e d g e o f h i s master's f a v o u r i n t h e t i t l e o f E a r l o f S a l i s b u r y , f u l l y a p p r o v e d these severe measures. T h e catholics were n a t u r a l l y incensed., U n d e r the penal laws t h e y suffered m u c h a n d l i v e d i n d a i l y fear o f s u f f e r i n g more. T h e k i n g , f r o m w h o m t h e y h a d e x p e c t e d relief, h a d
24

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THE

GUNPOWDER

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25

r a i s e d t h e i r hopes o n l y t o deceive t h e m , a n d m i g h t at a n y C H A P , m o m e n t r e m o v e w h a t check h e h a d p l a c e d u p o n persecution. I n t h e i r d e s p a i r s o m e c a t h o l i c s t h o u g h t o f t h e most atrocious m e a n s for r e g a i n i n g t h e i r f r e e d o m . F o r e m o s t a m o n g these was R o b e r t C a t e s b y , a W a r w i c k s h i r e squire, r e m a r k a b l e for h i s fine p e r s o n , his courage, a n d h i s gift o f f a s c i n a t i n g o t h e r men. H i s father h a d suffered i n estate for fidelity t o t h e o l d r e l i g i o n . R o b e r t h i m s e l f h a d b e e n foremost a m o n g t h e c a t h o l i c s w h o t o o k p a r t i n t h e w i l d i n s u r r e c t i o n o f the E a r l o f E s s e x , b u t h a d escaped w i t h a w o u n d a n d a fine o f four t h o u sand marks. N o t l o n g afterwards h e j o i n e d w i t h L o r d M o n t eagle i n s e n d i n g his c o u s i n T h o m a s W i n t e r t o S p a i n i n t h e h o p e of persuading P h i l i p to undertake an invasion of E n g l a n d . In t h a t also h e m e t w i t h n o success. I n F e b r u a r y , 1604, after J a m e s h a d t u r n e d a g a i n s t t h e catholics, C a t e s b y i m p a r t e d t o W i n t e r a p l a n for b l o w i n g u p t h e p a r l i a m e n t house o n t h e first d a y o f the session, w h e n t h e k i n g , t h e lords, a n d t h e c o m m o n s s h o u l d a l l be a s s e m b l e d there. W i n t e r was a n x i o u s t o t r y first w h a t c o u l d be d o n e b y m i l d e r means, a n d i t was agreed t h a t he s h o u l d g o t o F l a n d e r s t o secure, i f possible, t h e intercession of the Constable of Castile, then entrusted w i t h negotiating the peace b e t w e e n E n g l a n d a n d S p a i n . F a i l i n g s u c h i n t e r c e s s i o n , W i n t e r was t o enlist t h e h e l p o f G u i d o F a w k e s , a n E n g l i s h m a n w h o , t h o u g h y o u n g , h a d served m a n y y e a r s w i t h h o n o u r i n t h e S p a n i s h armies. A s W i n t e r s o o n f o u n d that n o t h i n g c o u l d be h o p e d f r o m t h e c o n s t a b l e , h e t u r n e d t o F a w k e s , w h o was r e a d y t o r i s k a l l for t h e C h u r c h a n d w h o m h e b r o u g h t over to E n g l a n d in A p r i l . A f o u r t h c o n s p i r a t o r w a s secured i n J o h n W r i g h t , an o l d friend of Catesby.
I L

T h e t h o u g h t ' o f k i l l i n g the k i n g h a d also risen i n t h e m i n d o f T h o m a s Percy, second cousin to the E a r l of Northumberland. P e r c y w a s trusted b y t h e earl, w h o m a d e h i m c o n s t a b l e o f A l n w i c k C a s t l e , a n d sent h i m o n a m i s s i o n i n the c a t h o l i c interest t o J a m e s , w h i l e E l i z a b e t h w a s y e t alive. B y his m a r r i a g e w i t h J o h n W r i g h t ' s sister P e r c y h a d b e c o m e a c q u a i n t e d with Catesby. H e fell u n d e r C a t e s b y s s p e l l a n d w a s enlisted i n t h e p l o t . I n M a y , C a t e s b y a n d h i s four a c c o m p l i c e s m e t b y n i g h t a t a house b e h i n d S t . C l e m e n t ' s c h u r c h , w h e r e t h e y t o o k a n o a t h o f secrecy a n d received t h e s a c r a m e n t f r o m t h e h a n d s o f t h a t F a t h e r Genu*d w h o h a d r e v e a l e d W a t s o n s plot* G e r a r d

26
CHAP.

THE ADMINISTRATION

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probably h a d no knowledge of the conspiracy. Then Catesby unfolded his plan. P e r c y w a s t o h i r e a house i m m e d i a t e l y a d j o i n i n g t h e p a r l i a m e n t house. A m i n e was t o be r u n u n d e r the b u i l d i n g a n d c h a r g e d w i t h g u n p o w d e r . T i m e w o u l d be w a n t e d a n d the danger o f d i s c o v e r y w o u l d be g r e a t Fawkes, therefore, as a m a n o f t r i e d courage a n d l i t t l e k n o w n o n account o f h i s l o n g absence f r o m E n g l a n d , was t o be c h a r g e d w i t h t h e i m m e d i a t e care o f t h e business. T h e house was p r e s e n t l y secured, but, w h e n p a r l i a m e n t rose i n J u l y , the conspirators left L o n d o n for t h e c o u n t r y a n d d i d n o t return u n t i l M i c h a e l m a s . T h e n t h e y h i r e d t h e house at L a m b e t h where C a t e s b y l o d g e d t o serve as a m a g a z i n e a n d p u t i t under t h e care o f a n e w recruit, T h o m a s K e y e s . B u t fresh d e l a y was caused b y t h e c o m m i s s i o n e r s for t h e u n i o n between E n g l a n d a n d S c o t l a n d , w h o chose f o r t h e i r place o f m e e t i n g the house whence t h e m i n e w a s t o r u n . N o t h i n g c o u l d be d o n e u n t i l the b e g i n n i n g o f D e c e m b e r , a n d p a r l i a m e n t was e x p e c t e d to meet i n F e b r u a r y . W h e n at l e n g t h t h e c o n s p i r a t o r s h a d g o t to w o r k a n d m a d e some progress, t h e y learnt t h a t t h e m e e t i n g o f p a r l i a m e n t h a d been p u t off u n t i l O c t o b e r . T h e y p a u s e d a g a i n , a n d C a t e s b y u s e d t h e i n t e r v a l t o g e t fresh h e l p . H e had already disclosed t h e scheme t o h i s servant B a t e s , w h o c o u l d n o t e a s i l y be k e p t i n ignorance. H e n e x t secured T h o m a s W i n t e r ' s brother R o b e r t a n d his b r o t h e r - i n - l a w , J o h n G r a n t . A l i t t l e later W Y i g h t s b r o t h e r C h r i s t o p h e r j o i n e d t h e p l o t . I n M a r c h , i6o5> the conspirators w e r e l u c k y e n o u g h t o get a lease o f the cellar o f t h e house n e x t t o t h a t t a k e n b y P e r c y , A s i t stretched u n d e r the p a r l i a m e n t house, t h e y w e r e s a v e d t h e t r o u b l e o f further m i n i n g . O p e n i n g a n e w d o o r i n t o t h e cellar t h e y p l a c e d there t w e n t y barrels o f p o w d e r , o n w h i c h t h e y l a i d a n u m b e r of i r o n bars t o m a k e t h e e x p l o s i o n m o r e destructive, a n d covered the w h o l e w i t h a g r e a t q u a n t i t y o f f a g g o t s a n d w o o d e n billets. T h e conspirators r e c k o n e d o n t h e d e a t h o f t h e k i n g , o f h i s eldest son H e n r y , a n d o f so m a n y m e m b e r s o f t h e p r i v y c o u n c i l a n d o f the l o r d s a n d c o m m o n s as w o u l d for t h e t i m e e n d a l l g o v e r n m e n t a n d l e a v e the state defenceless. B u t they were aware that t h e i r l a b o u r w o u l d be v a i n unless t h e y c o u l d set u p a n e w p o w e r i n p l a c e o f t h e one d e s t r o y e d . F o r this purpose t h e y c o u n t e d o n a g e n e r a l c a t h o l i c rising w i t h h e l p f r o m t h e catholic governments. T h e s i g n a l o f i n s u r r e c t i o n was to be g i v e n

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i n t h a t d i s t r i c t w h e n c e m o s t o f the conspirators c a m e a n d w h e r e C H A P . a great p a r t o f t h e g e n t r y were c a t h o l i c , t h e c o u n t i e s o f W a r wick, Worcester, and Stafford. P e r c y , w h o h a d been a p p o i n t e d a g e n t l e m a n pensioner, b y N o r t h u m b e r l a n d , t h e c a p t a i n o f the corps, h o p e d b y t a k i n g a d v a n t a g e o f h i s office a n d the p u b l i c confusion t o seize t h e k i n g s y o u n g e r s o n C h a r l e s . T h e o n l y o t h e r c h i l d o f t h e k i n g , t h e L a d y E l i z a b e t h , was t h e n i n t h e c h a r g e o f L o r d H a r i n g t o n at C o m b e A b b e y , i n N o r t h W a r w i c k s h i r e , t h e v e r y n e i g h b o u r h o o d w h e r e the catholics w e r e to rise first. W^hen C h a r l e s a n d E l i z a b e t h h a d b e e n secured, t h e rebels, i t w a s t h o u g h t , w o u l d be able to f a s h i o n a n e w g o v e r n m e n t as t h e y pleased. Considering h o w inferior the R o m a n catholics were i n number, a n d indeed i n all the elements of strength, such a scheme was madness. H a d the k i n g a n d parl i a m e n t b e e n d e s t r o y e d , a rising o f t h e catholics c o u l d o n l y h a v e e n d e d i n t h e i r defeat a n d slaughter. B u t m e n w h o reasoned s o b e r l y w o u l d never h a v e e m b a r k e d o n t h e G u n p o w d e r P l o t . T h e conspirators empowered Catesby to enroll such wealthy c a t h o l i c s as c o u l d serve the cause, n o t m e r e l y i n t h e i r o w n persons, b u t b y finding arms, horses, a n d supplies for the r a n k a n d file o f t h e r e b e l l i o n . I t w a s a perilous t r u s t , for w i t h e v e r y n e w associate t h e c h a n c e o f disclosure b y rashness o r treachery bec a m e greater. C a t e s b y chose S i r E v e r a r d D i g b y , A m b r o s e R o k e w o o d , a n d Francis Tresham, m e n very unequal to the desperate v e n t u r e w h i c h t h e y a g r e e d t o share. D i g b y , w h o s e b r o a d estates a n d n u m e r o u s friends m a r k e d h i m for a leader, t o o k u p h i s abode at C o u g h t o n i n W a r w i c k s h i r e , where he w o u l d b e at h a n d t o organise t h e i n s u r r e c t i o n . H e w a s t o h o l d a g r e a t h u n t i n g m a t c h at D u n c h u r c h o n the f a t a l d a y . As m a n y as p o s s i b l e o f t h e c a t h o l i c g e n t r y o f t h e s u r r o u n d i n g shires w e r e t o b e i n v i t e d . W h e n t h e y h a d met, D i g b y was t o p r o c l a i m t h e r e a l cause o f t h e a s s e m b l y , c a l l t h e m t o a r m s a n d seize t h e L a d y E l i z a b e t h . T h i s once accomplished, a n d the news f r o m L o n d o n k n o w n , i t w a s h o p e d t h a t the c a t h o l i c s t h r o u g h o u t t h e k i n g d o m w o u l d h a s t e n t o j o i n t h e i r deliverers. I n o r d e r t o g a i n h e l p f r o m a b r o a d , F a w k e s w a s d e s p a t c h e d to Flanders a n d S i r E d w a r d B a y n h a m to R o m e . B u t no foreign g o v e r n m e n t w a s t r u s t e d w i t h t h e fearful secret. W h i e n a l l was ready, another d e l a y was caused b y t h e f u r t h e r p r o r o g a t i o n o f p a r l i a m e n t u n t i l N o v e m b e r 5. T o ensure success

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C H A P , i t was needful t h a t s u c h c a t h o l i c l o r d s as m i g h t a t t e n d t h e m e e t i n g o f p a r l i a m e n t s h o u l d b e left t o t h e i r fate. But Tresham c o u l d n o t e n d u r e t o sacrifice h i s f r i e n d a n d brother-in-law. L o r d M o n t e a g l e , w h o m h e r e s o l v e d t o w a r n at a l l hazards. L a t e o n the e v e n i n g o f O c t o b e r 26, as M o n t e a g l e was s i t t i n g d o w n t o supper i n h i s house at H o x t o n , he received a letter b r o u g h t b y an u n k n o w n person, a n d y i e l d i n g no indication of the writer. I t w a r n e d h i m t o devise s o m e e x c u s e for n o t a t t e n d i n g p a r liament, a n d t o r e t i r e i n t o the c o u n t r y , for " t h e y s h a l l receive a terrible b l o w t h i s p a r l i a m e n t , a n d y e t t h e y s h a l l n o t see w h o hurts t h e m Monteagle at once returned to town a n d gave the letter t o S a l i s b u r y , w h o t o o k c o u n s e l w i t h S u f f o l k , t h e l o r d c h a m b e r l a i n . T h e y a g r e e d t h a t t h e l e t t e r p o i n t e d t o a n att e m p t to d e s t r o y t h e p a r l i a m e n t b y g u n p o w d e r . Suffolk then bethought h i m of the cellar w h i c h P e r c y h a d hired, a n d it was resolved t o m a k e a careful search, b u t n o t u n t i l the v e r y eve of the meeting of parliament. T h e k i n g , w h o w a s n o t acq u a i n t e d w i t h t h e l e t t e r u n t i l N o v e m b e r 3> d r e w t h e s a m e inference, a n d o r d e r e d Suffolk t o i n s p e c t t h e b u i l d i n g s . A l i t t l e before m i d n i g h t o n t h e 4 t h , F a w k e s was f o u n d at h i s post, the cellar w a s searched, a n d the fate o f t h e c o n s p i r a t o r s w a s fixed b e y o n d recall. T h e y h a d b e e n a l l o w e d a m p l e t i m e to fly, f o r M o n t e a g l e , as s o o n as h e h a d cast a g l a n c e o v e r t h e m y s t e r i o u s letter, h a d g i v e n i t t o one o f h i s g e n t l e m e n , W a r d , t o r e a d a l o u d , a n d W a r d t h e v e r y n e x t d a y t o l d W i n t e r , w h o was h i s f r i e n d , t h a t t h e p l o t h a d been d i s c o v e r e d . W i n t e r passed t h e w o r d t o Catesby, b u t C a t e s b y w o u l d n o t b u d g e t i l l F a w k e s , w h o was t h e n i n t h e c o u n t r y , s h o u l d r e t u r n to L o n d o n a n d e x a m i n e t h e cellar. A s F a w k e s f o u n d t h e cellar i n its f o r m e r c o n d i t i o n , t h e y t h o u g h t t h e a l a r m i d l e , a n d resolved t o stay, a l t h o u g h t h e y sus** pected T r e s h a m a n d f r i g h t e n e d h i m i n t o m e e t i n g C a t e s b y a n d W i n t e r at B a r i i e t . H e d e n i e d a n y p a r t i n t h e letter, b u t e n treated t h e m to m a k e t h e i r escape. Y e t i t w a s n o t u n t i l N o v e m b e r 2 t h a t C a t e s b y w o u l d a d m i t t h e t h o u g h t o f flight. O n the 3 r d , P e r c y r e t u r n e d to t o w n , a n d t h e five o r i g i n a l c o n s p i r ators m e t once m o r e i n t h e house b e h i n d S t . C l e m e n t ' s t o c o n sider w h a t t h e y s h o u l d d o . P e r c y was s t i l l so resolute a g a i n s t flight that t h e others y i e l d e d , a n d F a w k e s r e t u r n e d t o h i s p o s t without shrinking.

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H i s arrest e n d e d a l l doubt. C a t e s b y , P e r c y , a n d the t w o C H A P . 11. W r i g h t s fled before d a w n , a n d , r i d i n g for t h e i r lives, reached o n t h e s a m e d a y L a d y C a t e s b y s house at A s h b y S t . L e g e r s, e i g h t y miles distant f r o m L o n d o n . Keyes, Rokewood, and Thomas W i n t e r followed. R o b e r t W i n t e r a t A s h b y first h e a r d of t h e disaster f r o m h i s chief. W h a t e v e r h i s g u i l t , C a t e s b y was a b r a v e m a n , resolute t o act w h i l e he h a d life, a n d to d i e s w o r d i n hand. H e r o d e w i t h o u t d e l a y t o t h e h u n t i n g at D u n c h u r c h and t r i e d to spirit up the catholic gentlemen w h o m D i g b y h a d brought together. B u t h a r d l y a n y w o u l d j o i n i n a n enterprise, desperate f r o m t h e first a n d n o w t o o s u r e l y fatal. Still hoping t o r e a c h W^ales a n d raise a c a t h o l i c i n s u r r e c t i o n there, C a t e s b y p u s h e d o n t o R o b e r t W i n t e r ' s house at H u d d i n g t o n , near W o r cester, h i s f o l l o w e r s s e i z i n g a r m s a n d horses w h e r e best t h e y m i g h t . T h e y h a d sent B a t e s t o D i g b y * s house at C o u g h t o n t o c o n s u l t F a t h e r G a r n e t , t h e p r o v i n c i a l o f t h e Jesuits. B u t o f w h a t c o u n s e l w o u l d t h e i r case a d m i t ? F a t h e r G r e e n w a y , w h o h a d b e e n c o g n i z a n t o f t h e p l o t , a n d was also s t a y i n g at C o u g h t o n , j o i n e d t h e fugitives, b u t h e was t h e i r o n l y r e c r u i t . Some o f t h e b a n d stole a w a y t o h i d e a p a r t . T h e alarm h a d been g i v e n , t h e c o u n t r y was r i s i n g , a n d t h e last w i l d h o p e h a d a l m o s t vanished. O n t h e t h i r d m o r n i n g o f t h e i r flight t h e y a t t e n d e d mass a n d r e c e i v e d a b s o l u t i o n . L o n g after d a r k t h e y r o d e i n t o H o l b e c h e , a house i n S t a f f o r d s h i r e b e l o n g i n g t o S t e p h e n L i t t l e t o n , one o f t h e i r b a n d , a n d , as t h e y c o u l d g o n o farther, t h e y p r e p a r e d t o fight. A t eleven o'clock n e x t d a y t h e sheriff o f W o r c e s t e r a n d h i s m e n beset H o l b e c h e . I n the hasty attempt t o d r y a q u a n t i t y o f d a m p g u n p o w d e r t h e defenders caused a n explosion w h i c h injured some of their number and dismayed a l l w i t h a sense o f t h e D i v i n e j u d g m e n t . The two Wrights were shot dead. A single bullet p i e r c e d P e r c y a n d C a t e s b y , w h o s t o o d close together. C a t e s b y l i n g e r e d a few m o m e n t s , P e r c y t w o ' o r t h r e e days. T h e rest w e r e m a d e prisoners, a n d those w h o h a d h i d d e n elsewhere w e r e h u n t e d d o w n before l o n g . R e p e a t e d e x a m i n a t i o n a n d t h e u n s p a r i n g - use o f t o r t u r e at l e n g t h w r u n g a full confession f r o m F a w k e s . T h e other prisoners a n d T r e s h a m were also e x a m i n e d . O n J a n u a r y 27, 1606, e i g h t o f t h e c o n s p i r a t o r s , F a w k e s , D i g b y , R o k e w o o S , Robert a n d T h o m a s W i n t e r , Keyes, Grant, and Bates were brought to the bar i n W e s t m i n s t e r H a l l a n d convicted. On

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CHAP, the 31st t h e y suffered, four at W e s t m i n s t e r a n d four i n S t . II. Paul's c h u r c h y a r d . T r e s h a m h a d already d i e d a natural death i n the T o w e r . O n e or t w o o f t h e o t h e r c u l p r i t s w e r e e x e c u t e d at W o r c e s t e r , T h e g o v e r n m e n t was m o s t d e s i r o u s t o c o n v i c t the priests, w h o o n different g r o u n d s m i g h t b e t h o u g h t t o h a v e been i n t h e plot, G a r n e t , G e r a r d , a n d G r e e n w a y . Greenway and Gerard escaped, a n d G a r n e t w i t h a n o t h e r p r i e s t n a m e d O l d c o r n e h i d i n the house o f a c a t h o l i c g e n t l e m a n n a m e d A b i n g t o n , at H i n d l i p , not far from Worcester. A t l e n g t h , unable to endure a n y longer the c r a m p a n d suffocation o f t h e closet i n w h i c h t h e y were h i d d e n , t h e y came f o r t h a n d w e r e t a k e n b y t h e watchers w h o beset the house. Neither repeated e x a m i n a t i o n nor the threat o f t o r t u r e (the k i n g h a d f o r b i d d e n i t s a p p l i c a t i o n ) c o u l d draw from Garnet the desired confession. B u t s o m e t h i n g was g a i n e d b y the base t r i c k o f g i v i n g h i m o p p o r t u n i t y t o t a l k w i t h O l d c o r n e i n p r i s o n , where persons c o n c e a l e d c o u l d hear a l l t h a t w a s s a i d , a n d G a r n e t was b y degrees b r o u g h t t o g i v e a n a p p a r e n t l y full account o f h i s r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e c o n s p i r a t o r s . C a t e s b y h a d g i v e n h i m vague h i n t s a n d h a d a s k e d a q u e s t i o n as to the lawfulness o f a n e n t e r p r i s e w h i c h h e w o u l d n o t e x p l a i n , G r e e n w a y h a d offered t o t e l l a l l a n d G a r n e t h a d a g r e e d t o hear, i f i t were t o l d u n d e r t h e seal o f c o n f e s s i o n . Garnet protested t h a t he was h o r r o r - s t r u c k , b u t c o u l d n o t s a y t h a t h e h a d t a k e n a n y effective measures t o defeat t h e p l o t . E v i d e n c e i n his own h a n d w r i t i n g s h o w e d t h a t h e h e l d a v i e w o n t h e lawfulness o f equivocation w h i c h m i g h t lead even c a n d i d m i n d s to put little trust i n w h a t he s a i d . A t s u c h a t i m e h i s c o n d e m n a t i o n was certain. H e was e x e c u t e d o n M a y 3. O l d c o r n e also suffered, a n d these w e r e t h e o n l y priests p u t t o d e a t h for t h e G u n p o w d e r Plot. T h e E a r l of N o r t h u m b e r l a n d h a d fallen under suspicion t h r o u g h his f r i e n d s h i p w i t h T h o m a s P e r c y , a n d m o r e e s p e c i a l l y because he h a d a d m i t t e d T h o m a s a g e n t l e m a n p e n s i o n e r w i t h out r e q u i r i n g t h e o a t h o f s u p r e m a c y . H e was sentenced b y t h e court o f S t a r C h a m b e r t o lose a l l h i s offices, t o p a y a f i n e o f 30,000, a n d t o be i m p r i s o n e d d u r i n g t h e k i n g ' s pleasure. H e was n o t set free u n t i l 1621. T h e received s t o r y o f G u n p o w d e r P l o t p r e s e n t s s o m e r e a l a n d some a p p a r e n t difficulties w h i c h h a v e a w a k e n e d d o u b t e v e r

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since t h e r e i g n o f J a m e s I. S o m e h a v e t h o u g h t t h a t S a l i s b u r y C H A P , II. i n h i s m a l i c e a g a i n s t t h e c a t h o l i c s p r o m p t e d a set o f reckless fools i n t h e i r w i c k e d enterprise, o r at least let t h e m r u n t h e i r full course so as t o r e n d e r t h e d i s c o v e r y m o r e a p p a l l i n g . O t h e r s h a v e s a i d t h a t t h e d i s c o v e r y , at a l l events, was a t r i c k carefully s t u d i e d t o amuse a n d e x c i t e t h e v u l g a r ; t h e k i n g ' s m i n i s t e r s h a v i n g a l r e a d y c o m e t o a full k n o w l e d g e o f t h e p l o t b y o t h e r means. T h e questions thus r a i s e d c a n n o t be discussed i n brief, because t h e e v i d e n c e w h i c h needs s i f t i n g is b u l k y ) a n d t o discuss t h e m at l e n g t h is b e y o n d t h e scope o f t h i s v o l u m e . It is e n o u g h t o s a y here t h a t i n t h e j u d g m e n t o f those best qualified t o pronounce, t h e r e c e i v e d s t o r y o f G u n p o w d e r P l o t r e m a i n s m o r e l i k e l y t o be true t h a n a n y o t h e r .
1

S o o n after m e e t i n g , t h e p a r l i a m e n t was a d j o u r n e d to J a n u a r y 21, 1606. Possessed w i t h a s p i r i t o f revenge, i t set a b o u t m a k i n g the c o n d i t i o n o f the catholics still m o r e grievous. R e c u s a n t s t o w h o m t h e fine o f 20 a m o n t h was n o t c r u s h i n g w e r e r e a c h e d b y e n a b l i n g the k i n g to seize t w o - t h i r d s o f t h e i r estates. A f i n e o f 10 a m o n t h was set o n every person h a r b o u r i n g a servant o r stranger w h o refused to go to c h u r c h . R e c u s a n t s w e r e forced t o t a k e t h e s a c r a m e n t once a y e a r i n t h e p a r i s h c h u r c h u n d e r p e n a l t y o f a h e a v y fine. A b i s h o p o r t w o justices o f the peace m i g h t t e n d e r t o a n y recusant w h o was n o t a n o b l e m a n a n o a t h to t h e effect t h a t t h e pope h a d n o p o w e r o f d e p o s i n g k i n g s , a n d t h a t he w o u l d d e f e n d the k i n g t o the best o f h i s a b i l i t y , n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g sentence of deposition. E v e r y person g o i n g a b r o a d to serve a foreign p r i n c e was to t a k e t h i s o a t h o n p a i n o f felony. A n y p e r s o n t r y i n g to w i t h d r a w t h e k i n g ' s subjects from t h e i r allegiance o r t o reconcile t h e m w i t h R o m e was t o suffer as i n case o f h i g h treason. B y another statute recusants were forb i d d e n t h e c o u r t a n d were not to r e m a i n i n L o n d o n o r a space o f t e n m i l e s r o u n d , unless t h e y p r a c t i s e d some t r a d e o r h a n d i craft there, o r h a d n o d w e l l i n g o u t s i d e those l i m i t s . They were e x c l u d e d f r o m t h e practice o f l a w a n d m e d i c i n e , a n d f r o m a n y n a v a l or m i l i t a r y c o m m i s s i o n . T h e y m i g h t n o t exercise C h u r c h patronage, o r be executors o r a d m i n i s t r a t o r s , o r act as g u a r d i a n s , o r possess m o r e a r m s t h a n t h e justices s h o u l d t h i n k
See J . G e r a r d , What Was Gunpowder Plot? Gardiner, What Gunpowder Plot Was (1897).
l

(1896), and the reply b y S. R.

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CHAP, necessary for defence. T h e y w e r e d e b a r r e d f r o m s u i n g as persons e x c o m m u n i c a t e . P e n a l t i e s were i m p o s e d o n a l l p e r s o n s w h o s h o u l d b e m a r r i e d , o r b a p t i s e t h e i r c h i l d r e n , or b u r y t h e i r dead, otherwise t h a n w i t h t h e rites p r e s c r i b e d b y t h e C h u r c h o f E n g l a n d . Persons w h o h a d been sent o u t o f t h e r e a l m for t h e i r education m i g h t n o t i n h e r i t p r o p e r t y u n t i l t h e y h a d t a k e n t h e oath against the d e p o s i n g power o f t h e pope. N e i t h e r t h e great c r i m e o f a few desperate m e n , n o r t h e relentless w a r w h i c h t h e C h u r c h o f R o m e was t h e n w a g i n g against freedom i n e v e r y l a n d w h e r e she h a d power, c a n e x c u s e this m e t h o d i c p e r s e c u t i o n o f t h e E n g l i s h c a t h o l i c s . M u c h as t h e y suffered, t h e y w o u l d h a v e been s t i l l m o r e miserable but for the p o l i c y o f t h e c r o w n . J a m e s a n d h i s s o n were n o t u n w i l l i n g to have t h e catholics at t h e i r d i s c r e t i o n , b u t d i d n o t w i s h to d r i v e t h e m to e x t r e m i t y . T h e y w o u l d n e v e r enforce t h e p e n a l laws w i t h t h a t r i g o u r w h i c h t h e c o m m o n s d e s i r e d , a n d sometimes, to g a i n the f r i e n d s h i p of c a t h o l i c powers, t h e y w e n t n e a r t o susp e n d i n g their operation altogether. C o n v o c a t i o n took a n o t h e r w a y o f d e f e n d i n g the r e a l m a g a i n s t popery. I t a d o p t e d t h e p r i n c i p l e t h a t resistance to the s o v e r e i g n is i n a l l cases c o n d e m n e d b y t h e l a w of G o d , S u c h a p r i n c i p l e mighty be t u r n e d against the p u r i t a n as r e a d i l y as a g a i n s t t h e catholic. B u t i t was rejected b y J a m e s , w h o w o u l d n o t a l l o w that, i f he were ousted, a n o t h e r m i g h t be e n t i t l e d t o t h e o b e d i ence o f h i s people. O n t h i s occasion, he u s e d a r g u m e n t s w h i c h , however j u s t i n themselves, seem h a r d t o reconcile w i t h h i s favourite t h e o r y o f g o v e r n m e n t . Nevertheless the doctrine o f non-resistance was g e n e r a l l y a c c e p t e d a n d t a u g h t b y the c l e r g y , u n t i l t h e a r b i t r a r y measures o f J a m e s I I . a g a i n s t t h e C h u r c h o f E n g l a n d l e d t h e m to r e c o n s i d e r t h e respective r i g h t s a n d d u t i e s o f k i n g s a n d t h e i r subjects. ^ T h e k i n g was i n need of a liberal grant from parliament. H i s financial distress was d u e p a r t l y t o h i s o w n p r o d i g a l i t y , but p a r t l y to g e n e r a l causes w h i c h w e are a p t t o forget. The r o y a l revenue w a s v e r y i n e l a s t i c . T h a t p a r t o f i t w h i c h c a m e from the crown lands, or from the king's claims upon his tenants i n c h i v a l r y , was i n g r e a t measure fixed b y usage a n d p r e c e d e n t . T h e different duties u p o n m e r c h a n d i s e i m p o r t e d o r e x p o r t e d , k n o w n as customs, t o n n a g e a n d poundage, w e r e g r a n t e d f o r life at t h e accession o f a n e w m o n a r c h , a n d w e r e p r a c t i c a l l y u n -

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changeable d u r i n g h i s r e i g n . T h e usual f o r m s o f d i r e c t t a x a t i o n C H A P , k n o w n as subsidies, tenths a n d fifteenths, a l t h o u g h o r i g i n a l l y * assessed o n t h e r e a l w e a l t h o f t h e t a x p a y e r , h a d b e c o m e f i x e d for l a c k o f a n e w v a l u a t i o n a n d e v e n t e n d e d t o d i m i n i s h . Parl i a m e n t c o u l d g r a n t as m a n y subsidies, t e n t h s a n d fifteenths as it t h o u g h t p r o p e r , b u t t h e E n g l i s h , w h o h a d a l w a y s b e e n l i g h t l y t a x e d i n c o m p a r i s o n w i t h t h e i r neighbours, were n o t p r o n e t o g i v e freely save i n t i m e o f w a r . M e a n t i m e t h e d i s c o v e r y o f the A m e r i c a n m i n e s h a d caused a h e a v y f a l l i n t h e v a l u e o f t h e precious m e t a l s . I n t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y silver h a d s u n k t o p e r h a p s one-fifth o f i t s v a l u e i n t h e fifteenth. W'ith the progress o f c i v i l i s a t i o n g o v e r n m e n t h a d become m o r e costly. B y d i n t o f severe p a r s i m o n y , E l i z a b e t h h a d been able t o m e e t all demands w i t h n o very liberal help f r o m parliament i n t i m e of peace. B u t i n t h e course o f t h e w a r w i t h S p a i n , i n g e n i o u s l y t h o u g h she c o n t r i v e d t o enlist p r i v a t e c a p i t a l a n d enterprise, she w a s f o r c e d , as has been n o t e d , n o t o n l y t o a s k f o r m o r e subsidies, b u t t o sell c r o w n lands a n d t o c o n t r a c t d e b t s . F o r her successors there w a s o n l y o n e safe a n d h o n o u r a b l e p o l i c y j t o p r a c t i s e t h r i f t a n d t o g a i n t h e g o o d w i l l o f t h e people, so as t o l e a d p a r l i a m e n t t o w a r d s a f i n a n c i a l s y s t e m m o r e equal t o t h e needs o f a m o d e r n state. T h e S t u a r t s f a i l e d i n b o t h respects, a n d t h i s f a i l u r e w a s a p r i m e cause o f t h e i r d o w n f a l l . J a m e s never u n d e r s t o o d h o w t o m a n a g e p a r l i a m e n t s a n d h e was l a v i s h i n w a y s w h i c h b r o u g h t h i m n o r e t u r n o f p o w e r o r dignity. H e w a n t e d e n e r g y t o m a i n t a i n that g e n e r a l c o n t r o l over t h e p u b l i c e x p e n d i t u r e w h i c h is n o w supposed t o be t h e f u n c t i o n o f t h e treasury, b u t w h i c h t h e n c o u l d o n l y b e e x e r t e d b y t h e sovereign. S t i l l m o r e d i d h e w a n t t h e firmness a n d grasp o f d e t a i l necessary t o k e e p d o w n t h e o u t l a y o n h i s o w n court a n d h o u s e h o l d . H e c o u l d refuse n o t h i n g to t h e courtiers a n d favourites w h o h e l p e d t o amuse h i s i d l e hours. H e h a d not r e i g n e d l o n g , therefore, w h e n h i s gravest c o u n c i l l o r s w e r e a l a r m e d a t h i s p o v e r t y . I n 1606 t h e o r d i n a r y revenue a m o u n t e d t o ^ 3 ^ 5 jOOO a n d t h e a n n u a l deficit w a s about ^50>ooo, A d e b t o f 400,000 left b y E l i z a b e t h h a d r i s e n t o 735,000. T h e k i n g h a d a f a i r c l a i m t o a p l e n t i f u l supply, as h i t h e r t o h e h a d n o t a s k e d for a g r a n t . T h e house, t o o , w a s g e n i a l l y disposed t o w a r d s t h e k i n g b y t h e f e e l i n g o f a c o m m o n p e r i l a n d a c o m m o n deliverance. A f t e r s o m e debate i t a g r e e d t o
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C H A P , v o t e t h r e e subsidies a n d s i x t e n t h s a n d fifteenths, a s u m o f about 375^KXD, ^ k e l e v i e d i n s i x i n s t a l m e n t s a n d p a i d i n f u l l w i t h i n four years. A n a d d i t i o n o f a l m o s t 100,000 a y e a r t o the revenue w o u l d h a v e d o n e m u c h for E l i z a b e t h j i t h a r d l y lightened the embarrassments o f James. T h e house seized this o p p o r t u n i t y for a b i l l t o r e s t r a i n t h e abuses o f p u r v e y a n c e , but i t was t h r o w n out b y t h e l o r d s . P a r l i a m e n t was p r o r o g u e d at the end of M a y , almost the only prorogation i n this reign una c c o m p a n i e d w i t h a q u a r r e l b e t w e e n the k i n g a n d t h e c o m m o n s . I n N o v e m b e r , p a r l i a m e n t m e t a g a i n t o c o n s i d e r the p r o posals o f t h e commissioners for a u n i o n b e t w e e n E n g l a n d a n d S c o t l a n d . T h i s great w o r k l a y n e a r t o t h e heart o f the k i n g a n d he was a b l y seconded i n t h e house o f c o m m o n s b y S i r F r a n c i s B a c o n , t h e n at l e n g t h r i s i n g t o influence a n d preferm e n t . T h e commissioners p r o p o s e d t o e s t a b l i s h freedom o f t r a d e between the t w o countries, w i t h s o m e e x c e p t i o n s m e a n t t o save t h e interest or prejudice o f e i t h e r p a r t y . B u t the k e e n jealousy w i t h w h i c h the E n g l i s h t r a d e r v i e w e d the poor a n d p u s h i n g S c o t s m a n l e d the house o f c o m m o n s t o reject the proposal. T h e commissioners also d e s i r e d t h a t natives o f e i t h e r k i n g d o m s h o u l d have the benefit o f n a t u r a l i s a t i o n i n t h e other. A c c o r d i n g to t h e c r o w n l a w y e r s , a l l S c o t s b o r n after t h e k i n g ' s accession i n E n g l a n d were a t c o m m o n l a w n a t u r a l i s e d E n g l i s h subjects. T h e c o m m i s s i o n e r s p r o p o s e d , therefore, t h a t p a r l i a m e n t s h o u l d pass a n act d e c l a r i n g t h i s class, t h e so-called Postnati, t o be already naturalised, a n d a n o t h e r act n a t u r a l i s i n g Scots b o r n before the k i n g ' s accession, t h e so-called Ante-nati. B u t here also t h e y encountered a n o b s t i n a t e resistance i n parliament. T h e k i n g ' s e x t r a v a g a n t favour to h i s c o u n t r y m e n m a d e E n g l i s h m e n fear t h a t t h e Ante-nati, once n a t u r a l i s e d , w o u l d get far more t h a n t h e i r share o f office a n d p a t r o n a g e i n England. M a n y t h o u g h t t h a t t h e c o u n t r y w o u l d be o v e r r u n b y Scots a n d t h a t t h e i r o w n people w o u l d be s t a r v e d . Bacon sought t o raise t h e debate above these prejudices, u r g i n g t h a t there was a m p l e r o o m i n E n g l a n d , I r e l a n d , a n d t h e p l a n t a t i o n s b e y o n d the sea for a people so active, h a r d y , a n d i n d u s t r i o u s as the Scots, whose u n i o n w i t h t h e E n g l i s h w o u l d insure t h e future greatness o f the k i n g d o m . A f t e r a conference w i t h t h e l o r d s t h e c o m m o n s p r o p o s e d t o naturalise b y statute a l l S c o t s m e n a l i k e , w h i l e e x c l u d i n g t h e m

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f r o m a. l a r g e n u m b e r o f offices a n d i n s i s t i n g t h a t t h o s e w h o h e l d C H A P , p r o p e r t y i n E n g l a n d s h o u l d be subject t o t h e s a m e b u r d e n s as ' other people. A l i t t l e later t h e y p r o p o s e d t o establish i d e n t i t y of laws i n b o t h countries. S e i z i n g this o p p o r t u n i t y , t h e k i n g i n person u r g e d the houses t o pass t h e b i l l o f n a t u r a l i s a t i o n a n d leave a l l further approaches t o u n i o n for future debate. But w h a t e v e r a d v a n t a g e h e m i g h t h a v e g a i n e d was lost i n a n a d j o u r n m e n t o f t h r e e weeks. W h e n t h e y re-assembled t h e c o m m o n s s h o w e d t h e i r f o r m e r indifference a n d w o u l d d o n o m o r e t h a n r e p e a l those statutes w h i c h t r e a t e d S c o t l a n d as a h o s t i l e c o u n t r y o n c o n d i t i o n that the S c o t t i s h p a r l i a m e n t s h o u l d d o t h e same. W h e n p a r l i a m e n t was p r o r o g u e d i n J u l y , 1607, t h e k i n g , seeing t h a t h e c o u l d not hope for a g e n e r a l act o f naturalisat i o n , r e s o l v e d at least t o h a v e t h e a u t h o r i t y o f the j u d g e s i n s u p p o r t o f t h e d o c t r i n e t h a t t h e Post-ncctz were e n t i t l e d t o a l l t h e p r i v i l e g e s o f E n g l i s h subjects. T h e p o i n t was r a i s e d b y m e a n s o f a suit for l a n d b r o u g h t i n t h e n a m e o f R o b e r t C o l v i l l o r C a l v i n , a n i n f a n t b o r n i n E d i n b u r g h i n 1605. After hearing the q u e s t i o n o f l a w argued i n t h e e x c h e q u e r c h a m b e r , the c h a n cellor, E l l e s m e r e , a n d t e n out of the t w e l v e j u d g e s declared C o l v i l l t o be a n a t u r a l E n g l i s h subject. T h e status o f the Post-nuti was t h u s d e c i d e d , a n d e v e r y y e a r r e n d e r e d the status o f the Afitenati a m a t t e r o f less consequence.
I I

J a m e s was so sorely displeased at t h e t e m p e r o f the c o m m o n s t h a t h e resolved t o defer a n o t h e r session as l o n g as possible, a n d p a r l i a m e n t d i d n o t re-assemble for m o r e t h a n t w o years. F i n d i n g h i s revenue still too s m a l l , h e was the m o r e i n c l i n e d to t a k e a d v a n t a g e of a d e c i s i o n g i v e n i n h i s f a v o u r b y t h e court o f e x c h e q u e r i n 1606. T h i s decision c l a i m s notice as it o p e n e d t h a t l o n g c o n t r o v e r s y o n t a x a t i o n w h i c h , n e x t to t h e c o n t r o v e r s y a b o u t r e l i g i o n , f e d the m u t u a l e n m i t y b e t w e e n k i n g and parliament. P a r l i a m e n t s h a d first c o m e i n t o b e i n g because k i n g s w a n t e d money. T h e y were called t o g r a n t n e w taxes, a n d t h e y strove t o m a k e t h e i r consent necessary before a t a x c o u l d b e r a i s e d . B u t m e d i e v a l statesmen seem n o t t o have h a d a n y g e n e r a l t e r m for t a x a t i o n n o r a n y i d e a c o r r e s p o n d i n g to s u c h a t e r m . F r o m M a g n a C a r t a o n w a r d s each o f the statutes passed to res t r a i n the r o y a l d i s c r e t i o n i n t h i s m a t t e r spoke o f p a r t i c u l a r t a x e s o r k i n d s o f t a x e s w h i c h at t h e t i m e were felt to be g r i e v -

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CHAP* ous. T h e l a n g u a g e o f these statutes w a s often vague, especially H. as regards t h e duties o n g o o d s i m p o r t e d o r e x p o r t e d . Some forms o f i n d i r e c t t a x a t i o n w e r e e x p r e s s l y f o r b i d d e n . Other forms of i n d i r e c t t a x a t i o n w e r e f r o m t i m e t o t i m e authorised b y p a r l i a m e n t u n t i l i t m i g h t f a i r l y b e d e e m e d i r r e g u l a r to take t h e m w i t h o u t that a u t h o r i t y . B u t n o w h e r e c o u l d there be f o u n d a p l a i n p r o h i b i t i o n a g a i n s t l e v y i n g a n y i n d i r e c t t a x whatsoever w i t h o u t t h e s a n c t i o n o f p a r l i a m e n t . S u c h statutes as r e s t r a i n e d the c r o w n w e r e c o n s t r u e d b y the courts i n t h e narrowest s p i r i t . T h e T u d o r sovereigns o c c a s i o n a l l y v e n t u r e d o n l e v y i n g duties b y their o w n p r e r o g a t i v e as a means o f p r o t e c t i n g n a t i v e c o m m e r c e or a p p l y i n g piessure t o u n f r i e n d l y o r hostile neighbours. There remained, therefore, a m a r g i n o f d o u b t as to t h e k i n g ' s p o w e r o f indirect t a x a t i o n . A n i m p o s i t i o n u p o n c u r r a n t s o f 5s. 6d. t h e cwt. h a d been levied i n the former r e i g n , at one t i m e b y t h e c r o w n , at another t i m e b y the L e v a n t C o m p a n y i n v i r t u e o f its e x c l u s i v e p r i v i l e g e . S o o n after t h e accession o f J a m e s t h e L e v a n t C o m p a n y surrendered its charter, b u t the c r o w n k e p t u p t h e i m p o s i t i o n o n currants. I n 1606 a m e r c h a n t n a m e d J o h n B a t e raised t h e question as to its lawfulness b y r e m o v i n g a q u a n t i t y of c u r r a n t s f r o m the q u a y before d u t y h a d been p a i d . H e was s u m m o n e d before the p r i v y council, w h e r e he declared t h a t t h e i m p o s i t i o n was illegal, a n d was sent t o p r i s o n for c o n t e m p t . T h e crown then resolved to o b t a i n a j u d g m e n t o f t h e court o f exchequer, while t h e m e r c h a n t s appealed t o t h e house o f c o m m o n s . The house put i n t o i t s p e t i t i o n o f grievances a d e m a n d t h a t i m p o s i tions s h o u l d n o l o n g e r b e levied, as t h e y h a d never been g r a n t e d b y p a r l i a m e n t ; b u t t h e barons o f t h e e x c h e q u e r g a v e j u d g m e n t i n favour o f t h e c r o w n . T h e i r d e c i s i o n , i m p o r t a n t for t h e m a t t e r i n h a n d , w a s s t i l l m o r e n o t a b l e for t h e g r o u n d s o n w h i c h i t was based. I t was l a i d d o w n b y C h i e f B a r o n F l e m i n g a n d b y B a r o n C l a r k e that, since a l l t h e p o r t s o f t h e r e a l m belonged t o t h e k i n g , he m i g h t at h i s discretion f o r b i d t h e passage o f a n y p e r s o n or a n y g o o d s i n t o or out o f the k i n g d o m , a n d m i g h t , therefore, d e m a n d a n y s u m h e pleased for a l l o w i n g s u c h passage. Nor was this all. I t was asserted t h a t t h e k i n g ' s p o w e r w a s d o u b l e j
..! ^ f *** ^ history f the Customs Revenue of England, vol. 1, chaps, ii., in., iv., for a detailed statement of the case on behalf of the crown*
G H a l 1 ,

ibio

CASE

OF

IMPOSITIONS.

37

o r d i n a r y f o r t h e profit o f p a r t i c u l a r subjects, absolute f o r t h e C H A P , g e n e r a l benefit o f t h e people, a n d t h a t t h i s absolute l a w v a r i e d according to the wisdom of the king. T h u s the undoubtedly large a n d i n d e f i n i t e p o w e r w h i c h t h e c r o w n h a d exercised o v e r the ports a n d over foreign commerce, a n d w h i c h the public h a d a c k n o w l e d g e d f o r t h e supposed g o o d o f t h e l e a l m , m i g h t b e t r e a t e d as a means o f h o l d i n g t h e subject t o r a n s o m . M o r e o v e r , t h e k i n g w a s h e l d t o possess a p o w e r l i m i t e d o n l y b y h i s o w n forbearance o f d o i n g w h a t e v e r h e m i g h t t h i n k c o n d u c i v e t o t h e p u b l i c weal. B y t h e s i m p l e e x p e d i e n t o f a l l e g i n g the g e n e r a l welfare as h i s m o t i v e h e m i g h t d o w i t h h i s subjects e x a c t l y as h e t h o u g h t p r o p e l . A s E n g l a n d w a s fast b e c o m i n g a g r e a t c o m m e r c i a l c o u n t r y , these d o c t r i n e s gave t h e c r o w n a n i n e x h a u s t i b l e revenue i n d e p e n d e n t o f p a r l i a m e n t . I n d e e d t h e y r e n d e r e d p a r l i a m e n t useless, n o t f o r t a x a t i o n alone b u t f o r e v e r y other purpose. W h a t e v e r we m a y t h i n k of t h e exposition of t h e l a w i n B a t e ' s case w e c a n n o t w o n d e r t h a t t h e reasons g i v e n for t h e j u d g m e n t a l a r m e d t h e house o f c o m m o n s . Y e t t h e q u e s t i o n m i g h t have s l u m b e r e d , h a d n o t t h e j u d g m e n t o f t h e c o u r t o f e x c h e q u e r been f o l l o w e d b y t h e l e v y o f n e w i m p o s i t i o n s . D o r s e t d i e d o n A p r i l 19, 1608, a n d was succ e e d e d as l o r d h i g h treasurer b y S a l i s b u r y . H e found the k i n g a l m o s t penniless. T h e w h o l e a n n u a l revenue a m o u n t e d t o 427,000, t h e o r d i n a r y expenses t o 500,000, a n d t h e e x t r a o r d i n a r y e x p e n s e s t o 100,000, w h i l e t h e debts h a d r i s e n t o n e a r l y 1,000,000. A m o n g o t h e r devices for i m p r o v i n g t h e revenue, S a l i s b u r y p u t f o r t h a n e w B o o k o f R a t e s , as i t was c a l l e d , w h i c h i m p o s e d fresh duties r e c k o n e d t o b r i n g i n 70,000 a year. I n o r d e r t o g a i n o p i n i o n , these i m p o s i t i o n s were l a i d chiefly o n articles o f l u x u r y or o n foreign manufactures w h i c h c o m p e t e d w i t h n a t i v e i n d u s t r y . I n a few cases o l d i m p o s i t i o n s w e r e a c t u a l l y d i m i n i s h e d . B y severe e c o n o m y , b y e n f o r c i n g e v e r y p r o f i t a b l e r i g h t a n d b y s e l l i n g c r o w n lands, S a l i s b u r y i n t w o y e a r s r e d u c e d t h e k i n g ' s indebtedness f r o m 1,000^000 t o 300,000. B u t h e c o u l d n o t raise i n c o m e p e r m a n e n t l y t o a l e v e l w i t h e x p e n d i t u r e , a n d i n a s h o r t t i m e t h e last p a y m e n t s d u e o n a c c o u n t o f t h e subsidies g r a n t e d i n 1606 w o u l d h a v e b e e n received. T h e n t h e deficit w o u l d b e c o m e as l a r g e as ever a n d debts w o u l d again become overwhelming. A t the beginning o f 1610 i t w a s a p p a r e n t t h a t p a r l i a m e n t m u s t a g a i n b e s u m m o n e d .

38 CHAP. ^*

THE ADMINISTRATION

OF SALISBURY.

1610

T h e p a r l i a m e n t re-assembled o n F e b r u a r y 9? 1610. Since t h e i r last m e e t i n g v a r i o u s causes h a d t e n d e d t o i r r i t a t e t h e c o m m o n s against t h e g o v e r n m e n t . E c c l e s i a s t i c a l differences were i n n o respect a b a t e d . T h e k i n g ' s c l a i m to l e v y i m p o s i tions appeared m o r e dangerous t h e l o n g e r i t was c o n s i d e r e d . T h e k i n g kept u p the T u d o r practice o f issuing proclamations w h i c h inflicted n e w penalties for o l d offences or even c r e a t e d offences u n k n o w n t o t h e c o m m o n l a w . T h e c o u n c i l o f W a l e s h a d asserted its c l a i m t o j u r i s d i c t i o n o v e r t h e f o u r b o r d e r counties, G l o u c e s t e r , W o r c e s t e r , H e r e f o r d , a n d S h r o p s h i r e , a c l a i m perhaps justified b y a statute o f H e n r y V I I I . , a n d c e r t a i n l y s u p p o r t e d b y precedent, b u t a l a r m i n g i n a s m u c h as i t confirmed a n e x c e p t i o n a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f j u s t i c e i n a r e g i o n nowise different f r o m t h e rest o f t h e k i n g d o m . T h e ecclesiastical courts h a d been i n ceaseless f e u d w i t h t h e courts o f c o m m o n law. T h e judges, w i t h C o k e at t h e i r h e a d , c l a i m e d a u t h o r i t y t o f i x t h e bounds o f a l l o t h e r j u r i s d i c t i o n s a n d t o issue writs o f p r o h i b i t i o n whenever these b o u n d s w e r e transgressed. T h e c o u n c i l o f "Wales a n d the ecclesiastical t r i b u n a l s s o u g h t a n d received t h e s u p p o r t o f t h e k i n g , w h o felt p a r t i a l t o c o u r t s entirely dependent u p o n his favour, w h i l e t h e courts o f c o m m o n l a w h a d t h e s y m p a t h y o f t h e l e g a l profession, w h i c h s u p p l i e d a large a n d a c t i v e p a r t o f t h e house o f c o m m o n s . I n brief, t h e c o m m o n s m e t w i t h t h e d i s p o s i t i o n t o c a l l for redress o f g r i e v ances, w h i l e the k i n g was c o n c e r n e d a b o v e a l l t h i n g s t o o b t a i n supply.
1

O n e subject o f c o m p l a i n t especially deserves t o b e n o t i c e d for the l i g h t w h i c h i t casts u p o n t h e h a b i t s o f t h o u g h t p r e v a i l i n g at t h a t t i m e . D r . C o w e l l , reader i n c i v i l l a w at C a m bridge, h a d p u b l i s h e d a l a w d i c t i o n a r y e n t i t l e d The Interpreter, i n w h i c h h e asserted t h a t t h e K i n g o f E n g l a n d was a n absolute k i n g , a n d therefore h a d p l e n a r y legislative p o w e r . N o l i b e r t y of p o l i t i c a l d i s c u s s i o n o u t s i d e p a r l i a m e n t t h e n e x i s t e d , n o r d i d a n y great n u m b e r o f m e n u n d e r s t a n d s u c h l i b e r t y . No book c o u l d be p r i n t e d w i t h o u t a licence, a n d therefore e v e r y book t r e a t i n g o f p o l i t i c s seemed t o h a v e t h e s a n c t i o n o f t h e state. I f p a t r i o t s t h o u g h t its t e a c h i n g u n s o u n d a n d m i s chievous, t h e y c a l l e d o n t h e state t o r e m e d y t h e w r o n g b y
* s)<?s Mis Skeelj The Council iu the parches of Wales, cht v,

I6IO

THE

GREAT

CONTRACT

39

suppressing the book a n d punishing t h e author. N o r were CHAP, t h e y w i t h o u t a r e l a t i v e excuse for t h e d e m a n d . I f the crown ^* a n d the C h u r c h defended their authority b y silencing criticism, the c o m m o n s could not well be denied the same privilege. F r e e d o m f o r o n e s c h o o l o f t h o u g h t does e n v e n o m t h e w r o n g d o n e i n r e p r e s s i n g every other. T h e c o m m o n s were therefore d e t e r m i n e d t o set a m a r k u p o n D r . C o w e l l a n d h i s d i c t i o n a r y . W T i e n S a l i s b u r y h a d stated t h e k i n g ' s w a n t s at a conference b e t w e e n t h e houses, t h e c o m m o n s referred t h e subject t o t h e i r c o m m i t t e e o f grievances. T h e committee advised that t h e house s h o u l d treat w i t h t h e k i n g for t h e e x t i n c t i o n o f t h e f e u d a l tenures. S a l i s b u r y h a d n o i n s t r u c t i o n s t o d o so, b u t he a s k e d for a g r a n t o f 600,000, p a r t l y t o p a y off t h e k i n g s debts, p a r t l y t o m e e t e x t r a o r d i n a r y charges, a n d for a p e r m a n e n t a n n u a l a d d i t i o n t o t h e revenue o f 200,000, w h i c h w o u l d g i v e the k i n g a large surplus. A s m u c h was demanded from the c o m m o n s , t h e y c o u l d m a k e themselves h e a r d . W^hen t h e y d e n o u n c e d C o w e l l ' s Interpreter> J a m e s a g r e e d i n c o n d e m n i n g t h a t w o r k a n d o r d e r e d i t s suppression. W h e n t h e y a s k e d leave t o t r e a t f o r t h e a b o l i t i o n o f t h e m i l i t a r y tenures, h e assented. They began w i t h proposing that the k i n g should give up his feudal revenues f o r a f i x e d a n n u a l s u m o f 100,000. T h e k i n g w o u l d h a v e g a i n e d b y t h i s b a r g a i n , b u t h e refused t o part w i t h h i s f e u d a l r i g h t s unless h e were p u t i n possession o f a revenue m o r e t h a n e q u a l t o h i s expenses. H e therefore b a d e S a l i s b u r y d e m a n d 200,000 a y e a r i n a d d i t i o n t o a n e q u i v a l e n t for t h e f e u d a l r e v e n u e s , a n d as t h e c o m m o n s w o u l d n o t consider these t e r m s , t h e n e g o t i a t i o n w a s b r o k e n o f f for t h e t i m e . T h e c o m m o n s t h e n p r o c e e d e d t o discuss t h e i m p o s i t i o n s . O n M a y 11, t h e y r e c e i v e d a message as f r o m t h e k i n g f o r b i d d i n g t h e m t o q u e s t i o n h i s p r e r o g a t i v e , b u t w h e n i t was f o u n d t o h a v e c o m e m e r e l y f r o m t h e c o u n c i l i n h i s absence, t h e y r e f u s e d t o t r e a t i t as a r o y a l message. O n returning to town, J a m e s sent f o r t h e houses a n d asserted p e r e m p t o r i l y h i s r i g h t t o l e v y i m p o s i t i o n s , a l t h o u g h h e p r o m i s e d n o t t o l e v y a n y fresh ones w i t h o u t h e a r i n g w h a t t h e y h a d t o say. T h e c o m m o n s w e r e n o t t o b e s i l e n c e d thus. T h e y d r e w u p a p e t i t i o n o f r i g h t i n s i s t i n g o n t h e i r c l a i m t o debate freely a l l t h e grievances o f t h e subject a n d a s k i n g t h a t t h e y m i g h t be a l l o w e d t o p r o c e e d w i t h t h e i n q u i r y i n t o i m p o s i t i o n s . J a m e s , w h o c o u l d n o t afford

40
CHAP,

THE ADMINISTRA

TION OF SALISB UR Y.

161o

t o q u a r r e l w i t h p a r l i a m e n t , g a v e t h e m l i b e r t y t o proceed. Then followed the memorable debate o n impositions, lasting for t h e v e r y unusual space o f f o u r d a y s . B a c o n a n d Y e l v e r t o n w e r e t h e chief speakers o n b e h a l f o f t h e c r o w n ; H a k e w i l l a n d W h i t e l o c k e on b e h a l f o f t h e c o m m o n s . A s has b e e n s a i d , t h e language o f statutes a n d t h e p r a c t i c e o f f o r m e r t i m e s a d m i t t e d o f t w o v i e w s on t h e question o f l a w . B u t o n t h e q u e s t i o n o f p o l i c y t h e r e was l i t t l e r o o m t o h e s i t a t e . I f the commons acknowledged the king's power t o i m p o s e duties t h e y a n n u l l e d t h e i r o w n c o n t r o l over t a x a t i o n . W i t h o u t a d i v i s i o n , therefore, t h e y agreed t o appoint a committee for drawing u p a petition o n the impositions. T h e k i n g i n r e p l y offered a c o m p r o m i s e . H e would keep t h e i m p o s i t i o n s a l r e a d y set o n m e r c h a n d i s e , b u t he w o u l d assent t o a b i l l f o r b i d d i n g a n y n e w ones t o b e l e v i e d . A b i l l t o t h i s effect was b r o u g h t i n , b u t w a s lost i n t h e house o f l o r d s , a n d t h e k i n g ' s r i g h t t o l e v y i m p o s i t i o n s r e m a i n e d i n dispute f o r another t h i r t y y e a r s . W h e n the k i n g h a d soothed the commons b y leaving them free t o debate t h e i m p o s i t i o n s , S a l i s b u r y r e v i v e d t h e n e g o t i a t i o n for e n d i n g t h e m i l i t a r y tenures. After some bargaining the parties agreed t h a t t h e k i n g s h o u l d receive 200,000 a y e a r , but t h e c o m m o n s i n t e n d e d t h i s s u m t o c o v e r t h e e x t i n c t i o n o f purveyance a n d c e r t a i n o t h e r onerous r i g h t s o f t h e c r o w n . E v e n so t h e k i n g w o u l d h a v e g a i n e d a c l e a r 100,000 a y e a r . B u t , as t h e session w a s f a r a d v a n c e d , t h e d e t e r m i n i n g h o w t h i s revenue s h o u l d b e r a i s e d w a s left over t o t h e a u t u m n . O n J u l y 23, J a m e s p r o r o g u e d t h e p a r l i a m e n t i n a t o l e r a b l y g o o d h u m o u r . H e p r o m i s e d t o c o n s i d e r t h e i r g r i e v a n c e s as t o t h e c o u n c i l of W a l e s a n d t h e abuse o f p r o c l a m a t i o n s , b u t , w h i l e y i e l d i n g s o m e points o f d e t a i l , h e r e m a i n e d i m m o v a b l e o n t h e g e n e r a l ecclesiastical q u e s t i o n . I n t h e recess J a m e s c o n s u l t e d C o k e , n o w l o r d c h i e f j u s t i c e , as to t h e l e g a l i t y o f his p r o c l a m a t i o n s a g a i n s t n e w b u i l d i n g s i n L o n d o n a n d against the* m a n u f a c t u r e o f starch. C o k e a d v i s e d with F l e m i n g , w h o h a d been made chief justice o f the common pleas, w i t h C h i e f B a r o n T a n f i e l d a n d w i t h B a r o n A l t h a m . T h e i r j o i n t answer w a s t o t h e effect t h a t t h e k i n g c o u l d n o t create a n e w offence b y p r o c l a m a t i o n n o r m a k e a n offence p u n i s h a b l e i n the Star C h a m b e r w h i c h was not b y law w i t h i n its jurisd i c t i o n . A l l t h a t h e c o u l d d o w a s t o w a r n h i s subjects t o k e e p

1611

DISSOL UTION

OF

PARLIAMENT.

4*
n

t h e l a w , w i t h t h e consequence t h a t neglect o f t h e w a r n i n g C H A P , w o u l d e x p o s e offenders t o severer p u n i s h m e n t . T h i s o p i n i o n * o f t h e j u d g e s was n o t c h a l l e n g e d at t h e t i m e , a n d h a s since been a c c e p t e d as a u t h o r i t a t i v e . I t even r e s t r a i n e d for a w h i l e t h e issue o f p r o c l a m a t i o n s m a k i n g n e w offences. W h e n p a r l i a m e n t m e t once m o r e i n O c t o b e r t h e c o m m o n s w e r e u n w i l l i n g t o g o o n w i t h t h e b a r g a i n for t h e e x t i n c t i o n o f m i l i t a r y t e n u r e s u n t i l t h e k i n g h a d redressed t h e i r grievances. T h e k i n g o n h i s side h a d c o m e t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t t h e t e r m s s e t t l e d earlier i n t h e y e a r w e r e n o t favourable enough. He r a i s e d h i s d e m a n d s a n d t h e house r e p l i e d t h a t t h e y c o u l d n o t raise t h e i r offers. T h u s the long negotiation, sometimes des c r i b e d as t h e G r e a t C o n t r a c t , e n d e d , m u c h t o S a l i s b u r y ' s v e x a t i o n , a n d a v a l u a b l e r e f o r m was p o s t p o n e d f o r h a l f a c e n t u r y . A s t h e k i n g s t i l l n e e d e d m o n e y , h e a l l o w e d S a l i s b u r y t o offer redress o f c e r t a i n grievances i n r e t u r n for a g r a n t . T h e house, no longer i n the g i v i n g mood, t h a n k e d the k i n g , but told h i m t h a t t h e y e x p e c t e d more. U n c i v i l t h i n g s were s a i d a b o u t r o y a l profusion a n d S c o t c h favourites. T h e most h i g h l y favoured of t h e m , R o b e r t C a r r , t o o k a l a r m a n d u s e d a l l his influence t o i r r i t a t e t h e k i n g against t h e c o m m o n s . Hopeless of a supply, J a m e s d i s s o l v e d t h e p a r l i a m e n t o n F e b r u a r y 9, 1611. T h e first S t u a r t k i n g thus p a r t e d i n i l l - h u m o u r w i t h h i s first parliament. H e a n d his successors w e r e t o p a r t i n l i k e f a s h i o n with every parliament which they called down to the time of the R e v o l u t i o n . T h e r e c o u l d be n o m o r e c o n v i n c i n g p r o o f t h a t these k i n g s d i d n o t u n d e r s t a n d t h e t e m p e r of E n g l i s h m e n o r t h e a r t o f m a n a g i n g p o p u l a r assemblies. James had no intent i o n o f a b u s i n g h i s a u t h o r i t y . I n s p i t e o f m u c h arrogance a n d p e d a n t r y h e often y i e l d e d p o i n t s o f r e a l consequence. O n one or t w o subjects, s u c h as t h e t r e a t m e n t o f the R o m a n c a t h o l i c s a n d t h e u n i o n o f t h e t w o k i n g d o m s , h i s views were larger t h a n those o f t h e m a j o r i t y i n t h e house o f c o m m o n s . B u t h e l a c k e d insight a n d sympathy. H i s m a n n e r , at once u n d i g n i f i e d a n d o v e r b e a r i n g , r a i s e d n e i t h e r fear n o r affection. H e c h a l l e n g e d r e sistance b y t h e c o n s t a n t assertion o f his absolute p o w e r . Above all, h e refused t o m a k e a n y serious concession i n ecclesiastical affairs. I n h i s e a r l y y e a r s at a l l events v e r y s l i g h t concessions w o u l d h a v e satisfied, i f n o t t h e d o g m a t i c p u r i t a n s , at least t h a t greaA b o d y o f m o d e r a t e E n g l i s h m e n a p a r t f r o m w h i c h t h e y

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CHAP, were powerless. B u t t h e v a n i t y o f t h e m o n a r c h h a d been t o o d e e p l y w o u n d e d i n S c o t l a n d , t h e v a n i t y o f t h e t h e o l o g i a n was too m u c h gratified i n E n g l a n d , for J a m e s t o y i e l d one j o t o r tittle. A n d so was opened t h a t rift b e t w e e n t h e k i n g a n d h i s people w h i c h w i d e n e d y e a r b y y e a r u n t i l i t b e c a m e c i v i l war.
I L

A r c h b i s h o p B a n c r o f t d i e d i n N o v e m b e r , 1610. I n the foll o w i n g J a n u a r y t h e k i n g n a m e d as his successor G e o r g e A b b o t , B i s h o p of L o n d o n . I t c a n n o t be s a i d t h a t A b b o t o w e d t h i s elevation either t o pre-eminent talent or t o c o n f o r m i t y w i t h t h e king's views r e g a r d i n g t h e disputes o f t h a t d a y . A t Oxford A b b o t h a d risen b y t h e usual stages t o t h e m a s t e r s h i p o f U n i versity College. H a v i n g b e c o m e c h a p l a i n t o t h e E a r l o f D u n b a r , t h e most t r u s t e d o f t h e k i n g ' s m i n i s t e r s i n S c o t l a n d , he h a d rendered valuable service t o t h e c r o w n i n i t s dealings w i t h t h e S c o t t i s h clergy. H e was r e w a r d e d w i t h t h e see o f L i c h f i e l d a n d C o v e n t r y , t h e n w i t h t h e see o f L o n d o n , a n d finally w i t h the highest office i n t h e C h u r c h . B u t he n e v e r s o u g h t t o h i d e his opinions, w h i c h were t h o s e of m a n y prelates i n t h e f o r m e r generation. T h a t is t o say, h e h e l d w i t h t h e p u r i t a n s i n d o c trine, w h i l e he c o n s i d e r e d t h a t a l l m e n s h o u l d c o m p l y w i t h t h e actual g o v e r n m e n t a n d w o r s h i p o f t h e C h u r c h as enjoined b y the l a w o f the l a n d , a n d i n n o respect c o n t r a r y t o t h e l a w o f G o d . ^A/hile h e was i n c l i n e d t o deal t e n d e r l y w i t h t h e scruples o f t h e puritans, h e h a d less reserve w i t h t h e r i s i n g A r m i n i a n p a r t y , a n d m o r e t h a n once e n g a g e d i n a n g r y debate w i t h t h e i r c h a m p i o n a n d h i s o w n successor, W i l l i a m L a u d . T h e first y e a r s o f the r e i g n o f J a m e s I . are m e m o r a b l e i n the h i s t o r y o f I r e l a n d . A few d a y s after h i s accession the submission o f H u g h O ' N e i l l , E a r l of T y r o n e , t o t h e L o r d D e p u t y M o u n t j o y a n n o u n c e d the close o f t h a t s l o w a n d i n t e r r u p t e d conquest b y E l i z a b e t h w h i c h for the first t i m e r e a l l y b r o u g h t every p a r t o f I r e l a n d u n d e r t h e p o w e r o f t h e E n g l i s h c r o w n . T h e r e r e m a i n e d t h e h a r d e r t a s k o f r e c o n c i l i n g the c o n q u e r e d w i t h t h e i r fate a n d r a i s i n g a b a c k w a r d a n d h a l f - r u i n e d c o u n t r y to the same degree o f c i v i l i s a t i o n as E n g l a n d . N o w that t h e feudal s w a y o f the N o r m a n - I r i s h nobles a n d t h e patriarchal r u l e o f t h e C e l t i c chiefs w e r e d i s p l a c e d b y t h e * direct rule of the sovereign, i t was n a t u r a l t h a t E n g l i s h l a w a n d E n g l i s h i n s t i t u t i o n s , h i t h e r t o a l m o s t u n k n o w n outside t h e Pale, should be e x t e n d e d over t h e w h o l e k i n g d o m . A s t h e most

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e n l i g h t e n e d m e n o f t h a t age l i t t l e k n e w h o w t h e laws a n d C H A P , usages o f a p e o p l e g r o w o u t o f t h e i r c h a r a c t e r a n d c o n d i t i o n , i t was n a t u r a l t h a t t h e c h a n g e s h o u l d be m a d e a b r u p t l y . The endeavour of modern Indian administrators to understand native usage a n d adapt it to E n g l i s h notions o f government was far b e y o n d t h e w i s d o m o f the s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y . Y e t even the r e v o l u t i o n i m p l i e d i n s u b s t i t u t i n g t h e c o m m o n l a w for t h e B r e h o n l a w m i g h t h a v e been m a d e e n d u r a b l e . T h e ancient i n s t i t u t i o n s o f I r e l a n d h a d c r a m p e d t h e g r o w t h o f n a t i o n a l life, h a d m a d e c o n q u e s t by.foreigners i n e v i t a b l e , a n d h a d n o t ensured t h e w e l f a r e o f t h e mass o f t h e people. T h e r e a l gains o f peace, order, a n d s e c u r i t y , assured b y a n i r r e s i s t i b l e p o w e r , m i g h t h a v e r e c o n c i l e d m o s t I i - i s h m e n t o a s y s t e m w h i c h , t h o u g h foreign, w o u l d h a v e a l l o w e d t h e m t o share i n t h e g e n e r a l progress o f Western Europe. B u t t h e r e w e r e t w o d i s t u r b i n g causes w h i c h f a t a l l y h i n d e r e d t h e successful c o n d u c t o f t h i s g r e a t e x p e r i m e n t . O n e was religious a n d t h e o t h e r was a g r a r i a n . A s i t was t h e n t h e g e n e r a l b e l i e f t h a t i n one state o n l y one C h u r c h s h o u l d be a l l o w e d , i t w a s i n e v i t a b l e t h a t t h e E n g l i s h conquerors o f I r e l a n d s h o u l d e v e r y w h e r e i n s t a l t h e r e f o r m a t i o n , l e a v i n g the R o m a n c a t h o l i c r e l i g i o n t o e x i s t o n sufferance or t o be repressed so far as m i g h t s e e m p r u d e n t . A n d s i n c e the I r i s h , s t i l l a m e d i e v a l , i n m a n y respects a p r i m i t i v e people, h a d n o p a r t i n t h e t h o u g h t s a n d feelings w h i c h g a v e b i r t h to t h e r e f o r m a t i o n , but a s s o c i a t e d p r o t e s t a n t i s m w i t h subjection to aliens, i t was n a t u r a l t h a t t h e y s h o u l d reject t h e r e l i g i o n forced u p o n t h e m a n d bec o m e w h a t t h e y h a d n o t y e t been, fervent R o m a n catholics. A t a t i m e w h e n a s t a n d i n g a r m y was a n i n s t i t u t i o n u n k n o w n i n E n g l a n d a n d w h e n t h e revenues o f I r e l a n d c o u l d i l l m a i n t a i n a h a n d f u l o f t r o o p s , i t was n a t u r a l that the E n g l i s h conquerors s h o u l d c o n t i n u e the s y s t e m o f p l a n t a t i o n s o r colonies, first adopted under the T u d o r s i n the double hope o f forming a permanent garrison a n d o f averting all danger of revolt b y A n g l i c i s i n g t h e c h i l d r e n o f t h e soil. A n d since t h e g o v e r n m e n t was a l w a y s w e a k a g a i n s t t h e suggestions o f g r e e d y a n d p o w e r f u l m e n , t h e s y s t e m o f p l a n t a t i o n s was further a n d further e n l a r g e d t i l l i t b e c a m e t h e ^ m e a n s o f t u r n i n g the I r i s h wholesale off t h e i r l a n d s a n d a w o k e a t e r r i b l e p a s s i o n for r e c o v e r y a n d for vengeance
I L

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T h e g e n e r a l result was that a p o l i c y w h i c h a i m e d at m a k i n g the I r i s h E n g l i s h f a i l e d o f its effect a n d i n s t e a d f o r m e d , out o f a p o p u l a t i o n h i t h e r t o s p l i t i n t o countless f r a g m e n t s b y t r i b a l a n d feudal h a t r e d s , a n a t i o n u n i t e d i n i t s e l f a n d p a r t e d f r o m its conquerors b y deep a n d g r o w i n g a n t i p a t h y . I n strict justice t h e b l a m e c a n n o t be w h o l l y l a i d u p o n a n y one person, p a r t y , or sect i n E n g l a n d . F o r a l t h o u g h t h e p u r i t a n s , w h e n t h e y h a d power, showed t h e m s e l v e s b l i n d e r a n d m o r e merciless i n the g o v e r n ment o f I r e l a n d t h a n a n y o f t h e i r predecessors, i t must be r e m e m b e r e d t h a t the r e b e l l i o n w h i c h c a l l e d f o r t h t h e i r fury h a d been p r e p a r e d b y the injustice a n d u n w i s d o m o f J a m e s a n d Charles a n d t h e i r m i n i s t e r s . N o r were rulers o n l y to b l a m e . T h e r e w a s a great g u l f f i x e d between t h e t h o u g h t s a n d feelings of the t w o peoples. E n g l i s h c i v i l i s a t i o n does n o t attract aliens a n d o f a l l great c o n q u e r i n g races the E n g l i s h are the most e x clusive. I n t w o centuries the R o m a n s L a t i n i s e d the vast C e l t i c population o f Gaul. I n seven centuries t h e E n g l i s h h a v e n o t achieved as m u c h w i t h the s m a l l C e l t i c p o p u l a t i o n o f I r e l a n d . M o u n t j o y h a d t o q u e l l a c a t h o l i c m o v e m e n t o f resistance i n the s o u t h e r n t o w n s before he c o u l d r e t u r n to E n g l a n d . He was m a d e E a r l o f D e v o n s h i r e a n d l o r d - l i e u t e n a n t , but d i d n o t resume t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . I n h i s place there c a m e as deputy, first S i r G e o r g e C a r e y a n d t h e n i n O c t o b e r , 1604, S i r A r t h u r Chichester. C h i c h e s t e r w a s a s t a t e s m a n w h o saw the object w h i c h a n E n g l i s h ruler o f I r e l a n d s h o u l d pursue a n d to s o m e e x t e n t the m e a n s w h i c h h e s h o u l d e m p l o y . H e earnestly desired to e n d t h e rule o f t h e s w o r d a n d t o m a k e E n g l i s h l a w popular b y m a k i n g i t b e n e f i c i a l . I n the s p r i n g o f 1605 he rev o k e d m o s t o f the c o m m i s s i o n s w h i c h h a d been g r a n t e d for executing m a r t i a l law a n d ordered a general disarmament. A p a r d o n was p r o c l a i m e d for a l l offences c o m m i t t e d before the king's accession, a n d the c o m m o n people were p r o m i s e d p r o tection a g a i n s t ill-usage, w h e t h e r b y t h e i r l o r d s or b y the officers o f the c r o w n . F o l l o w i n g a practice adopted under E l i z a b e t h , t h e g o v e r n m e n t m a d e g r a n t s o f forfeited l a n d s t o E n g l i s h a n d t o l o y a l I r i s h o n c o n d i t i o n t h a t t h e y should assign freeholds t o a c e r t a i n n u m b e r o f c u l t i v a t o r s i n r e t u r n for a fixed rent. I r i s h p r o p r i e t o r s were encouraged t o s u r r e n d e r their l a n d s a n d receive t h e m b a c k o n E n g l i s h tenure w i t h a s i m i l a r p r o v i s i o n for t h e i r dependants. It was hoped that m e n

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thus secure o f t h e i r h o l d i n g s w o u l d be l e d to c u l t i v a t e t h e m C H A P , better a n d , i n b e c o m i n g prosperous, w o u l d become c o n t e n t e d . * I t was d e s i g n e d t h a t these freeholders s h o u l d h a v e the s a m e p o l i t i c a l r i g h t s a n d duties as i n E n g l a n d . F o r w h a t e v e r faults the rulers o f I r e l a n d m i g h t at t h i s t i m e c o m m i t , t h e y d i d n o t i n t e n d that entire exclusion o f the Irish from the government o f t h e i r o w n c o u n t r y w h i c h was c a r r i e d out a h u n d r e d y e a r s later. T h i s h e a l i n g p o l i c y h a d its effect i n t h e c o n t e n t m e n t o f a great p a r t o f t h e people. T h e judges, g o i n g c i r c u i t i n d i s t r i c t s h i t h e r t o u n v i s i t e d b y t h e m , w e r e often w e l c o m e d as p r o t e c t o r s o f t h e w e a k against the s t r o n g . T h e C e l t i c a r i s t o c r a c y w e r e s o r e l y a g g r i e v e d , i t is true, to find t h e i r f o r m e r a l m o s t p r i n c e l y sway cut d o w n b y the irresistible power of the government above a n d the new legal rights o f their dependants below. B u t h a d t h e c h i e f s alone been m a l c o n t e n t , the m i s c h i e f w o u l d h a v e b e e n t e m p o r a r y . O t h e r causes d i d m o r e t o d i s a p p o i n t Chichester's hopes.
Ir

I n I r e l a n d , as i n E n g l a n d , t h e c a t h o l i c s h a d h o p e o f t o l e r a t i o n f r o m J a m e s , a n d i n I r e l a n d , as i n E n g l a n d , t h e i r hopes w e r e d i s a p p o i n t e d . J a m e s o r d e r e d t h a t a l l persons s h o u l d a t t e n d t h e C h u r c h service a n d t h a t a l l priests s h o u l d be b a n i s h e d . C h i c h e s t e r g a v e effect t o these orders b y means o f t h e a r b i t r a r y j u r i s d i c t i o n o f the court k n o w n as t h e C a s t l e C h a m b e r , a n d w h e n t h e c a t h o l i c l o r d s a n d g e n t l e m e n o f t h e P a l e p e t i t i o n e d for a r e spite, s o m e o f t h e m were i m p r i s o n e d . C o m p l a i n t s o f t h i s h a r d usage r e a c h e d E n g l a n d , a n d t h e p r i v y c o u n c i l a s k e d t h e I r i s h c o u n c i l for a n e x p l a n a t i o n . A l t h o u g h t h e I r i s h c o u n c i l sought t o j u s t i f y w h a t h a d been done, i t a b a n d o n e d t h e a t t e m p t t o d r i v e t h e c a t h o l i c s i n t o t h e c h u r c h e s o f t h e established f a i t h . N e v e r t h e l e s s , a precious o p p o r t u n i t y h a d been t h r o w n a w a y , a n d t h e I r i s h w e r e c o n f i r m e d i n t h e b e l i e f t h a t t h e g o v e r n m e n t w,is t h e e n e m y o f t h e i r r e l i g i o n , o n l y r e s t r a i n e d b y a sense o f w e a k ness f r o m s u p p r e s s i n g i t altogether. A t this very time the e s t a b l i s h e d C h u r c h was i n a c o n d i t i o n w h i c h allowed; o f l i t t l e hope that it w o u l d gain w i l l i n g adherents. D u r i n g the l o n g disorders o f t h e s i x t e e n t h c e n t u r y a n i m m e n s e a m o u n t o f ecclesiast i c a l p r o p e r t y h a d been s e i z e d b y l a y m e n , a n d a g r e a t n u m b e r o f c h u r c h e s h a d fallen, i n t o r u i n . I n m a n y places t h e r e w a s n o l i v e l i h o o d for a n i n c u m b e n t , a n d n o i n c u m b e n t t o b e f o u n d .

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F o r want of a n y c o n t r o l l i n g public opinion, patronage h a d been abused i n s u c h a s h a m e f u l m a n n e r t h a t a l a r g e p r o p o r t i o n o f the c l e r g y were i l l i t e r a t e o r s c a n d a l o u s i n t h e i r m o r a l s . P l u r a l i t i e s a n d non-residence w e r e flagrant t h r o u g h o u t t h e k i n g d o m . I n most parts t h e C h u r c h services w e r e n o t celebrated, n o r w o u l d their c e l e b r a t i o n h a v e a v a i l e d m u c h , for t h e p r o t e s t a n t c l e r g y , as a rule, s p o k e o n l y E n g l i s h , w h i l e t h e m a s s o f t h e I r i s h spoke o n l y G a e l i c . C h i c h e s t e r t r i e d t o i m p r o v e m a t t e r s , used care i n his choice o f b i s h o p s a n d caused t h e P r a y e r B o o k to be t r a n s lated i n t o G a e l i c \ but h i s endeavours left h a r d l y a n y a b i d i n g trace. W i t h r e g a r d t o f u r t h e r p l a n t a t i o n s , C h i c h e s t e r ' s views, at least i n the b e g i n n i n g o f h i s rule, w e r e m o d e r a t e . H e proposed to settle E n g l i s h a n d S c o t c h c o l o n i s t s i n U l s t e r , b u t o n l y o n t h e abbey lands a l r e a d y vested i n t h e c r o w n . T h e course o f events led h i m on to a much more sweeping plan o f colonisation. The E a r l o f T y r o n e c o u l d n o t b u t feel d i s s a t i s f i e d w i t h his present state a n d a n x i o u s for t h e future. A l t h o u g h h e h a d saved h i s lands a n d h o n o u r s , a n d h a d r e c e i v e d t h e k i n g ' s o w n assurance o f p r o t e c t i o n , he, t h e great O ' N e i l l , w h o h a d been a n a l l but i n dependent p r i n c e a n d t h e c h i e f o f a n a t i o n a l u p r i s i n g , was n o w n o m o r e t h a n a n o r d i n a r y n o b l e , w i t h o u t t h e sense o f s e c u r i t y w h i c h other nobles e n j o y e d . H e h a d m a n y disputes w i t h h i s dependants, w h o h o p e d t o g a i n r e c o g n i t i o n as freeholders. He might expect the government to take t h e i r part i n the hope of w e a k e n i n g a subject w h o m i t m u s t c o n t i n u e t o fear. He h a d p r o b a b l y b e c o m e a c q u a i n t e d w i t h Chichester's report t o S a l i s b u r y , t h a t U l s t e r w o u l d n e v e r f l o u r i s h u n t i l i t was d i r e c t l y r u l e d b y a president a n d c o u n c i l , a c h a n g e w h i c h w o u l d t a k e a w a y the last r e m n a n t o f h i s i m m e m o r i a l p o w e r . Whether he began t o c o n t r i v e a n e w r e b e l l i o n o r w h e t h e r t h e E n g l i s h rulers accused h i m o f p l o t t i n g i n o r d e r t h a t t h e y m i g h t r u i n h i m a n d seize his possessions, is s t i l l d o u b t f u l , a n d i t c a n n o t be s a i d t h a t either a l t e r n a t i v e is u n l i k e l y . T y r o n e ' s b i t t e r e s t q u a r r e l was w i t h h i s c h i e f vassal, S i r D o n n e l l O ' C a h a n , w h o c l a i m e d to h o l d d i r e c t l y f r o m t h e c r o w n . T h e y argued t h e i r cause before C h i c h e s t e r i n c o u n c i l , a n d t h e attorney-general, S i r J o h n D a v i s , r e c o m m e n d e d t h a t t h e c r o w n should enter u p o n t h e l a n d s t o t h e e x c l u s i o n o f b o t h c l a i m a n t s . T h e d e p u t y d e c l i n e d t o t a k e s u c h a n a r b i t r a r y course, a n d , as

i6o8

THE FLIGHT

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b o t h parties desired a j u d g m e n t of the k i n g himself, James CHAP, undertook t o give t h e m a personal hearing. B u t w h e n the t i m e ^* d r e w near T y r o n e changed his m i n d a n d came t o the conclusion that, i f he once set foot i n E n g l a n d , he w o u l d never be allowed t o return. H o w far his fears were justified a n d what p r o m p t e d t h e m are questions s t i l l obscure. A l i t t l e w h i l e before the g o v e r n m e n t received w a r n i n g t h a t a new rebellion was prep a r i n g a n d that T y r o n e was almost c e r t a i n l y one o f the leaders. I f this were r e a l l y so, or i f T y r o n e k n e w that he h a d been accused, t h o u g h falsely, his resolution to flee a d m i t s o f e x p l a n a tion. O n S e p t e m b e r 4, 1607, he sailed f r o m L o u g h S w i l l y for the continent. H e never again beheld his native l a n d , and died at R o m e i n 1616. W i t h h i m went t h e head o f the n e x t greatest Celtic house i n the n o r t h , R o r y O ' D o n n e l l , E a r l o f T y r c o n n e l , w h o h a d been n a m e d a m o n g t h e principals i n the latest plot, and thought it no longer safe t o r e m a i n i n Ireland. W i t h the t w o earls went also C u c o n n a u g h t M a g u i r e , chief o f F e r m a n a g h , w h o h a d fought against t h e E n g l i s h i n Tyrone's rebellion, and w h o was also accused, p r o b a b l y w i t h reason, o f p r e p a r i n g for another. I t was certain t h a t i n a l l three cases flight w o u l d be t a k e n as p r o o f o f g u i l t a n d w o u l d be followed b y j u d g m e n t a n d the forfeiture o f their i m m e n s e possessions. I n the following year S i r C a h i r O ' D o g h e r t y , c h i e f of Innishowen and one of Tyrconnel's chief vassals, raised a foolish a n d hopeless insurrection w h i c h ended i n his d e a t h a n d forfeiture. I n the same year trouble overtook O ' C a h a n , T y r o n e ' s former vassal a n d enemy, and S i r N i a l l G a r v O ' D o n n e l l , w h o h a d once c l a i m e d the chiefship of his great clan. T h r o u g h these events a l l the C e l t i c chiefs of most consequence i n the n o r t h o f Ireland were removed, s i x counties, T y r o n e , D o n e g a l , A r m a g h , Coleraine, C a v a n , a n d F e r m a n a g h , were escheated t o the crown, a n d the w a y was opened for the m e m o r a b l e p l a n t a t i o n o f Ulster.* Chichester advised the k i n g i n disposing of these lands to allot a m o n g the o l d inhabitants as m u c h as t h e y c o u l d s t o c k a n d cultivate, a n d o n l y then to d i v i d e the residue a m o n g E n g l i s h a n d S c o t t i s h settlers o n c o n d i t i o n of b u i l d i n g castles to ensure the
1

Calendar

of

State

Papers,

Ireland, James I., vol. i i i . , generally;

J.

O ' D o n o v a n , Annals of the Four Masters, vol. v i . ; Meehan, Fate and Fortunes of Tyrone and Tyrconnel.

4&
CHAP,

THE ADMINISTRATION

OF SALISBURY.

1608

possession o f t h e c o u n t r y . B u t t h e c o m m i s s i o n e r s a p p o i n t e d t o d r a w u p a s c h e m e p a i d n o r e g a r d t o v e s t e d interests, t r e a t i n g t h e w h o l e t e r r i t o r y as s o m e t h i n g w h i c h m i g h t be f r e e l y a p p o r t i o n e d b e t w e e n n a t i v e s a n d settlers. T h e r e w e r e to be three classes o f g r a n t e e s ; E n g l i s h a n d S c o t t i s h settlers, s e r v i t o r s , t h a t is, o l d servants o f t h e c r o w n , c i v i l a n d m i l i t a r y , a n d n a t i v e I r i s h . T h e l a n d was t o be d i v i d e d i n t o p o r t i o n s o f 2,000, 1,500 o r 1,000 acres apiece, a n d t h e g r e a t e r a n d b e t t e r p a r t was assigned to t h e settlers, w h o w e r e e a c h t o b u i l d a castle o r a w a l l e d e n c l o s u r e c o n t a i n i n g a s t o n e house. T h e y were not to alienate t h e i r l a n d t o I r i s h m e n o r t o let I r i s h m e n h o l d u n d e r t h e m . T h e I r i s h c u l t i v a t o r s w e r e t o be r e m o v e d t o such l a n d s as h a d been a s s i g n e d to t h e i r c o u n t r y m e n o r to o t h e r desolate parts o f I r e l a n d . T h e estimates o f t h e t o t a l acreage forfeited a n d o f the p r o p o r t i o n s a s s i g n e d to E n g l i s h a n d S c o t c h settlers, servitors a n d natives differ i n t h e m o s t b e w i l d e r i n g f a s h i o n . B u t t h e fact r e m a i n s b e y o n d dispute t h a t a large p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e m o s t fertile l a n d o f U l s t e r was t o r n f r o m n a t i v e p r o p r i e t o r s , w h o h a d m o s t l y c o m m i t t e d n o o v e r t act o f r e b e l l i o n , a n d g i v e n t o foreign c o l o n i s t s . T h e c i t y o f L o n d o n alone r e c e i v e d a l m o s t the entire c o u n t y o f C o l e r a i n e , u n d e r t a k i n g , a m o n g s t o t h e r things, to r e b u i l d t h e r u i n e d t o w n o f D e r r y , w h i c h t h u s g a i n e d t h e n e w n a m e of L o n d o n d e r r y , a f t e r w a r d s e x t e n d e d t o t h e county.* A s i n former plantations, the designs of the government were i m p e r f e c t l y e x e c u t e d . S o m e o f t h e u n d e r t a k e r s w h o rec e i v e d l a n d s never c a m e n e a r t h e m , a n d t h e n a t i v e p e a s a n t r y i n m o s t places r e m a i n e d o n t h e s o i l as l a b o u r e r s under n e w masters. Y e t the U l s t e r p l a n t a t i o n w a s i n o n e sense successful. I t g r e w i n t o a p o w e r f u l a n d p r o s p e r o u s c o l o n y l a r g e e n o u g h to k e e p its d i s t i n c t i v e c h a r a c t e r . T h e natives w h o h a d n o share i n its o p u l e n c e r e m e m b e r e d w i t h i m p l a c a b l e h a t r e d h o w t h e y h a d been r o b b e d o f t h e i r l a n d s , a n d t h e p l a n t a t i o n u n d e r J a m e s was t h e d i r e c t cause o f r e b e l l i o n a n d massacre under Charles. O t h e r plantations i n W e x f o r d , L o n g f o r d , a n d t h e d i s t r i c t o f E l y O ' C a r r o l l w e r e u n d e r t a k e n i n t h e later y e a r s o f Chichester's g o v e r n m e n t w i t h as l i t t l e r e g a r d f o r j u s t i c e a n d h u m a n i t y . T h e p o l i c y o f c i v i l i s i n g the p e o p l e w a s m o r e a n d
* Calendar of State Papers, Ireland, James I., i i i . , 2 0 8 ; Ireland in the Seventeenth Century. Miss Hickson,

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m o r e a b a n d o n e d for t h e p o l i c y o f t u r n i n g t h e m off the l a n d . T h e I r i s h r e m a i n e d i n a c o n s t a n t fear o f a t t a c k u p o n t h e i r r e l i g i o n a n d t h e i r p r o p e r t y w h i c h k e p t alive a l l t h e b i t t e r m e m o r i e s o f t h e past a n d the h u n g e r f o r revenge a n d f r e e d o m i n t h e future. A l m o s t at t h e s a m e t i m e w i t h t h e p l a n t a t i o n o f U l s t e r was founded the c o l o n y of V i r g i n i a , a term w h i c h then included a vast a n d i n d e f i n i t e p o r t i o n o f N o r t h A m e r i c a . T w o a t t e m p t s t o c o l o n i s e t h e r e h a d been m a d e w i t h o u t success u n d e r E l i z a beth. I n 1602 a n e x p e d i t i o n p r o m o t e d b y t h e E a r l o f S o u t h ampton a n d commanded b y Bartholomew Gosnold had visited t h e coast o f N o r t h V i r g i n i a , t h e r e g i o n k n o w n later as N e w England. W i t h t h e c o n c l u s i o n o f peace E n g l i s h m e n a g a i n t u r n e d t h e i r t h o u g h t s t o V i r g i n i a u n d e r the m i s t a k e n b e l i e f that g o l d m i g h t be f o u n d there. S i r F e r d i n a n d o G o r g e s , g o v e r n o r of P l y m o u t h , C h i e f J u s t i c e P o p h a m , a n d o t h e r m e n o f note, resolved to found a new V i r g i n i a n colony. I n A p r i l , 1606, t h e k i n g granted a charter w h i c h declared V i r g i n i a to extend from t h e t h i r t y - f o u r t h t o t h e forty-fifth p a r a l l e l o f n o r t h l a t i t u d e a n d e s t a b l i s h e d t w o j o i n t - s t o c k c o m p a n i e s to colonise, t h e o n e N o r t h e r n a n d the o t h e r S o u t h e r n V i r g i n i a T h e c o m p a n i e s w e r e to b e a r a l l t h e charges a n d t o r e a p a l l t h e profits o f c o l o n i s a t i o n , b u t t h e y w e r e to act u n d e r t h e s u p e r v i s i o n o f a c o u n c i l at h o m e c h o s e n b y t h e k i n g . E a c h c o l o n y was t o be a d m i n istered b y a c o u n c i l o n t h e spot, c h o s e n i n t h e first i n s t a n c e b y t h e k i n g , b u t afterwards filling u p its o w n vacancies. The settlers w e r e to e n j o y a l l t h e liberties a n d franchises of E n g l i s h m e n a t h o m e , b u t t h e y w e r e n o t g i v e n a n y share i n t h e government. T h e c o m p a n y for c o l o n i s i n g N o r t h e r n V i r g i n i a , b e i n g c h i e f l y c o m p o s e d o f west c o u n t r y m e n , c a m e t o be k n o w n as t h e P l y mouth Company. I n M a y , 1607, i t sent f o r t h a n e x p e d i t i o n w h i c h s t r u c k t h e coast o f w h a t is n o w M a i n e , a n d f o u n d e d a s m a l l s e t t l e m e n t o n t h e K e n n e b e c R i v e r . B u t the settlers, findi n g n o g o l d a n d suffering m a n y miseries, lost heart a n d r e turned to E n g l a n d i n the following year, leaving that region to be o c c u p i e d s o m e y e a r s later b y m e n w h o m religious e n t h u s i a s m h a d steeled against p a i n a n d danger. T h e c o m p a n y for c o l o n i s i n g S o u t h e r n V i r g i n i a , k n o w n as t h e L o n d o n C o m p a n y , sent
VOL. VII.

5o

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1607

CHAP,

o u t i n D e c e m b e r , 1606, three s m a l l vessels c a r r y i n g 105 sons, a n d c o m m a n d e d b y C a p t a i n C h r i s t o p h e r N e w p o r t . April 26, 1607, they made the m o u t h o f Chesapeake

perOn Bay.

T h e y t h e n e x p l o r e d w h a t h a s s i n c e been k n o w n as the J a m e s R i v e r , a n d a t l e n g t h chose a site o n w h i c h t o b u i l d F o r t J a m e s , better k n o w n as J a m e s t o w n , t h e first e n d u r i n g s e t t l e m e n t E n g l i s h m e n on the success. N o r t h A m e r i c a n continent. of B u t miser-

a b l e was t h e b e g i n n i n g o f a w o r k d e s t i n e d t o s u c h w o n d e r f u l D i s e a s e a n d w a n t swept a w a y h a l f o f t h e l i t t l e b a n d before t h e close o f 1607, w h i l e feuds w i t h i n a n d t h e d r e a d o f t h e I n d i a n s w i t h o u t filled u p t h e w r e t c h e d n e s s o f t h e s u r v i v o r s . I n J a n u a r y , 1608, N e w p o r t , w h o h a d gone b a c k t o E n g l a n d But w i t h a cargo, r e t u r n e d w i t h supplies a n d a r e i n f o r c e m e n t o f 120 m e n ; and i n September he returned yet again w i t h more. these settlers, u n s k i l l e d i n useful l a b o u r a n d d i s t r a c t e d w i t h t h e h o p e o f f i n d i n g g o l d , c o u l d n o t raise t h e i r o w n food, a n d w o u l d h a v e d i e d h a d t h e y n o t g o t s o m e c o m f r o m the n a t i v e s . T h a t the c o l o n y s u r v i v e d so m a n y h a r d s h i p s a n d so m u c h m i s c o n d u c t was d u e chiefly t o t h e e n e r g y a n d resource o f one b o l d adventurer, t h e famous J o h n S m i t h . The first. fort. c o m p a n y then desired a n d obtained a new charter, d a t e d M a y 23? 1609, w h i c h r e m o d e l l e d a l l t h e p r o v i s i o n s o f t h e I t declared t h a t t h e sphere o f t h e c o m p a n y s h o u l d e x It abolished the dual system of a c o u n c i l appointed b y t e n d 200 m i l e s n o r t h a n d 200 m i l e s s o u t h o f O l d P o i n t C o m the k i n g t o g o v e r n w h i l e t h e c o m p a n y was t o t r a d e , a n d n a m e d a n e w c o u n c i l , i n w h i c h vacancies w e r e t o b e filled b y the c h o i c e of the m e m b e r s o f t h e c o m p a n y , t h u s e n s u r i n g t h e independence. transferring was T h o m a s was the administration to a company's I t also a b o l i s h e d t h e l o c a l c o u n c i l i n V i r g i n i a , g o v e r n o r w i t h absolute T h e first g o v e r n o r ships with 500 O n e o f the ships far 1610, Nine

p o w e r a p p o i n t e d b y the c o u n c i l at h o m e . West, L o r d Delawarr. fresh settlers w e r e d e s p a t c h e d t o V i r g i n i a . those recruits w h o at l e n g t h r e a c h e d

lost at sea a n d a n o t h e r w r e c k e d o n t h e B e r m u d a s , a n d Jamestown proved A g a i n cold and W h e n the shipcompany But

worse t h a n a n y w h o h a d g o n e out before. h u n g e r a n d disease so r a v a g e d there r e m a i n e d b u t s i x t y s t a r v i n g w r e t c h e s .

the c o l o n y t h a t i n M a y ,

w r e c k e d m e n f r o m the B e r m u d a s a r r i v e d , t h e w h o l e

resolved t o a b a n d o n V i r g i n i a a n d s a i l for N e w f o u n d l a n d .

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JAMES

AND

THE

KIRK.

51

before t h e y h a d r e a c h e d t h e m o u t h o f t h e r i v e r t h e y m e t L o r d D e l a w a r r c o m i n g u p w i t h t h r e e ships. H e readily persuaded t h e m t o t u r n b a c k , a n d w i t h t h e f r e s h h a n d s a n d supplies t h a t he b r o u g h t s u c c e e d e d i n r e - e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e c o l o n y , w h i c h t h r o v e u n d e r h i s f i r m a n d just r u l e . A l t h o u g h h e was soon d i s a b l e d b y s i c k n e s s a n d f o r c e d t o r e t u r n , he h a d g i v e n a n i m p u l s e w h i c h was n e v e r lost, a n d b y 1622 the E n g l i s h p o p u l a t i o n o f V i r g i n i a n u m b e r e d ^000 s o u l s . S c o t l a n d , a l t h o u g h u n i t e d w i t h E n g l a n d under one T h e r e J a m e s s t e a d i l y p u r s u e d h i s g r e a t a i m , t h e absolute j e c t i o n o f a l l classes t o t h e c r o w n . king, sub-

CHAP.
n

s t i l l r e m a i n e d u n l i k e t h e s o u t h e r n r e a l m i n a l m o s t a l l respects. I n the Scottish parliament

t h e n o b l e s a l o n e w e r e f u l l y represented, a n d the nobles h e h a d a l r e a d y b r o u g h t i n t o s u b j e c t i o n , w h i l e h i s residence i n E n g l a n d r e n d e r e d useless those s u d d e n r i s i n g s a n d a t t e m p t s t o seize person o f the k i n g to w h i c h the n o b l e s h a d b e e n so Moreover, the a d d i c t e d i n t h e first p e r i o d o f h i s r e i g n . the much nobles they

w e r e for t h e k i n g against t h e K i r k , s o m e because at h e a r t

c l u n g t o t h e C h u r c h o f R o m e , m o r e because t h e y d i s l i k e d t h e r e s t r a i n t s i m p o s e d b y a s y s t e m at once ascetic a n d d e m o c r a t i c . B u t t h e K i r k , i n spite o f reverses i n f l i c t e d b y J a m e s , w a s s t i l l p o w e r f u l a n d h a u g h t y e n o u g h t o a w a k e n a l l t h e jealousy a n d d i s l i k e t h a t h e w a s c a p a b l e o f feeling. Its s t r e n g t h l a y i n t h e asd e v o t i o n o f t h e m i d d l e class a n d i n i t s o r g a n i s a t i o n , p o p u l a r a n d i n d e p e n d e n t o f t h e r o y a l w i l l , w h i c h g a v e the g e n e r a l s e m b l y t h e force o f a n ecclesiastical house o f c o m m o n s . had, w i t h m u c h trouble, revived the James no

e p i s c o p a l office, b u t t h e

bishops, w i t h l i t t l e p o w e r a n d less m o r a l influence, f o r m e d p o s e d b y t h e w i l l o f the sovereign. e n l a r g e t h e a u t h o r i t y o f t h e bishops. B y l a w a g e n e r a l a s s e m b l y s h o u l d h a v e been h e l d once

l i v i n g p a r t o f t h e ecclesiastical s y s t e m o n w h i c h t h e y w e r e i m H e resolved, h o w e v e r , t o go o n w i t h his work, to cripple the presbyterian system a n d to a

y e a r , a l t h o u g h t h e t i m e a n d place w e r e t o b e fixed b y the k i n g . J a m e s after b e c o m i n g K i n g of E n g l a n d resolved to have n o m o r e g e n e r a l assemblies, a n d therefore prorogued t h e a s s e m b l y w h i c h s h o u l d h a v e m e t at A b e r d e e n i n J u l y , 1604. 1605,, a n o t h e r p r o r o g a t i o n w a s a n n o u n c e d . teen, ministers met at A b e r d e e n , 4 * I n June, an Nevertheless, n i n e -

constituted themselves

THE

ADMINISTRATION

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SALISBURY.

1605

C H A P , a s s e m b l y a n d chose a m o d e r a t o r .

T h e n c e the king's c o m m i s He

sioner, S i r A l e x a n d e r S t r a i t o n o f L a u r i s t o n , i n t e r p o s e d , a n d bade t h e m return to their homes under p a i n of outlawry. b e f o r e h a n d n o t t o assemble. afterwards a l l e g e d , a n d t h e y d e n i e d , t h a t h e h a d w a r n e d t h e m S i x o f t h e i r n u m b e r were c a l l e d before t h e c o u n c i l i n E d i n b u r g h t o r e c e i v e sentence for t h e i r transgression, a n d o n r e f u s i n g t o a c k n o w l e d g e i t s j u r i s d i c t i o n were prosecuted as traitors, a n d b y m u c h s t r a i n i n g of the l a w were c o n v i c t e d . B u t public feeling forbade their execution, James d i d not a n d they were only banished, while some of their brethren were confined t o v a r i o u s places w i t h i n t h e k i n g d o m . a l l o w a g e n e r a l a s s e m b l y t o meet t i l l 1610.

I n t h e m e a n t i m e the k i n g was free t o c a r r y out the r e s t o r a t i o n o f episcopacy a n d perfect h i s o w n c o n t r o l over the K i r k . T h e p a r l i a m e n t o f 1606 g a v e h i m p o w e r t o e n d o w the b i s h o p s w i t h C h u r c h l a n d s i n t h e possession o f t h e c r o w n , a n d d e c l a r e d h i s a u t h o r i t y supreme over a l l persons a n d causes w h a t s o e v e r . In 1610 the k i n g , o f h i s o w n p r e r o g a t i v e , set u p a c o u r t o f I n the same y e a r a g e n e r a l a s s e m b l y the h i g h c o m m i s s i o n i n each o f the t w o a r c h i e p i s c o p a l p r o v i n c e s o f St. A n d r e w s and Glasgow. chosen u n d e r r o y a l influence a n d s i t t i n g at G l a s g o w m a d e ministers a n d to exercise d i s c i p l i n e . secrated.

bishops m o d e r a t o r s o f the diocesan s y n o d s w i t h p o w e r t o o r d a i n Archbishop Spottiswode King a n d t w o o f his b r e t h r e n t h e n w e n t t o E n g l a n d t o be d u l y c o n T h u s J a m e s a c h i e v e d h i s greatest success as of Scotland. N o t c o n t e n t w i t h a s s e r t i n g t h a t the c i v i l r u l e r h a d

n o j u r i s d i c t i o n over t h i n g s spiritual, t h e p r e s b y t e r i a n c l e r g y h a d encroached o n h i s p r o v i n c e , h a d c l a i m e d t o speak i n p o l i t i c s w i t h the a u t h o r i t y o f p r o p h e t s o f t h e L o r d , a n d h a d r a t e d a n d m e n a c e d h i m i n case o f h i s n o t o b e y i n g . H e had retorted Yet b y p u t t i n g t h e m u n d e r t h e c o n t r o l o f m e n w h o were r e a l l y h i s instruments a n d w o u l d be swept a w a y b u t for h i s power. his v i c t o r y was as superficial as v i o l e n t a n d unfair. T h e m a j o r i t y o f earnest the means to it h a d been protestants i n

Scotland, overruled but not convinced, were still presbyterian at heart, a n d n o t h i n g p r o v e d m o r e fatal t o t h e house o f S t u a r t t h a n the a l l i a n c e b e t w e e n t h e b i s h o p s a n d t h e c r o w n . T h e union of the crowns, w h i c h h a d given James such an advantage over t h e K i r k a n d t h e n o b i l i t y , also e n a b l e d h i m t o t a k e severe, a n d i n some degree, effective measures a g a i n s t the

1609

RELATIONS

WITH

SPAIN

53

lawless i n h a b i t a n t s o f t h e b o r d e r s , h i g h l a n d s , a n d islands. powers for the pacification o f the borders. Many

Soon real or

CHAI*.
II.

after h i s accession h e n a m e d c o m m i s s i o n e r s w i t h v e r y a m p l e s u p p o s e d c r i m i n a l s were h a n g e d ; multitudes were banished;

those w h o r e m a i n e d were d i s a r m e d ; a n d a l t h o u g h t h e difficult c o u n t r y a n d i t s fierce i n h a b i t a n t s c o u l d n o t be t r a n s f o r m e d i n a few y e a r s , t h e o l d a n a r c h y o f t h e b o r d e r s w a s q u e l l e d for ever. T o the highlands the extirpation of the clan Macgregor was a terrible lesson. T h e chiefs o f t h e s o u t h e r n isles w e r e b r o u g h t b y m i n g l e d force a n d c u n n i n g t o j o i n i n t h e b a n d a n d statutes o f I c o l m k i l l for t h e f u r t h e r a n c e o f o r d e r a n d c i v i l i s a t i o n a m o n g t h e i r people. Repeated a l t h o u g h unsuccessful attempts were m a d e t o p l a n t a S a x o n c o l o n y i n the* r e m o t e i s l a n d o f L e w i s . B u t t h e h i g h l a n d s were s a v e d b y t h e i r v a s t e x t e n t f r o m t h e fate o f t h e b o r d e r s a n d i t w a s o n l y o n t h e i r o u t s k i r t s t h a t t h e k i n g was really obeyed. F o r s o m e y e a r s after t h e t r e a t y w i t h S p a i n , E n g l i s h f o r e i g n relations were s i m p l e a n d uneventful. P r i n c e o f W a l e s i n 1610, The suggestion of a m a r r i a g e b e t w e e n t h e k i n g ' s eldest s o n H e n r y , w h o w a s created a n d a n infanta was renewed once or S e v e r a l causes k e p t u p I n spite of the treaty Medit w i c e , b u t w a s not t a k e n seriously. irritation between the two kingdoms.

E n g l i s h m e n i n S p a i n were often m o l e s t e d b y t h e I n q u i s i t i o n . E n g l i s h ships trading, not o n l y to the Indies but t o the ties w r o n g s f o r w h i c h i t w a s h a r d t o get redress. James encouraged b y the Spanish government. t e r r a n e a n , often suffered at t h e h a n d s o f t h e S p a n i s h a u t h o r i F r o m time King the war, When t o t i m e t h e E n g l i s h g o v e r n m e n t h e a r d o f p l o t s against D u t c h a n d t h e S p a n i a r d s , a l i k e w e a r i e d b y t h e endless

s e e m e d a b o u t t o m a k e peace, t h e k i n g a n d S a l i s b u r y were a t first a l a r m e d b y t h e t h o u g h t t h a t t h e S p a n i a r d s w o u l d t h e n b e free t o a t t a c k E n g l a n d . should be assailed b y I n J u n e , 1608, t h e y made a treaty w i t h t h e U n i t e d P r o v i n c e s for m u t u a l defence i n case e i t h e r Spain. B u t since P h i l i p would o n l y acknowledge the independence of the U n i t e d Provinces o n conditions w h i c h the D u t c h declined, the negotiation ended, not i n a d e f i n i t i v e t r e a t y , b u t i n a t w e l v e y e a r s truce, s i g n e d o n M a r c h 30, 1609. Thus the first p e r i o d o f w a r s a r i s i n g out o f t h e R e f o r m a t i o n c l o s e d a n d E u r o p e h a d a n i n t e r v a l o f rest before

54

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CHAP,

the outbreak o f the T h i r t y Y e a r s ' W a r . year.

H o w uncertain was

even t h a t s h o r t repose a p p e a r e d b y t h e events o f t h e f o l l o w i n g I n G e r m a n y the two religions had not yet come to a decisive t r i a l o f s t r e n g t h . E a c h prince had the right to determine territorial gain catholic the religion of his o w n territory, and every p r o a c h i n g s t r u g g l e for e x i s t e n c e . heirs.

was precious t o t h e o n e s i d e or t h e o t h e r i n v i e w o f t h e a p J o h n W i l l i a m , the d u k e o f C l e v e s a n d J u l i e r s , d i e d i n M a r c h , 1609, w i t h o u t m a l e H i s d o m i n i o n s w e r e o f s o m e a c c o u n t i n themselves a n d between Count A m o n g those w h o c l a i m e d t h e o f t h e u t m o s t s t r a t e g i c v a l u e i n case o f a g e n e r a l w a r c a t h o l i c a n d p r o t e s t a n t states.

succession t h e E l e c t o r a l P r i n c e o f B r a n d e n b u r g a n d t h e

P a l a t i n e o f N e u b u r g , b o t h protestants, c o u l d allege t h e best t i t l e , b u t the E m p e r o r R u d o l f , asserting his j u r i s d i c t i o n i n s u c h cases, o r d e r e d t h e A r c h d u k e L e o p o l d t o sequestrate t h e t e r r i t o r y u n t i l he h a d g i v e n sentence. L e o p o l d invaded the duchies a n d took the t o w n o f J u l i e r s , w h e r e u p o n t h e c l a i m a n t s a p p e a l e d t o s u c h f o r e i g n p o w e r s as w e r e l i k e l y t o u p h o l d t h e p r o t e s t a n t cause, or w i t h s t a n d t h e house o f H a p s b u r g . The kings of France a n d E n g l a n d a n d the U n i t e d P r o v i n c e s p r o m i s e d t h e i r assistance a n d the c o n f e d e r a c y o f G e r m a n p r o t e s t a n t princes, k n o w n as the E v a n g e l i c a l U n i o n , t o o k t h e s a m e s i d e . m i g h t have e x p e c t e d the Catholic League. The emperor King of formed s u p p o r t f r o m h i s c o u s i n , the

S p a i n , a n d f r o m those G e r m a n p r i n c e s w h o h a d j u s t

B u t t h e c a t h o l i c forces w e r e so u n e q u a l 1610. woman, But

t o t h e contest t h a t a p r o t e s t a n t v i c t o r y s e e m e d c e r t a i n , w h e n H e n r y I V . w a s m u r d e r e d b y R a v a i l l a c o n M a y 14, succeeded to the government H i s widow, M a r i e de M e d i c i s , a weak a n d devout were l a i d a s i d e u n t i l t h e y w e r e r e s u m e d and the D u t c h governments men to their a i d .

of France, and H e n r y ' s plans by Richelieu.

the princes o f t h e U n i o n h a d a l r e a d y a r m e d , a n d t h e E n g l i s h h a d each a g r e e d t o s e n d 4,000 commanded T h e D u t c h troops w e r e t o b e

by Maurice, Prince of Orange, and the E n g l i s h b y S i r E d w a r d C e c i l , n e p h e w o f the t re a sure r. E v e n M a r i e de M e d i c i s c o u l d Before i t could arrive, not afford t o l e a v e J u l i e r s i n t h e possession o f t h e A r c h d u k e Leopold, and promised a contingent. g u n the siege o f J u l i e r s . M a u r i c e , w i t h t h e D u t c h , E n g l i s h , a n d G e r m a n troops, h a d b e T h e t o w n s u r r e n d e r e d o n A u g u s t 22

1610

JAMES

AND

THE

PROTESTANT

STATES.

a n d was e n t r u s t e d t o the princes o f t h e U n i o n . J a m e s was as u n w i l l i n g as M a r i e d e M e d i c i s t o m e d d l e further i n t h e d e b a t e c o n c e r n i n g t h e succession to t h e d u c h i e s , w h i c h r e m a i n e d o p e n for m a n y y e a r s , b u t h e c o n c l u d e d a defensive a l l i a n c e w i t h t h e F r e n c h , w h i c h was t h e m o r e n e c e s s a r y as t h e m u r d e r o f H e n r y I V . h a d s h a k e n t h e balance o f E u r o p e . H e also e n c o u r a g e d a proposal that his daughter E l i z a b e t h should m a r r y F r e d e r i c k , t h e y o u n g elector p a l a t i n e , t h e f o r e m o s t a m o n g t h e C a l v i n i s t princes o f t h e e m p i r e . J a m e s t h u s a p p e a r e d r e a d y t o f o l l o w i n the f o o t s t e p s o f E l i z a b e t h , a n d t o t a k e those measures against a catholic reaction o n the continent w h i c h w o u l d n a t u r a l l y be e x p e c t e d f i o m t h e m o s t p o w e r f u l o f p r o t e s t a n t sovereigns. To w a t c h over the safety of the protestant Churches, while refraini n g f r o m a g g r e s s i o n u p o n t h e C h u r c h o f R o m e , w o u l d h a v e been a noble, a l t h o u g h difficult p o l i c y , w h i c h m i g h t h a v e m a d e J a m e s p o w e r f u l a b r o a d a n d p o p u l a r at h o m e . B u t h i s o w n feelings u r g e d h i m i n a different d i r e c t i o n , w h e r e success p r o v e d i m possible a n d f a i l u i e i g n o m i n i o u s .

CHAP,

CHAPTER
THE

III.

RISE O F CARR A N D O F VILLIERS.

CHAP.
l l l t

A F T E R J a m e s h a d d i s s o l v e d h i s first p a r l i a m e n t t e n y e a r s passed w i t h o n l y a s i n g l e session, t h a t o f t h e b r i e f a n d s t e r i l e p a r l i a m e n t w h i c h m e t i n 1614. A s the k i n g was u n w i l l i n g to encounter t h e house o f c o m m o n s , h e s h o u l d h a v e s t u d i e d economy, but the habits w h i c h he himself deplored were i n curable. H i s o w n profusion t o favourites a n d t h e d i s h o n e s t y of h i s servants b e c a m e m o r e scandalous t h a n ever. F o r t h e t i m e s o m e r e l i e f was got b y shifts a n d devices. IVEany counties a g r e e d t o c o m p o u n d for release f r o m t h e r o y a l r i g h t o f p u r v e y a n c e . I n o r d e r t o meet t h e d e f i c i e n c y o f the I r i s h revenue, the n e w d i g n i t y o f b a r o n e t was i n s t i t u t e d a n d offered for sale. A l l persons o f g o o d repute, b e i n g k n i g h t s o r esquires a n d possessed of l a n d t o t h e v a l u e o f ; 1,000 a y e a r , m i g h t b e c o m e baronets b y p a y i n g ; 1,080 i n three a n n u a l p a y m e n t s . S a l i s b u r y r e s i g n e d for t h e k i n g ' s benefit h i s v e r y s u b s t a n t i a l profits as m a s t e r o f t h e c o u r t o f wards. S u c h e x p e d i e n t s c o u l d at best delay the evil hour when a new parliament must be summoned. A r a b e l l a S t u a r t , the k i n g ' s c o u s i n , w h o m s o m e w o u l d h a v e w e l c o m e d o n t h e d e a t h o f E l i z a b e t h as s o v e r e i g n i n h i s stead, had d i s a r m e d r e s e n t m e n t a n d s u s p i c i o n b y h e r g e n t l e a n d retiring demeanour. James h a d treated her well, h a d augmented her p e n s i o n , a n d h a d g i v e n her a place i n t h e c i r c l e o f l a d i e s immediately surrounding the queen. F o r a w h i l e she d e c l i n e d all offers o f m a r r i a g e . I n 1609, o n s o m e g r o u n d n o w u n k n o w n , she was arrested a n d b r o u g h t before t h e c o u n c i l , b u t c l e a r e d herself so c o m p l e t e l y t h a t she was at o n c e r e s t o r e d t o f r e e d o m and to favour, w i t h t h e k i n g ' s assurance t h a t she m i g h t m a r r y a n y o f h i s subjects w h o c o u l d g a i n h e r heart. T h e unhappy caprice o f love, i t s h o u l d s e e m , r a t h e r t h a n a m b i t i o n l e d A r a b e l l a
56

i6n

FATE

OF ARABELLA

STI/ART.

57

soon afterwards to plight her t r o t h to y o u n g W i l l i a m Seymour, son of L o r d Henry VIII. Beauchamp a n d o f C a t h e r i n e G r e y , a n d greatArabella's g r a n d s o n o f M a r y , D u c h e s s o f Suffolk, t h e y o u n g e r sister o f T h e i r marriage would have blended r i g h t s i n t h e o r d e r o f succession w i t h t h e rights o f t h e house o f S u f f o l k , w h i c h b y the w i l l o f H e n r y V I I I . was t o h a v e t a k e n the c r o w n after t h e failure o f h i s o w n descendants. wonder, therefore, that when W^e c a n n o t became their mutual promise

CHAP. in.

k n o w n , A r a b e l l a a n d W i l l i a m were questioned b y the c o u n c i l a n d c o m m a n d e d b y the k i n g h i m s e l f t o l a y aside a l l t h o u g h t of marriage. T h e y p r o m i s e d t o d o so, b u t the y o u n g cannot a l w a y s sacrifice l o v e a n d bliss t o reason o f state, a n d i n M a y , 161 o, A r a b e l l a p r i v a t e l y m a r r i e d W i l l i a m S e y m o u r . T h e i r m a r r i a g e was soon d i s c o v e r e d , a n d t h e n A r a b e l l a w a s p u t u n d e r r e s t r a i n t at L a m b e t h , w h i l e h e r h u s b a n d was sent t o the Tower. A s t h e y still c o n t r i v e d t o e x c h a n g e letters, the k i n g ordered that A r a b e l l a should be removed to D u r h a m , a n d r e m a i n i n c h a r g e o f the bi shop. n e y i n M a r c h , 1611, make a l o n g stay contrive at B a r net. A r a b e l l a set out o n h e r j o u r W^hile there she m a n a g e d to b u t b e c a m e so i l l t h a t she was a l l o w e d t o Arabella,

w i t h h e r h u s b a n d a j o i n t p l a n o f escape.

disguised i n man's attire, reached the vessel w h i c h was to c a r r y t h e m away, a n d although her husband h a d not arrived, her a t t e n d a n t s w o u l d h a v e her sail. S e y m o u r , w h o c a m e t o o late, w a s l u c k y e n o u g h to find a c o l l i e r , w h i c h e a r n e d h i m t o O s t e n d . B u t A r a b e l l a , w h o caused h e r c a p t a i n t o s h o r t e n s a i l i n h o p e o f h e a r i n g news o f h e r h u s b a n d , was t a k e n b y a k i n g ' s s h i p n o t f a r from Calais. T h i s t i m e she was sent t o t h e T o w e r , w h e r e she As sovereigns Prosame lost h e r reason, l i n g e r e d four y e a rs, a n d d i e d .

h a v e b e e n g e n e r a l l y t a u g h t t o t a k e selfish fear for a sense o f public d u t y , i t would be unfair to c o n d e m n K i n g James. b a b l y t h e r e was n o t a m o n a r c h i n E u r o p e w h o u n d e r t h e circumstances w o u l d not have done likewise. for A r a b e l l a S t u a r t . I n t h e f o l l o w i n g year, t h e l o r d treasurer, S a l i s b u r y , d i e d a t M a r l b o r o u g h o n M a y 24. T o J a m e s t h e loss^ was i r r e p a r a b l e . Thencesome N e v e r a g a i n h a d h e a s t a t e s m a n for p r i m e m i n i s t e r . foolish favourite.

N o r does i t ap-

pear t h a t a n y b o d y at t h a t t i m e b l a m e d h i m , o r felt c o m p a s s i o n

forward he was guided b y his o w n caprice or that o f

T h e r e was, i n d e e d , a m a n w h o m i g h t h a v e

5&

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1612

CHAP, ^*

m o r e t h a n f i l l e d t h e v o i d left b y S a l i s b u r y . was t h e n fifty y e a r s o f age. The by B a c o n w h o for t w e n t y

Francis

Bacon

son of that S i r Nicholas of L o r d Burghley,

y e a r s h a d h e l d t h e great seal u n d e r marriage

E l i z a b e t h , a n d the nephew t h e p u b l i c service.

F r a n c i s m a y be s a i d to h a v e been b o r n i n t h e h i g h e s t r a n k o f F r o m b o y h o o d he was k n o w n t o t h e queen, Yet Sir At By w h o s e l d o m f a i l e d t o d i s c e r n a n d to e m p l o y useful a b i l i t y . F r a n c i s w a s s i n g u l a r l y unsuccessful i n g e t t i n g p r e f e r m e n t . B u r g h l e y h o a r d e d a l l h i s influence t o h e l p h i s o w n sons. the favourite at once o f t h e s o v e r e i g n a n d o f t h e people.

N i c h o l a s d i e d before h e c o u l d d o a n y t h i n g for h i m , a n d L o r d l e n g t h F r a n c i s f o u n d a f r i e n d i n the w a r m a n d generous E s s e x , a c c e p t i n g t h e E a r l s patronage, B a c o n p l a c e d h i m s e l f i n feud w i t h the house o f C e c i l , a b o v e a l l , w i t h R o b e r t , t h e treasurer's second son, a c a l m b u t resolute a n d p o l i t i c a d v e r s a r y . c o m f o r t e d h i m w i t h a present o f l a n d e d estate v e r y Essex, after t r y i n g i n v a i n to h a v e B a c o n a p p o i n t e d s o l i c i t o r - g e n e r a l , acceptable Soon his to a y o u n g e r s o n a n d a b a r r i s t e r i n n o l a r g e p r a c t i c e . fall.

afterwards t h e i m p r u d e n c e a n d passion o f E s s e x w r o u g h t

B a c o n , as o n e o f t h e q u e e n s c o u n s e l , w a s e m p l o y e d i n

the prosecution o f E s s e x , a n d d i d h i s p a r t t o w a r d s g e t t i n g a conviction; apparently i n c u r r i n g some b l a m e at the time, since h e afterwards w r o t e a n a p o l o g y for h i s b e h a v i o u r , a t h i n g w h i c h wise m e n r a r e l y d o . E v e n this service brought no p r o m o t i o n . James, although E n j o y i n g more o f wise and A t the accession o f J a m e s , B a c o n , i n m i d d l e life, w a s s t i l l v a i n l y s e e k i n g a field for h i s e x t r a o r d i n a r y p o w e r s . to R o b e r t C e c i l , felt n o g r u d g e against B a c o n . than h e h a d been t h e f r i e n d o f E s s e x , a n d h a d g i v e n h i s confidence a n y o t h e r o f our k i n g s t h e c o n v e r s a t i o n

learned m e n , h e d i d n o t fail to recognise B a c o n ' s rare gifts, a n d from t i m e to t i m e showed h i m g o o d w i l l . B a c o n s deep knowledge o f m a n k i n d , impressive eloquence, a n d perfect s e l f - c o m m a n d w o u l d h a v e m a d e h i m n o t a b l e i n a n y assembly, a n d i n p a r l i a m e n t B a c o n was h e a r d w i t h favour a n d attention. In the management o f G o o d w i n ' s case, i n t h e p r o ceedings for t h e e x t i n c t i o n o f t h e m i l i t a r y tenures, a n d i n t h e debates o n the u n i o n w i t h S c o t l a n d , he t o o k a d i s t i n g u i s h e d part. E q u a l l y a c c o m p l i s h e d as a c o u r t i e r a n d a senator, h e b y t h e k i n g ' s v i e w s w i t h o u t e v e r forCecil might dislike the politician turns opposed o r s e c o n d e d f e i t i n g the k i n g ' s r e g a r d .

16t3

SIR

FRANCIS

BACON.

59
CHAP* B a c o n became solii n 1613. During

a n d C o k e m i g h t sneer at t h e l a w y e r ; b u t s u c h talent, e x e r t e d o n such a theatre, c o u l d not be ignored. c i t o r - g e n e r a l i n 1607 and attorney-general

t h e n e x t e i g h t y e a r s h e m a y be r e g a r d e d as o n e o f t h e c h i e f public m e n of the time. T h e w o r l d s t i l l concerns i t s e l f w i t h B a c o n ' s character, n o t because o f h i s p o l i t i c a l literature. and robust achievement, which was small, but because o f t h e g r e a t place w h i c h h e fills i n p h i l o s o p h y a n d i n H e w a s one o f those m e n o f d e l i c a t e c o n s t i t u t i o n intelligence i n w h o m the o r d i n a r y scale of the I n t e m p e r a n c e o f a n y k i n d was f o r e i g n t o

passions is r e v e r s e d .

h i s n a t u r e , a n d n o n e of h i s affections seems t o h a v e b e e n s t r o n g . F r o m a l l t h a t h e has w r i t t e n w e c a n g a t h e r n o t h i n g t o s h o w t h a t h e e v e r l i v e d i n close c o m m u n i o n w i t h a n y o t h e r p e r s o n , o r t h a t h e e v e r k e e n l y felt t h e d e a t h o f a n y m a n o r w o m a n . But he had a m b i t i o n o f m a n y sorts. He once t o l d Lord In B u r g h l e y t h a t h e h a d as v a s t c o n t e m p l a t i v e as h e h a d m o d e r a t e c i v i l a i m s ; a n d t h e h a l f o f t h i s a v o w a l at least was true. t h e b o l d s p i r i t o f t h e renaissance, t h e s p i r i t o f L i o n a r d o o r o f Galileo, he h a d taken all knowledge to be his province, a prov i n c e w h i c h h e h o p e d n o t o n l y t o c o n q u e r b u t to r e f o r m . c i v i l a m b i t i o n w a s stronger t h a n h e k n e w . i n g , h i s t a l e n t s e n t i t l e d h i m t o e x p e c t a g r e a t p u b l i c career. His The H i s birth, his breed-

best o f h i s life h a d b e e n spent i n t h e s i c k e n i n g p a i n o f h o p e d e f e r r e d , a n d h e was a p p r o a c h i n g o l d age, as m e n t h e n r e c k o n e d it, w h e n h e at l e n g t h rose t o h i g h office, b u t h e w a s as elastic a n d e a g e r as ever. B e s i d e the fulness o f k n o w l e d g e a n d a p a r t He i n g r e a t affairs, B a c o n h a d y e t a n o t h e r object o f desire. attendance, l u x u r y . has no such craving. contrary.

loved the outward a n d visible signs of successwealth, pomp, I t is a f a s h i o n a b l e c a n t t o assert t h a t genius B a c o n is o n e o f m a n y instances t o t h e For

H e r e also p r i v a t i o n h a d s h a r p e n e d appetite.

m a n y y e a r s h e h a d been forced t o p i n c h a n d to r u n i n t o d e b t . H e c a m e late to t h e w o r l d s b a n q u e t , a n d e v e n h i s s e l f - m a s t e r y c o u l d n o t resist a n i n d u l g e n c e t h e m o r e o v e r p o w e r i n g because so l o n g w i t h h e l d . Those who would understand Bacon's political opinions He He must bear i n m i n d the circumstances of his early years. p r o d u c e d so m a n y a b l e m e n , a n d d i d so m u c h g o o d w o r k .

b e l o n g e d t o t h a t c i r c l e o f official f a m i l i e s w h i c h u n d e r E l i z a b e t h

6d

TItE

RISlL OF CARk

AND

OF VILLIERS.

1613

C H A P , h a d been f o r m e d o n that E l i z a b e t h a n system w h i c h h a d proved so successful, b u t was m o r e a k i n to t h e s y s t e m o f c e r t a i n c o n t i n e n t a l m o n a r c h i e s t h a n t o anything" k n o w n i n E n g l a n d for t h e last t w o h u n d r e d years. I n t h a t s y s t e m t h e sovereign w a s t h e c e n t r e a n d h e r servants g o v e r n e d . P a r l i a m e n t was a n occasional a s s e m b l y w h i c h v o t e d taxes, m a d e laws, a n d e x pressed, w i t h a l l due reserve, t h e sense o f t h e n a t i o n . Bacon t o o k t h i s c o n s t i t u t i o n for g r a n t e d . H e thought parliaments useful w i t h i n t h e b o u n d s f i x e d b y E l i z a b e t h , b u t scarcely fit for m o r e p o w e r t h a n t h e y h a d e n j o y e d h i t h e r t o . G e n i u s is n a t u r a l l y c o n s t r u c t i v e , a n d B a c o n w o u l d g l a d l y h a v e b e e n a reformer, but h e w o u l d h a v e w i s h e d r e f o r m s t o o r i g i n a t e w i t h the c r o w n . H a d B a c o n b e e n a l l o w e d h i s w a y h e m i g h t have p r o l o n g e d t h e l i f e o f t h e T u d o r p o l i t y for m a n y y e a r s . H e would have w a t c h e d p u b l i c o p i n i o n \ he w o u l d h a v e c o r r e c t e d patent a b u s e s ; a b o v e a l l , h e w o u l d h a v e t o u c h e d ecclesiastical questions w i t h a light hand. N o m a n of h i s school was w i l l i n g t o g r a n t u n b o u n d e d f r e e d o m of r e l i g i o n , b u t n o m a n o f a n y s c h o o l c o u l d h a v e been less a fanatic t h a n B a c o n . H i s v e r y b r e a d t h o f m i n d perhaps h i n d e r e d h i m f r o m f u l l y u n d e r s t a n d i n g h i s o w n age, w h i c h w a s earnest a n d n a r r o w . N o r was h e o n e o f those i r o n m e n w h o i m p o s e themselves o n a n u n w i l l i n g w o r l d or p e r i s h i n t h e effort. H e preferred t o s t u d y h i s fellow-creatures a n d adapt h i s measures to t h e i r foibles. H e h a d learnt b y a l o n g a n d b i t t e r e x p e r i e n c e t h a t m e n i n p o w e r w a n t instruments, n o t c o u n s e l l o r s . H e must soon h a v e f a t h o m e d t h e transparent c h a r a c t e r o f J a m e s . He must h a v e felt t h a t t h e k i n g , w h o v a l u e d h i s services a n d r e l i s h e d h i s c o n v e r s a t i o n , w a s t h e slave o f a self-love w h i c h c o u l d n o t a c c e p t g u i d a n c e o r even f o r g i v e dissent. H e seems, therefore, t o h a v e acquiesced i n w h a t h e c o u l d n o t m e n d . S o m e t i m e s h e v e n t u r e d o n g o o d advice, c o u c h e d i n terms so deferential t h a t J a m e s c o u l d n o t feel displeasure. B u t he never t r i e d t o c a r r y out a n y o f the r e f o r m s s u g g e s t e d i n h i s writings o r correspondence. H e s u b m i t t e d t o the r e i g n o f favourites l i k e V i l l i e r s , p a i d t h e m court w i t h h i s usual s k i l l , a n d was g u i l t y of. c o m p l i a n c e s w h i c h d i d h i m l i t t l e h o n o u r . A s a m i n i s t e r h e b o r e h i s p a r t i n s o m e o f t h e sorriest i n c i d e n t s o f the reign of James. O n this or that particular his conduct m a y a d m i t o f defence o r at least o f p a l l i a t i o n , b u t w h e n w e

l6l2

MARRIAGE

PROJECTS.

61 CHAP,

r e v i e w t h e w h o l e , unbiassed b y the n a t u r a l w i s h to clear t h e m e m o r y o f so g r e a t a m a n , w e c a n n o t a v o i d t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t B a c o n w a s n o t a m a n o f generous i n s t i n c t s o r o f r i g i d p r i n c i p l e . O n S a l i s b u r y s d e a t h t h e t r e a s u r y was p u t i n t o c o m m i s s i o n , a n d t h e k i n g resolved t o act as h i s o w n secretary. Wales. him that I n 1611 A t this time . J a m e s w a s a n x i o u s t o find a wife f o r h i s son H e n r y , P r i n c e o f the Spanish ambassador had again informed the Infanta A n n e to the P h i l i p w o u l d n o t refuse

p r i n c e , a n d J a m e s l i s t e n e d m o r e seriously t h a n h e h a d e v e r d o n e before. A m o n g protestant r e i g n i n g houses h e saw n o n e w h i c h H e overrated the power of the the he deemed the equal of his o w n .

S p a i n ; he a d m i r e d a n d envied the absolute authority of g i v e n w i t h a S p a n i s h princess. S i n c e r e l y w i s h i n g t o be

S p a n i s h k i n g ; a n d h e coveted the a m p l e d o w e r w h i c h w o u l d b e p e a c e m a k e r o f E u r o p e , a n d i m a g i n i n g t h a t m a n k i n d are as c l a y i n t h e h a n d s o f sovereigns, he t h o u g h t t h a t a m a r r i a g e a l l i a n c e between S p a i n a n d E n g l a n d w o u l d e n d t h e strife o f r e l i g i o n s . H e therefore sent S i r J o h n D i g b y as a m b a s s a d o r t o w i t h i n s t r u c t i o n s t o f o l l o w u p P h i l i p ' s overture. Madrid T h a t shrewd

d i p l o m a t i s t s o o n d i s c o v e r e d t h a t t h e offer h a d n o t been serious, a n d t h a t A n n e was destined f o r t h e y o u n g K i n g L o u i s X I I I . S p a i n w a s w i l l i n g t o treat, i n d e e d , for t h e m a r r i a g e o f h e r sister M a r i a w i t h P r i n c e H e n r y , b u t M a r i a was o n l y s i x y e a r s o l d , a n d t h e p r o p o s a l was t o o i l l u s o r y even f o r t h e K i n g o f E n g l a n d . I n the f o l l o w i n g y e a r P h i l i p , t h e n a w i d o w e r , w a s d i s p o s e d t o marry the L a d y E l i z a b e t h i f she w o u l d c h a n g e h e r r e l i g i o n . B u t J a m e s w o u l d n o t listen to s u c h t e r m s : he h a d a l r e a d y s i g n e d t h e c o n t r a c t for h e r m a r r i a g e w i t h F r e d e r i c k t h e E l e c t o r P a l a t i n e . A l l t h o u g h t o f a S p a n i s h alliance h a v i n g been l a i d aside, a princess o f T u s c a n y , a princess o f S a v o y , a n d a F r e n c h princess were i n t u r n suggested for t h e P r i n c e o f W^ales, w h i l e he, w i s e r t h a n h i s father, d e c l a r e d t h a t h e w o u l d never m a r r y a wife w h o differed f r o m h i m s e l f i n r e l i g i o n . I n 1612 H e n r y was e i g h t e e n y e a r s o f age, f u l l o f v i g o u r a n d s p i r i t , w i t h t h e martial^ a n d adventurous instincts proper to y o u t h . in a k i n g who had no T h e nation, disappointed in k i n g l y attributes, f o u n d c o m f o r t

i d o l i s i n g h i s heir, a n d c r e d i t e d H e n r y w i t h talents a n d virtues w h i c h w e r e never b r o u g h t t o t h e test o f practice, w h i l e t h e p u r i tans r e g a r d e d h i m as t h e i r f r i e n d a n d hope. A n imprudent r e g i m e n l a i d h i m o p e n t o a n a t t a c k o f t y p h o i d fever, a n d h e

62 CHAP,
I I L

THE

RISE

OF

CARR

AND

OF

VILLIERS.

1612

died o n N o v e m b e r diagnosis was

6.

A s u s u a l i n t h a t age, w h e n and the

accurate

unknown

u n t i m e l y d e a t h o f a great some, r e f i n i n g o n absurdity,

personage w a s a l w a y s a s c r i b e d t o f o u l p l a y , m e n s a i d that t h e prince h a d been T h e y e a r 1612 tradesman, w h o poisoned, a n d n a m e d h i s f a t h e r as t h e criminal. Bartholomew Legate, a L o n d o n scandal b y his A r i a n opinions, James

is s t i l l m o r e m e m o r a b l e f o r the last b u r n i n g h a d caused

of heretics o n E n g l i s h soil.

refused t o a c k n o w l e d g e t h e j u r i s d i c t i o n o f t h e c o n s i s t o r y c o u r t and remained obdurate against i n person. I n F e b r u a r y , 1612, before t h e c o n s i s t o r y court. commission, it was Bishop of Andrewes, the w r i t de Lichfield, Bishop of the arguments of K i n g h e was b r o u g h t for the last t i m e A s C o k e h a d d i s p u t e d its c o m by the presence of had was of been Neile, and proin

petence t o d e a l w i t h a cause i n h i s o p i n i o n s u i t a b l e for t h e h i g h strengthened Buckeridge, Ely. Bishop Rochestei,

After

sentence Legate

n o u n c e d b y t h e B i s h o p o f L o n d o n , t h e l o r d chancellor issued hceretico cotnbureTido and burnt S m i t h f i e l d o n M a r c h 18. E d w a r d V^ightman, a crazy ana-

baptist w h o f a n c i e d h i m s e l f the M e s s i a h , h a v i n g a t t r a c t e d notice b y a p e t i t i o n t o t h e k i n g , was sent before examination. B i s h o p N e i l e for A f t e r h e h a d been tested i n a n u m b e r o f c o n V i f i g h t m a n r e c a n t e d at t h e near The

ferences b y N e i l e a n d o t h e r d i v i n e s , h e was t a k e n t o L i c h f i e l d and there sentenced b y Neile. a p p r o a c h o f d e a t h , but, as h e w o u l d n o t a b i d e b y h i s recantation, t h e w r i t w a s r e n e w e d a n d he was b u r n t i n A p r i l . p u b l i c r a i s e d n o protest, to K i n g J a m e s . a n d even t h e h o n e s t a n d intelligent

C a s a u b o n c o u l d d w e l l o n t h e e x e c u t i o n o f L e g a t e as honourable Y e t o p i n i o n was i n s e n s i b l y c h a n g i n g , a n d n o such e x e c u t i o n w a s a t t e m p t e d i n after t i m e s . O n F e b r u a r y 14, i6i3> t h e m a r r i a g e o f the L a d y E l i z a b e t h a n d t h e E l e c t o r P a l a t i n e was celebrated w i t h m u c h splendour. N e i t h e r E l i z a b e t h n o r h e r h u s b a n d was old. y e t seventeen years S h e w a s a h a n d s o m e , s p i r i t e d g i r l , w i t h u n u s u a l powers o f

attraction, y e t d e s t i n e d t o a life o f a l m o s t u n b r o k e n m i s f o r t u n e , for her l o r d w a s o n e o f those m e n w h o , f a i l i n g t o u n d e r s t a n d their o w n m e d i o c r i t y , c h a l l e n g e great t r i a l s , u n d e r w h i c h t h e y succumb without honour. To the nation the marriage was pleasing as a fresh l i n k to b i n d E n g l a n d to the protestant cause. T o the k i n g i t was a n e w embarrassment, for, despite his w a n t

1613

DON DIEGO

SARMIENTO

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o f m o n e y , h e e x p e n d e d n o less t h a n ^60,000 o n t h e feasts a n d C H A P , p a g e a n t s w h i c h f o l l o w e d t h e marriage. N o t l o n g afterwards S p a i n sent t o t h e E n g l i s h c o u r t one o f i t s ablest d i p l o m a t i s t s , D o n D i e g o S a r m i e n t o d e A c u f i a , better k n o w n b y h i s later title o f C o u n t o f G o n d o m a r . Sarmiento possessed t o t h e f u l l t h a t i n t r e p i d assurance w h i c h d i s t i n g u i s h e d his c o u n t r y m e n , a n d w i t h it a keen insight into h u m a n nature. H e s o o n c a m e t o k n o w the k i n g as t h o r o u g h l y as i f t h e y h a d been f r i e n d s f r o m b o y h o o d , a n d b y a d e x t e r o u s a l t e r n a t i o n o f i n s o l e n c e w i t h flattering c o u r t e s y e n s l a v e d h i m altogether. The E n g l i s h n a t i o n h e d i d n o t u n d e r s t a n d so w e l l . L i k e most S p a n i a r d s , h e t h o u g h t that p r o t e s t a n t i s m h a d its o r i g i n i n r o y a l caprice, a n d w o u l d fall w h e n n o l o n g e r u p h e l d b y r o y a l a u t h o r i t y . L e t t h e p e r s e c u t i n g laws be repealed, o r even suspended, a n d s u c h m u l t i t u d e s w o u l d r e j o i n the t r u e C h u r c h t h a t i n a l i t t l e w h i l e i t w o u l d be supreme a g a i n . T h e p o s i t i o n w h i c h S a r m i e n t o gained at court was soon noticed b y the public, a n d the hatred felt f o r h i s n a t i o n was concentrated u p o n t h e a m b a s s a d o r . O w i n g t o t h i s c i r c u m s t a n c e , a n d t h e v e r y general desire o f e x p l a i n i n g a l l t h e faults a n d follies o f k i n g s b y the s i n i s t e r suggestion o f those about t h e m , S a r m i e n t o became a h e r o o f myth. H i s p o w e r a n d h i s m a l i c e w e r e supposed t o account for e v e r y e v i l that befel the s t a t e ; a n d o n l y i n recent t i m e s has h e b e e n r e d u c e d t o h i s real p r o p o r t i o n s i n t h e h i s t o r y of E n g l a n d .
m

F o r t h e present t h e p u b l i c gaze w a s fixed u p o n a r o y a l f a v o u r i t e w h o h a d risen h i g h e r t h a n a n y m e r e c o u r t i e r since the t i m e o f P i e r s G a v e s t o n , a n d w h o was d e s t i n e d t o a fall o n l y less a b r u p t a n d terrible. R o b e r t C a r r , a y o u n g e r son o f a n a n c i e n t b o r d e r house, h a d a t t e n d e d the k i n g t o E n g l a n d i n t h e q u a l i t y o f a page, a n d afterwards e n t e r e d t h e service o f L o r d H a y . He h a d t h e l u c k t o be t h r o w n f r o m h i s h o r s e a n d break h i s a r m at a t i l t i n g m a t c h where, J a m e s was present. H i s c o m e l y person a n d h i s h u r t were e n o u g h to ensure the k i n g ' s g o o d graces, a n d h e was k n i g h t e d at t h e close o f 160/. I n 1609 h e r e c e i v e d a g r a n t o f t h e m a n o r o f S h e r b o r n e , w h i c h h a d once been R a l e i g h ' s ; i n 1611 h e w a s created V i s c o u n t R o c h e s t e r , a n d w a s the first S c o t t o t a k e h i s seat i n t h e house o f l o r d s \ a n d o n S a l i s b u r y ' s d e a t h h e was e m p l o y e d t o c o n d u c t t h e k i n g ' s correspondence, a l t h o u g h w i t h o u t t h e t i t l e o f secretary. O v e r s h a d o w i n g a l l the rest o f the r o y a l favourites, a n d a b l e t o m a r r y a l m o s t w h e r e

64

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h e w o u l d , h e fixed h i s desires u p o n a n o t h e r m a n ' s w i f e , F r a n c e s , Countess o f E s s e x , a n d d a u g h t e r o f the E a r l o f Suffolk. W h e n only thirteen years o l d Frances h a p p y courtier, h i m s e l f s c a r c e l y a y e a r older. sent to c o m p l e t e h i s e d u c a t i o n b y H o w a r d had been m a r r i e d to R o b e r t , E a r l o f E s s e x , t h e s o n o f E l i z a b e t h s u n S o m e t i m e afterw a r d s , i n obedience t o a f a s h i o n t h e n b e g i n n i n g , t h e earl was a t o u r o n the continent. N e a r l y three y e a r s p a s s e d before h e .returned to h i s countess, w h o h a d g r o w n i n t o a l i v e l y a n d beautiful y o u n g w o m a n , a n d , h a v i n g been left a l m o s t a s t r a n g e r to her h u s b a n d , h a d already b e g u n t o feel a p a s s i o n favourite. for the handsome and all-subduing R e d u c e d t o l i v e u n d e r t h e same r o o f w i t h the earl,

whose s t o l i d p h l e g m a t i c t e m p e r w a s ill-fitted t o attract h e r l e v i t y , she passed f r o m indifference t o l o a t h i n g , a n d obstinately remained a wife o n l y i n name. A f t e r three years o f m u t u a l wretchedness she bent a l l h e r t h o u g h t s t o p r o c u r i n g a divorce. H e r father a n d her g r e a t - u n c l e t h e E a r l o f N o r t h a m p t o n r e a d i l y seconded F r a n c e s , for w h e n she h a d been set free, her m a r r i a g e w i t h R o c h e s t e r w o u l d secure t h e m m possession o f the confidence o f the k i n g . R o c h e s t e r a n d t h e H o w a r d s easily o b t a i n e d I t was issued o n of London, Neile, State f r o m J a m e s a c o m m i s s i o n t o t r y the v a l i d i t y o f t h e m a r r i a g e between t h e E a r l a n d C o u n t e s s o f E s s e x . Andrewes, Bishop of E l y , K i n g , Bishop M a y 16, 1613, a n d n a m e d as c o m m i s s i o n e r s A r c h b i s h o p A b b o t , B i s h o p o f L i c h f i e l d a n d C o v e n t r y , a n d s o m e s i x other persons. I t was not s e e m l y t h a t t h e h e a d o f t h e C h u r c h a n d a business. s h o u l d c o m m i s s i o n g r a v e d i v i n e s a n d l e a r n e d c i v i l i a n s for s u c h J a m e s m u s t b e t a k e n t o h a v e k n o w n w h a t soon A l t h o u g h A b b o t was n o t became apparent to t h e a r c h b i s h o p .

a v e r y acute m a n , h e w a s a n h o n e s t one, a n d w h e n h e discovered that the p r o c e e d i n g w a s m e r e l y a t r i c k t o g r a t i f y t h e irregular desires o f R o c h e s t e r a n d L a d y E s s e x , he tried, although i n A s the o t h e r vain, to retire f r o m h i s p l a c e i n t h e c o m m i s s i o n .

commissioners w e r e e q u a l l y d i v i d e d a n d t h e archbishop's a c t i o n was a n a l a r m t o p u b l i c o p i n i o n , R o c h e s t e r a n d t h e H o w a r d s felt t h e need o f s t r o n g m e a s u r e s , a n d p e r s u a d e d J a m e s to reinforce t h e court w i t h t w o m o r e b i s h o p s , B i l s o n o f W i n c h e s t e r a n d B u c k eridge o f Rochester, w h o c o u l d b e trusted t o g i v e j u d g m e n t i n favour o f the countess. T h e d i v o r c e was decreed o n S e p t e m b e r 25 b y seven votes, t h e a r c h b i s h o p a n d four others r e c o r d i n g a

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UR K

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protest. I t m a y a w a k e , ' s o m e surprise t h a t A n d r e w e s , e m i n e n t a m o n g h i s b r e t h r e n b o t h b y character a n d b y talent, s h o u l d h a v e b e e n o n e o f t h e seven. B u t even t h e best prelates o f t h i s a g e w e r e t o o often courtiers, a n d t h e C h u r c h p a i d d e a r l y for its close a l l i a n c e w i t h t h e c r o w n . * Rochester was created Earl o f S o m e r s e t , a n d before the close o f t h e y e a r h e m a r r i e d F r a n c e s H o w a r d , a m i d s u c h h i g h w r o u g h t flattery, obsequious congratulations, a n d c o s t l y presents as h a d n e v e r p e r h a p s m a r k e d t h e England. wielded all the m a r r i a g e o f a subject in he H e n e v e r a s p i r e d t o c o n t r o l p u b l i c affairs, b u t p e r s o n a l influence h e c o u l d desire.

CHAP.
III.

Without

first p r e s e n t i n g a b r i b e t o Somerset, i t was useless t o present a petition to the king. S o m e r s e t is s a i d t o h a v e i n f o r m e d t h e N o r d i d t h e k i n g abuse h i s c o n ^"90,000 i n a twelvemonth. k i n g of every bribe he took.

fidence ; for S o m e r s e t was b y far t h e richest m a n i n E n g l a n d , a n d was r e p o r t e d t o h a v e spent a year. O n l y o n e c i r c u m s t a n c e , y e t u n k n o w n , was w a n t e d t o p o i n t t h e m o r a l o f Somerset's m a r r i a g e . I n h i s rise t o f o r t u n e h e h a d Overbury. o w e d m u c h to the advice of a friend, S i r T h o m a s P r o b a b l y n o o t h e r subject at t h a t t i m e h a d a revenue o f ^20,000

T h e v e r s e a n d prose w h i c h O v e r b u r y h a s left are o f v e r y s l i g h t value, b u t h e h a d s o m e talent for society a n d affairs, a n d att a c h e d h i m s e l f t o C a r r i n t h e h o p e o f r i s i n g b y a n d w i t h the favourite. H e helped C a r r i n his intrigue w i t h L a d y Essex, a b u t o p p o s e d t h e i r m a r r i a g e , whether i t w e r e t h a t h e t h o u g h t w i t h t h e H o w a r d s , w h o m h e h a d i n c i t e d C a r r t o oppose. w h i c h w o u l d enable h i m t o b a r t h e d i v o r c e . she used her ascendency

w a n t o n a n u n d e s i r a b l e wife, or t h a t h e d r e a d e d a r e c o n c i l i a t i o n I t has b e e n c o n j e c t u r e d t h a t O v e r b u r y b e c a m e possessed o f k n o w l e d g e A s Lady Essex friend, a n d James bade h a t e d O v e r b u r y a n d w a s r e s o l v e d t o p u t h i m out o f her w a y , over C a r r a g a i n s t h i s p e r s u a d e d h i m t o e n l i s t t h e k i n g i n t h e business. a n envoy to the continent.

A r c h b i s h o p A b b o t suggest to O v e r b u r y t h a t he s h o u l d g o as T h e unsuspecting Overbury asked excused; C a r r to interpose w i t h the k i n g that he might be

1

Andrewes w o u l d not have departed from justice for any personal gain, but the boundless deference for the sovereign then so common a n d the wish to secure his protection o f the established ecclesiastical order were more intense and subtle temptations. VOL. VII.

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but R o c h e s t e r d i d the reverse, a n d O v e r b u r y received the f o r m a l offer o f a m i s s i o n t o a f o r e i g n c o u r t . A p r i l 26, 1613. H i s refusal was treated as i n s u b o r d i n a t i o n , a n d p u n i s h e d b y c o m m i t t a l t o t h e T o w e r o n B u t w o r s e a w a i t e d h i m , for L a d y E s s e x h a d Orders resolved o n h i s death, a n d t h r o u g h h e r p a r a m o u r s c o n t r o l o v e r the k i n g h a d every m e a n s o f safe a n d e a s y e x e c u t i o n . were g i v e n t h a t O v e r b u r y , outside. placed b y a l t h o u g h i n a i l i n g health, s h o u l d

h a v e no servant, n o r be a l l o w e d to c o m m u n i c a t e w i t h a n y person S i r " W i l l i a m W a a d , l i e u t e n a n t o f t h e T o w e r , was reS i r Gervase H e l w y s , a creature o f R o c h e s t e r a n d T h e p a r t i c u l a r c h a r g e o f O v e r b u i y was g i v e n t o

Northampton.

a keeper n a m e d R i c h a r d W e s t o n , w h o o w e d h i s place to L a d y E s s e x , a n d was a n o l d servant o f M r s . T u r n e r , a w o m a n o f b a d character, e m p l o y e d t o p o i s o n O v e r b u r y . T h e p o i s o n i n g itself 15, was retarded b y s u n d r y m i s c a r r i a g e s a n d d e l a y s ; b u t at l e n g t h the t h i n g was done, a n d O v e r b u r y e x p i r e d o n S e p t e m b e r a few d a y s before out c o m m e n t . T h e y e a r 1613 w a s m a r k e d b y a case less notorious t h a n flagrant the E s s e x divorce, a l t h o u g h m o r e s i g n i f i c a n t f o r p o l i t i c a l h i s t o r y . T h e k i n g h a d i s s u e d a c o m m i s s i o n t o i n q u i r e i n t o the missioners to p u n i s h offenders. high admiral, and abuses o f t h e n a v a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , a n d h a d a u t h o r i s e d the c o m T h e E a r l of Nottingham, lord to the S i r R o b e r t M a n s e l l , t h e secretary L a d y E s s e x gained her divorce. F o r the

t i m e n o t h i n g was suspected, a n d O v e r b u r y ' s d e a t h passed w i t h -

n a v y , d i s l i k e d the c o m m i s s i o n a n d d e s i r e d t o l i m i t its powers. T h e y consulted W h i t e l o c k e , a n e m i n e n t counsel, w h o h a d s p o k e n v i g o r o u s l y against i m p o s i t i o n s i n t h e last p a r l i a m e n t , a n d W h i t e locke gave a n o p i n i o n to t h e effect t h a t t h e p e n a l clauses i n t h e c o m m i s s i o n were v o i d as e x c e e d i n g t h e p o w e r o f the c r o w n a n d b r e a k i n g the clause i n M a g n a C a r t a , w h i c h p r o m i s e s to a l l s u b jects a t r i a l a c c o r d i n g t o law. M a n s e l l , for o b t a i n i n g t h i s o p i n i o n , It attorney-general, T h a t clause, alleged. an a n d W h i t e l o c k e for g i v i n g it, w e r e c a l l e d before t h e c o u n c i l . was there l a i d d o w n by^ B a c o n , s p e a k i n g as that the k i n g ' s p r e r o g a t i v e
a

a n d absolute

p o w e r were p a r t o f

the l a w o f t h e l a n d " m e n t i o n e d i n M a g n a C a r t a . reasons

therefore, d i d n o t r e s t r a i n h i m f r o m i s s u i n g w h a t j u d i c i a l c o m missions h e pleased, w h e r e offence. o f state c o u l d b e E v e n to g i v e a n o p i n i o n d e t r a c t i n g f r o m t h i s p o w e r was

T h e c o u n c i l a d o p t e d t h i s r e a s o n i n g b y its d e c i s i o n ,

i6i4

A PARLIAMENT

CALLED.

a n d W h i t e l o c k e a n d M a n s e l l h a d to purchase their freedom b y C H A P , a h u m b l e s u b m i s s i o n . I t is patent t h a t r e a s o n i n g of this k i n d m u s t e n d i n the r e c o g n i t i o n o f a n u n l i m i t e d j u d i c i a l p o w e r i n the crown. T h e c r o w n still r e m a i n e d weak i n its p o v e r t y . T h e same causes p r o d u c e d the same emptiness o f the treasury. I n spite o f t h e r e p a y m e n t b y F r a n c e a n d the U n i t e d P r o v i n c e s o f m o n e y s l e n t b y E l i z a b e t h j i n spite o f the sale o f baronetcies a n d c r o w n l a n d s j i n spite o f p r i v y seals sent o u t to b o r r o w f r o m r i c h m e n , i n c o m e c o n t i n u e d less t h a n e x p e n d i t u r e , revenue was anticipated, a n d indebtedness grew. T h e need o f s u m m o n i n g a n e w p a r l i a m e n t b e c a m e clearer a n d clearer. B u t t h e n it w o u l d be necessary to court t h e g o o d w i l l o f the house o f c o m m o n s . A d v i s e r s were n o t w a n t i n g as to the m e t h o d . S i r H e n r y N e v i l l e , a d i s t i n g u i s h e d m e m b e r o f the f o r m e r parliament, drew u p a m e m o r i a l a d v i s i n g t h e k i n g to call a n e w one i m m e d i a t e l y , a n d t o w i n its g o o d w i l l b y offering c e r t a i n boons before t h e y c o u l d be a s k e d , especially b y r e n o u n c i n g h i s r i g h t to l e v y impositions. T h e p r o m i s e s t h u s m a d e s h o u l d be carried i n t o effect w i t h o u t delay. I f t h i s w e r e done the best m i g h t be h o p e d , for the leaders of the last p a r l i a m e n t h a d n o t been m e r e l y factious i n t h e i r resistance t o the c r o w n . B a c o n , i n a letter to t h e k i n g , e x h o r t e d h i m to p u t off the person o f a m e r c h a n t a n d contractor. Parl i a m e n t s h o u l d be called rather for business o f state a n d to m a k e l a w s t h a n to be asked for grants. T h e d e m a n d for m o n e y s h o u l d be b r o u g h t i n b y t h e w a y . " I for m y part," B a c o n w r o t e , " t h i n k i t a t h i n g i n e s t i m a b l e t o y o u r majesty's safety a n d service that y o u once part w i t h y o u r p a r l i a m e n t w i t h love a n d reverence." J a m e s was n o t y e t c o n v i n c e d that he m u s t meet p a r l i a m e n t . B u t early i n 1614, h i s w a n t o f m o n e y was so s h a r p as to leave h i m n o choice. H i s debts h a d risen to ;70o>ooo> a n d the a n n u a l deficit a m o u n t e d to ^200,000. In F e b r u a r y , the p r i v y c o u n c i l a d v i s e d h i m to c a l l a parliament, a n d he y i e l d e d . T h e c o u n c i l t h e n settled a l i s t o f bills w h i c h , i t h o p e d , w o u l d t e m p t the c o m m o n s to be generous, b u t i t was n o t free t o i n c l u d e the topics o f t h e C h u r c h or o f i m p o s i t i o n s , a n d unless t h e y h a d their w i l l w i t h r e g a r d to these, the c o m m o n s w o u l d h a r d l y be satisfied. T h e c r o w n h a d repeatedly used its influence at elections i n t h e past, a n d m i g h t i n d e e d be said t o choose the m e m b e r s f o r

5*

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a large n u m b e r o f the p e t t y b o r o u g h s created b y t h e T u d o r s . W i t h the g r o w i n g consequence o f t h e l o w e r house every n e w means o f g e t t i n g votes was w e l c o m e d b y t h e k i n g ' s advisers. W h e n , therefore, certain courtiers u n d e r t o o k to d o their best t o secure the r e t u r n o f well-affected persons, t h e y were d u l y encouraged. B u t whatever h e l p these " u n d e r t a k e r s " were a b l e to g i v e was o u t w e i g h e d b y t h e i l l - w i l l w h i c h t h e i r m e d d l i n g aroused. S e r v a n t s o f the c r o w n a n d supporters o f its p o l i c y were generally i n disfavour. A l l t h e leaders o f o p p o s i t i o n i n the o l d parliament, s u c h as W h i t e l o c k e , H a k e w i l l , a n d S a n d y s , were returned. M o r e t h a n h a l f o f the n e w house o f c o m m o n s were m e n w h o h a d never sat there before. A m o n g t h e m was one w h o w i l l be r e m e m b e r e d as l o n g as t h e h i s t o r y o f E n g l a n d is r e a d T h o m a s W e n t w o r t h . J a m e s t h o u g h t fit to s t r e n g t h e n h i s g o v e r n m e n t b y a p p o i n t i n g a new secretary, w h o s h o u l d also be a m e m b e r o f the house of c o m m o n s , a n d g u i d e i t i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h his wishes. He chose S i r R a l p h W i n w o o d , a m a n o f h i g h character, w h o h a d l o n g been e n v o y at t h e H a g u e a n d w a s w e l l a c q u a i n t e d w i t h the affairs o f t h e continent. A s a s t a u n c h protestant a n d a bitter e n e m y o f S p a i n , W i n w o o d was l i k e l y to g a i n the c o n fidence o f the c o m m o n s , b u t h e was u n u s e d to p a r l i a m e n t a r y life a n d u n s k i l l e d i n p a r l i a m e n t a r y m a n a g e m e n t . T h e parliam e n t met o n A p r i l 5, a n d s h o w e d t h e i r t e m p e r b y r e c e i v i n g the c o m m u n i o n i n a b o d y so as t o e x c l u d e a n y R o m a n catholic w h o m i g h t have been elected. T h e y chose f o r this purpose S t . Margaret's church, where the s e r v i c e was c o n d u c t e d m o r e agreea b l y to p u r i t a n feelings t h a n at the a b b e y . W i n w o o d took the earliest o p p o r t u n i t y o f a s k i n g for a grant, a n d offered o n b e h a l f o f the k i n g m a n y o f the concessions w h i c h h a d been p r o p o s e d b y N e v i l l e a n d others. B u t t h e house p r o m p t l y c a m e back t o the subject of i m p o s i t i o n s a n d t o t h e o l d ecclesiastical c o n t r o versies, a n d e n d e d b y r e f e r r i n g to a c o m m i t t e e the grievances w h i c h h a d been canvassed i n t h e f o r m e r p a r l i a m e n t . I n its anger at the a t t e m p t to influence t h e elections, i t s u m m o n e d a n u m b e r o f the alleged u n d e r t a k e r s to t h e bar. T h e y were e x amined, but n o t h i n g was f o u n d to j u s t i f y p e n a l proceedings. T h e c o m m o n s n e x t a s k e d the l o r d s to meet t h e m i n a c o n ference o n the i m p o s i t i o n s . W l i e n the l o r d s consulted t h e judges as to t h e i r reply, t h e judges, b y the m o u t h o f C o k e ,

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b e g g e d t o r e f r a i n f r o m g i v i n g a n o p i n i o n , since t h e y w e r e 1 j . , , ,1 _ 1 i . j 1 j , , D o u n a t o state tne l a w oetween c r o w n a n a people, a n a not t o b e d i s p u t a n t s o n either side. ference. T h e lords, b y a majority c o m posed c h i e f l y o f p r i v y c o u n c i l l o r s a n d bishops, d e c l i n e d the c o n T h e c o m m o n s , sore at this rebuff, a n d further n e t t l e d b y s o m e s a u c y r e m a r k s of B i s h o p N e i l e , b r o k e i n t o a passion, a n d b e h a v e d i n a m a n n e r w h i c h c a n b e u n d e r s t o o d o n l y b y rem e m b e r i n g t h a t p a r t y o r g a n i s a t i o n a n d recognised leaders d i d not exist. T h e y forgot t h a t the debates o f the u p p e r house, l i k e their o w n , were supposed to be private, that the exclusive jurisd i c t i o n o f e i t h e r house o v e r its o w n m e m b e r s w a s essential t o its usefulness, a n d that f r e e d o m o f speech c o u l d n o t be ensured to either h o u s e unless i t w e r e e n j o y e d b y b o t h . ensued, a n d s o m e a b s u r d m o t i o n s were m a d e . that saved M u c h idle talk I t was o n l y t h e

CHAP. in.

i n t e r p o s i t i o n o f S i r E d w i n S a n d y s , t h e best h e a d i n t h e house, the commons from calling on the k i n g to punish A t l e n g t h t h e y agreed t o d e m a n d A f t e r some demur the disavowed the to w o i ds s p o k e n i n p a r l i a m e n t . lords required the the commons,

satisfaction f r o m t h e l o r d s themselves. n a t u r a l sense o f h i s w o r d s . complaints of this k i n d . The

b i s h o p t o e x p l a i n , a n d he

lords made this k n o w n

a d d i n g that t h e y w o u l d n o t hereafter listen t o T h e commons, still angry, continued mes-

t o waste t h e i r t i m e i n d i s c u s s i n g t h e b i s h o p . F i n a l l y t h e k i n g , w h o h a d c o m p l a i n e d before, sent a m e n t i f t h e y d i d n o t p r o c e e d t o business. a n e w d i r e c t i o n to noise a n d fury, sage w a r n i n g t h e c o m m o n s that h e s h o u l d dissolve t h e p a r l i a B u t this o n l y gave Christopher Neville and

others r a v e d a g a i n s t courtiers a n d S c o t s m e n i n t e r m s so outrageous t h a t s o m e suspected t h e m o f h a v i n g been set o n b y the E a r l o f N o r t h a m p t o n , w h o h a d been against c a l l i n g a p a r l i a m e n t a n d desired a dissolution. I f i t w e r e so, h e p r o v e d successful. James was enraged to the point of i n q u i r i n g from Sarmiento whether, i n t h e e v e n t o f h i s b r e a k i n g w i t h t h e c o m m o n s , he m i g h t c o u n t o n P h i l i p ' s g o o d - w i l l ; a n d a l t h o u g h S a r m i e n t o returned a c a u t i o u s answer, h e t o o k heart to dissolve t h e p a r l i a m e n t o n J u n e 7. I t b e c a m e k n o w n as the a d d l e d p a r l i a m e n t , because it h a d T h e k i n g s u m m o n e d before t h e f a i l e d t o p a s s a s i n g l e statute.

c o u n c i l t h e m e m b e r s w h o h a d been c h o s e n t o confer w i t h t h e l o r d s , a n d o r d e r e d t h e m t o d e l i v e r u p a l l t h e notes a n d collect i o n s m a d e f o r t h a t purpose, w h i c h w e r e i m m e d i a t e l y t h r o w n

*J0 CHAP,

THE RISE, OF CARR AND OF

VILLIERS.

1614

i n t o t h e fire. F o u r m e m b e r s were sent t o t h e T o w e r , a n d S a n d y s a n d s o m e others were ordered n o t to q u i t L o n d o n w i t h o u t leave. J a m e s p o u r e d f o r t h h i s griefs to t h e S p a n i s h ambassador, f o r h i s k i n g l y arrogance c o u l d adjust itself w i t h a n entire want o f h u m a n self-respect. T h e k i n g h a d n o t p a r t e d f r o m h i s p a r l i a m e n t i n love a n d reverence, n o r h a d h e o b t a i n e d a n y s u p p l y . Some of the b i s h o p s agreed t o offer h i m t h e v a l u e o f t h e i r best piece o f plate, a n d t h e y w e r e j o i n e d i n t h i s l o y a l c o n t r i b u t i o n b y t h e p r i v y c o u n c i l a n d t h e courtiers. T h e c i t y o f L o n d o n , w h e n asked for a l o a n o f 100,000, r e p l i e d t h a t i t w o u l d rather m a k e a gift o f 10,000. T h e n some o f t h e p r o v i n c i a l t o w n s a n d t h e g e n t r y m a d e gifts, a n d a s u m o f 23,000 i n a l l was collected b y J u l y 18. T h e k i n g n a t u r a l l y i m p r o v e d t h e h i n t . C h i e f Justice C o k e restrained h i m f r o m e x a c t i n g a benevolence b y letters u n d e r t h e great seal \ b u t t h e c o u n c i l wrote letters t o e v e r y c o u n t y a n d b o r o u g h i n v i t i n g c o n t r i b u t i o n s , w h i c h were expressly stated to b e v o l u n t a r y . S u c h w a s t h e temper o f t h e n a t i o n t h a t i n m o r e t h a n t w o m o n t h s o n l y 500 w a s s u b s c r i b e d i n r e p l y . E v e n after t w o years o f c o n t i n u o u s pressure o n l y 66,000 h a d been raised altogether. I t was felt t h a t p a r l i a m e n t was t h e p r o p e r b o d y t o g r a n t supplies, a n d that t h e n e w c o n t r i b u t i o n w a s m u c h t h e same as t h e o l d benevolence. O l i v e r S t . J o h n , a g e n t l e m a n o f M a r l b o r o u g h , h a v i n g expressed these o p i n i o n s i n a v i o l e n t letter, w h i c h declared t h a t t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n i n f r i n g e d M a g n a C a r t a , a n d a m o u n t e d t o a b r e a c h o f the k i n g ' s coronation oath, was b r o u g h t before t h e S t a r C h a m b e r , a n d sentenced t o p a y a fine o f 5,000 a n d t o b e i m p r i s o n e d d u r i n g t h e k i n g ' s pleasure. O n m a k i n g a f u l l s u b m i s s i o n h e w a s e x c u s e d his punishment. T h e discontent s h o w n i n t h e matter o f t h e benevolence seems to have a l a r m e d t h e g o v e r n m e n t , w h i c h f o u n d a v i c t i m i n a n obscure c o u n t r y c l e r g y m a n . E d m u n d P e a c h a m , rector o f H i n t o n S t . George i n Somerset, h a d c o m e i n t o c o n f l i c t w i t h h i s b i s h o p , a n d h a d been s u m m o n e d t o a p p e a r before t h e c o u r t o f h i g h commission. A search f o r papers i n h i s house b r o u g h t t o l i g h t a m a n u s c r i p t treatise d w e l l i n g o n t h e grievances o f t h e subject, and intimating that they might well call d o w n the judgment of heaven u p o n t h e k i n g i n r e b e l l i o n o r i n s u d d e n d e a t h . T h e treatise w&s e x a m i n e d b y t h e c o u n c i l a n d p r o p o u n c e d treason,-

1614

PEACHAM'S

CASE.

yi

able. T h e k i n g d i s p l a y e d u n w o n t e d eagerness for r e t r i b u t i o n . C H A P . P e a c h a m w a s e x a m i n e d before the c o u n c i l , a n d j u s t i f i e d w h a t h e h a d w r i t t e n , b u t w o u l d disclose n o t h i n g . H e was therefore p u t t o t h e t o r t u r e i n t h e T o w e r , i n t h e presence o f several c o u n c i l l o r s , b u t a g a i n refused to say a n y t h i n g , p r o b a b l y because h e h a d n o t h i n g t o say. H e seems to h a v e been a n i n s i g n i f i c a n t person, o f a sour a n d captious temper, w h o m i g h t easily write i n a v i o l e n t strain, b u t w h o h a d n e i t h e r t a l e n t n o r i n c l i n a t i o n t o c a u s e t h e least t r o u b l e i n t h e state. N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e c o u n c i l r e s o l v e d t o prosecute P e a c h a m f o r treason. A s i t was d o u b t f u l w h e t h e r a c o n v i c t i o n c o u l d b o b t a i n e d m e r e l y because a m a n h a d w r i t t e n w i t h o u t p u b l i s h i n g a b o o k r e g a r d e d as treasonable, J a m e s o r d e r e d t h e c o u n c i l t o take the o p i n i o n of the judges i n d i v i d u a l l y , not collectively. I n t h i s w a y m o r e pressure c o u l d be b r o u g h t t o bear, a n d t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e c h i e f j u s t i c e w o u l d be e x c l u d e d . Coke prot e s t e d o n t h e g r o u n d that, a l t h o u g h t h e c r o w n m i g h t p r o p e r l y c o n s u l t t h e j u d g e s i n a b o d y , this " a u r i c u l a r a n d p a r t i c u l a r " t a k i n g o f o p i n i o n s was n o t a c c o r d i n g t o t h e c u s t o m o f t h e realm. T h e o t h e r j u d g e s g a v e t h e o p i n i o n w h i c h the c o u n c i l w a n t e d , b u t C o k e d e c l a r e d t h a t P e a c h a m ' s offence c a m e s h o r t o f t r e a s o n o n t w o g r o u n d s : first, because t h e treatise h a d n e v e r been p u b l i s h e d , a n d , s e c o n d l y , because a m e r e d e c l a r a t i o n t h a t t h e k i n g w a s u n w o r t h y to r e i g n d i d n o t a m o u n t t o treason, u n less i t w e n t o n to q u e s t i o n h i s t i t l e . P e a c h a m w a s sent d o w n t o S o m e r s e t t o s t a n d h i s t r i a l , a n d was c o n v i c t e d o f t r e a s o n at t h e assizes j b u t t h e g o v e r n m e n t s h r a n k f r o m e n f o r c i n g t h e f u l l penalty, a n d he d i e d some months afterwards i n prison.
I n

B a c o n , as a t t o r n e y - g e n e r a l , h a v i n g been e m p l o y e d i n t h i s m a t t e r , a n d h a v i n g a p p r o v e d h i m s e l f zealous a g a i n s t C o k e , recent h i s t o r i a n s h a v e s o u g h t t o a p o l o g i s e for t h e a c t i o n o f the government. T h e a p o l o g y is n o t c o m p l e t e . T h e use o f t o r t u r e , i t is true, t h o u g h n e v e r s a n c t i o n e d b y l a w , h a d b e e n f r e q u e n t i n p o l i t i c a l cases ever s i n c e t h e accession of t h e T u d o r s , a n d m i g h t n o w b e d e e m e d p a r t o f the p r e r o g a t i v e ; b u t i n P e a c h a m ' s case there w a s n o t h i n g to a l a r m r u l e r s o f r e a s o n a b l y firm m i n d . J a m e s w a s p r o b a b l y e x a s p e r a t e d b y his recollections of S c o t l a n d , where clerical threats of d i v i n e j u d g m e n t against w i c k e d rulers sometimes went a l o n g w i t h f o r c i b l e re$ist3nc$ t o t h e c r o w n . " auricular a n d particular

72
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nt "
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k e e n justified, p a r t l y on the g r o u n d

o f precedent, p a r t l y o n t h e g r o u n d t h a t t h e k i n g a n d c o u n c i l feared the a s c e n d e n c y o f t h e c h i e f j u s t i c e o v e r t h e m i n d s o f his brethren. B u t the j u d g e s h a d e v e r y t h i n g to hope a n d to fear f r o m t h e c r o w n w h i c h h a d m a d e a n d c o u l d u n m a k e t h e m , w h i l e t h e w o r s t t h e y c o u l d e x p e c t f r o m C o k e w o u l d be s u l l e n l o o k s a n d some r o u g h l a n g u a g e . I n p r i v a t e c o n s u l t a t i o n those they w h o represented t h e c r o w n c o u l d f r e e l y use t h r e a t s a n d p r o m i s e s to w r i n g f r o m e a c h i n d i v i d u a l j u d g e t h e o p i n i o n w h i c h seat o f j u d g m e n t . w a n t e d , a n d b y w h i c h h e m u s t afterwards f r a m e h i s a c t i o n i n t h e N o r can we doubt that B a c o n was prepared H e has t o l d us h i m s e l f t h a t t h e t o use pressure o f t h i s sort.

j u d g e s o u g h t t o b e l i o n s u n d e r t h e t h r o n e , w h i c h is o n l y a graceful w a y o f s a y i n g t h a t t h e y s h o u l d b e n d t h e l a w t o r e a s o n o f state. " T h e auricular and particular taking of opinions," the his it, be to even i f it h a d support i n precedent, c o u l d o n l y t e n d to perversion of justice, a n d C o k e , i n protesting against his motives what country. S o o n after t h e s e events t h e g r e a t s c a n d a l o f t h e r e i g n b u r s t u p o n the p u b l i c . g r o w n so f r o w a r d Spoilt b y undeserved favour Somerset had and undutiful that he strained even T h e change becoming the apparent Villiers, they might, d i d a notable service

k i n g s unreasoning affection.

to all w h o hated Somerset a n d his allies, the H o w a r d s , t h e y f o u n d a n e w c a n d i d a t e for t h a t affection i n G e o r g e w i t h his fortune t o m a k e , f o r h e w a s the a handsome y o u t h w i t h m a n y external accomplishments, but younger son of a He had L e i c e s t e r s h i r e k n i g h t w h o h a d left h i m n o t h i n g .

been b r o u g h t t o t h e k i n g ' s n o t i c e i n A u g u s t , 1614 ; b u t S o m e r set was o n t h e alert, a n d f o r a w h i l e k e p t h i m at a d i s t a n c e . S o m e r s e t ' s e n e m i e s t h e n p e r s u a d e d A r c h b i s h o p A b b o t to use his best e n d e a v o u r s w i t h Q u e e n Villiers. Church. A A n n e on behalf of perceive young truths the frivolous w o m a n w i l l sometimes

w h i c h are h i d d e n f r o m p r i v y c o u n c i l l o r s a n d fathers o f

H e r m a j e s t y at first assured t h e a r c h b i s h o p t h a t h e

was o n l y m a k i n g a s c o u r g e for h i s o w n b a c k , b u t as h e p e r sisted, she c o n s e n t e d , a n d d e s i r e d h e r h u s b a n d to m a k e V i l l i e r s a gentleman of the bedchamber. James granted her request, k n i g h t e d V i l l i e i s , a n d g a v e h i m a p e n s i o n o f 1,000 a y e a f . H i s p r o m o t i o n t o o k p l a c e i n A p r i l , 1615. S o m e r s e t felt h i s

I6I6

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73

power shaken, a n d became morose. r e t u m s o f affection.

Y e t the k i n g had m a n y against

CHAP,

W h e n Somerset tried to guard

t h e f u t u r e b y o b t a i n i n g a p a r d o n i n t h e fullest t e r m s for a l l t h e offences o f w h i c h h e m i g h t h a v e b e e n g u i l t y , J a m e s b r o w b e a t t h e c h a n c e l l o r E l l e s m e r e , w h o refused t o affix t h e g r e a t seal unless he m i g h t have a p a r d o n for himself. to m o u r n the neglect. I t is s a i d t h a t t h e a p o t h e c a r y ' s apprentice who h a d been e m p l o y e d to poison O v e r b u r y , h a v i n g gone over to F l a n d e r s , b l a b b e d h i s secret, w h i c h c a m e t o t h e ears o f S e c r e t a r y W i n w o o d , a n d was b y h i m conveyed to the k i n g . w e l l t o confess w h a t h e k n e w . a n d he i m p l i c a t e d the criminals. At Coke's T h e n S i r Gervase H e l w y s , l e a r n i n g t h a t he w a s s u s p e c t e d b y W i n w o o d , t h o u g h t T h e k i n g thereupon instructed W e s t o n was e x a m i n e d , a n d the other of C o k e t o sift t h e m a t t e r t o t h e b o t t o m . request the James forgot t o see t h a t h i s o r d e r w a s o b e y e d , a n d S o m e r s e t s o o n h a d r e a s o n

Countess of Somerset

chancellor, the D u k e

L e n n o x , a n d L o r d Z o u c h were joined w i t h h i m i n the i n q u i r y . S o m e r s e t t o o k a h i g h t o n e , d e c l a r i n g i n h i s letters t o J a m e s that the and w h o l e b u s i n e s s was the a contrivance of his be transferred enemies, to the asking that inquiry might

twelve judges, apart from any p r i v y councillor. r e f u s e d t o i n t e r f e r e w i t h t h e course o f j u s t i c e . accomplices began. vase H e l w y s , and guilty a n d hanged.

B u t James Presently the

e a r l a n d c o u n t e s s w e r e p u t u n d e r arrest, a n d t h e t r i a l s o f t h e i r R i c h a r d Weston, M r s . Turner, Sir GerF r a n k l i n the apothecary I n J a n u a r y , 1616, were a l l found a true b i l l was found

a g a i n s t t h e e a r l a n d t h e countess as accessories t o t h e m u r d e r o f O v e r b u r y , but their t r i a l was d e l a y e d for some m o n t h s b y circumstances unconnected w i t h the charge. steward. She pleaded g u i l t y a n d received O n M a y 24 t h e sentence. Her countess was p u t o n her trial before the court of the lord h i g h h u s b a n d , a c c o r d i n g to one story, declared that h e w o u l d n o t appear before the court a n d that the k i n g durst not m a k e h i m . H e c e r t a i n l y f e i g n e d i l l n e s s , b u t h i s devices were i n v a i n , a n d he was p u t t o t h e b a r o n t h e d a y f o l l o w i n g h i s wife's t r i a l . a g a i n s t h i m w a s far f r o m c o n c l u s i v e , b u t t h a t B e s i d e s , t h e y m i g h t feel a s s u r e d SomerT h e evidence

age w a s less e x a c t i n g i n p r o o f t h a n ours, a n d m o s t o f t h e p e e r s were u n f r i e n d l y to Somerset. t h a t h e w o u l d n o t suffer t h e f u l l p u n i s h m e n t o f m u r d e r .

74
CHAP, III.

THE

RISE

OF CARR

AND

OF

VILLIERS.

1616

set a c c o r d i n g l y w a s f o u n d g u i l t y .

H e a n d h i s countess r e H e re1

m a i n e d p r i s o n e r s i n t h e T o w e r for s o m e y e a r s , w h e n t h e y w e r e set free, a l t h o u g h e n j o i n e d t o r e s i d e i n c e r t a i n p l a c e s . l i n g e r e d , obscure a n d f o r g o t t e n , f o r s o m e t w e n t y y e a r s . creature. c e i v e d a f u l l p a r d o n a s h o r t t i m e before t h e k i n g ' s d e a t h , a n d T h e d o t i n g fondness o f J a m e s w a s n o w c e n t r e d i n h i s n e w V i l l i e r s , m o r e m a n l y a n d a m b i t i o u s t h a n C a r r , rose I n J a n u a r y , 1616, he I n January, L a n d was beH e became, as fast t o t h e h i g h e s t p l a c e i n the k i n g d o m .

became master o f t h e h o r s e ; i n A p r i l , k n i g h t o f t h e garter j i n August, Baron W h a d d o n and V i s c o u n t Villiers. 1617, he was created E a r l of Buckingham. stowed u p o n h i m t o t h e v a l u e o f 80,000. Through Buckingham grave statesmen

it were, p r i v a t e s e c r e t a r y a n d c o n f i d e n t i a l a d v i s e r t o t h e k i n g . h o l d i n g t h e highest N o suitor t o offices h a d t o c o r r e s p o n d w i t h t h e i r s o v e r e i g n . ham's g o o d w o r d . 15,000 a year, a

t h e k i n g c o u l d h o p e t o s u c c e e d save b y p u r c h a s i n g B u c k i n g O n l y t h r e e y e a r s after h i s first i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h e favourite e a r l w a s r e c k o n e d at figure e q u a l l e d b y v e r y f e w o f t h e oldest B u c k i n g h a m was n o t overbearing W i t h m u c h courage a n d at court t h e revenue

a n d wealthiest f a m i l i e s i n t h e k i n g d o m . a m a n t o bear these h o n o u r s m e e k l y . some generous

impulses, he was a vain, greedy,

courtier, careless o f h i s m a s t e r ' s d i g n i t y a n d t h e p u b l i c w e a l , m e d d l i n g a n d d i c t a t i n g i n matters far b e y o n d his grasp, a n d bent o n c r u s h i n g a l l w h o f a i l e d t o p l y h i m deference. Yet in j u s t i c e these faults m u s t b e i m p u t e d less t o B u c k i n g h a m t h a n to t h e k i n g , w h o forgot a l l sense a n d d e c o r u m i n h i s i n f a t u a t i o n . " Y o u m a y be sure," h e s a i d about t h i s t i m e t o t h e p r i v y c o u n c i l , " that I love t h e E a r l o f B u c k i n g h a m m o r e t h a n a n y one else and more than y o u w h o are here assembled. Jesus C h r i s t d i d t h e same, a n d therefore I w i s h to speak i n m y o w n behalf, a n d n o t t o h a v e i t t h o u g h t t o b e a defect, f o r I c a n n o t be b l a m e d . Christ h a d his John, a n d I have m y George." I n t h e y e a r 1616 t h e contest b e t w e e n t h e courts o f c o m m o n l a w o n t h e one side a n d t h e c h a n c e r y a n d t h e ecclesiastical courts o n the o t h e r c a m e t o a h e i g h t . It merged i n a more

^ T h e reader desirous o f further information m a y consult S. R . Gardiner, History of England^ c h . xx., and the authorities cited therein; Spedding, Letters and Life of Bacon, v o l . v . ; a n d A m o s , Great Oyer of Poisonings a work w h i c h Qardiner declares to be " o f no. critical value "

1616

THE

DISGRACE

OF

CHIEF

JUSTICE

COKE.

75 CHAP.

s i g n i f i c a n t contest between t h e k i n g a n d the l o r d c h i e f justice. T h e r e a l issue b e t w e e n the parties w a s w h e t h e r j u s t i c e s h o u l d be a d m i n i s t e r e d a c c o r d i n g to strict l e g a l rules or as r e a s o n o f state m i g h t require. England. Coke A n d t h i s i n v o l v e d a further issue, w h e t h e r t h e h a d the courage to m a i n t a i n almost alone l a w or t h e w i l l o f the k i n g was i n t h e last resort s u p r e m e i n t h e u n c o u r t l y s i d e i n t h i s great c o n t r o v e r s y . E v e n h i s super-

stitious r e v e r e n c e for the c o m m o n l a w s e r v e d h i m w e l l a t a t i m e w h e n r e s i s t a n c e to t h e r o y a l pleasure c o u l d be b a s e d o n tradition only, not on principle. perverse m i n d l e d h i m to t a k e B u t i t is m o s t t r u e t h a t C o k e ' s weak g r o u n d s as r e a d i l y s e e m i n g affront as to

strong, w h i l s t h i s v a n i t y c o n s t r u e d e v e r y h i m s e l f as a n o u t r a g e o n l a w a n d r i g h t .

H e c a m e i n t o d i r e c t conflict w i t h t h e k i n g w h e n t w o persons n a m e d C o l t a n d G l o v e r brought an action against B i s h o p N e i l e , w h o h a d received from the crown, to be h e l d l i v i n g of w h i c h they claimed the patronage. the judges. him.
nt cowtwzzfid&TH)

T h e matter was

r e f e r r e d t o t h e e x c h e q u e r c h a m b e r t o b e a r g u e d t h e r e before a l l T h e k i n g sent w o r d t o t h e c h i e f j u s t i c e a n d h i s b r e t h r e n n o t t o g i v e j u d g m e n t before t h e y h a d c o n f e r r e d w i t h T h e j u d g e s p r o c e e d e d t o h e a r t h e case n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g , a n d r e p l i e d to t h e k i n g t h a t t h e case t u r n e d o n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f c e r t a i n acts o f p a r l i a m e n t , t h a t t h e y w e r e s w o r n t o d o s p e e d y justice, a n d t h a t h i s letter was c o n t r a r y t o t h e l a w . t o a n s w e r f o r t h e i r letter. was given. Some t i m e a f t e r w a r d s t h e y were s u m m o n e d before t h e k i n g i n c o u n c i l J a m e s u r g e d t h a t i n t h i s case h e w a s r e a l l y a p a r t y a n d s h o u l d therefore be h e a r d before j u d g m e n t T h e j u d g e s fell u p o n t h e i r knees a n d a c k n o w l e d g e d The t h e i r e r r o r , a l t h o u g h C o k e s t i l l a r g u e d m h i s o w n defence.

j u d g e s w e r e a s k e d w h e t h e r , i f t h e k i n g h e l d a case d e p e n d i n g before t h e m t o c o n c e r n h i m i n p o w e r o r profit, a n d r e q u i r e d t h e m to stay the proceedings until t h e y h a d consulted with h i m , t h e y w o u l d n o t obey. A l l the other judges promised c o m fitting for a j u d g e to d o . The p l i a n c e , b u t C o k e g a v e the m a n l y a n s w e r that, w h e n t h e case arose, h e w o u l d d o w h a t was k i n g , therefore, t h o u g h t i t necessary a few d a y s later t o w a r n t h e j u d g e s p u b l i c l y i n the S t a r C h a m b e r against m e d d l i n g w i t h anything w h i c h touched the prerogative until they h a d sulted w i t h h i m or the council. tive of the crown,
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tongue o f a l a w y e r , n o r is i t l a w f u l to be d i s p u t e d .

I t is a t h e i s m

and blasphemy t o dispute what G o d can d o ; good Christians content t h e m s e l v e s w i t h H i s w i l l r e v e a l e d i n H i s Vi/ord j so i t is p r e s u m p t i o n a n d h i g h c o n t e m p t i n a subject t o d i s p u t e w h a t a k i n g c a n do, or s a y t h a t a k i n g cannot d o t h i s o r that, b u t rest i n that w h i c h is t h e k i n g ' s w o r d r e v e a l e d i n h i s l a w . " T h e other j u d g e s m i g h t pass w i t h a r e b u k e , b u t the k i n g could not p a r d o n Coke's stubbornness. H e was suspended f r o m service i n t h e p r i v y c o u n c i l a n d f r o m g o i n g c i r c u i t , a n d w i t h h u m o r o u s m a l i c e was r e c o m m e n d e d t o e m p l o y h i s leisure in correcting his reports. Since C o k e was inordinately v a i n of f i v e t r i v i a l errors. the later his r e a l l y p r o f o u n d l e a r n i n g , w e n e e d n o t b e s u r p r i s e d t h a t after three m o n t h s ' t o i l h e h a d o n l y d i s c o v e r e d N o v e m b e r , 1616. Stuarts. T h e precedent was A s he r e m a i n e d i m p e n i t e n t h e was d i s m i s s e d f r o m h i s office i n followed b y I t was for the j u d g e s t o declare t h e l a w a n d for t h e I t is n o t strange t h a t t h e b a r s u p p l i e d

k i n g t o d e p r i v e t h e m o f t h e i r office i f t h e y d e c l a r e d i t t o be other t h a n he d e s i r e d . zealous leaders. T h e chancellor, E l l e s m e r e , f e e l i n g h i s d e c a y , h a d r e p e a t e d l y a s k e d p e r m i s s i o n t o resign, w h i c h h a d b e e n fused. At length, obliged b y sickness as constantly rehe to keep his bed, A the o p p o s i t i o n to t h e c r o w n w i t h m a n y o f i t s a b l e s t a n d m o s t

refused t o set t h e g r e a t seal t o a n y m o r e p a t e n t s , a n d thus, t h o u g h a l l too late, e x t o r t e d h i s f r e e d o m . wards he died. the strongest c l a i m t o succeed keeper o n M a r c h 7, 1617. h a d gained his goodwill. ceeded B a c o n as attorney. few d a y s afterappointed lord B a c o n , w h o s e talents a n d s e r v i c e s g a v e h i m Ellesmere, was H e d i d n o t o w e h i s place t o V i l l i e r s , T h e s o l i c i t o r - g e n e r a l , Y e l v e r t o n , sucB u c k i n g h a m , w h o h a d been offered

but he h a d foreseen betimes h o w h i g h V i l l i e r s w o u l d m o u n t a n d

10,000 b y a n o t h e r c a n d i d a t e for t h e place, at first o p p o s e d Y e l v e r t o n , but d r e w b a c k before a f o r m i d a b l e resistance i n t h e council, n o t y e t t h o r o u g h l y b r o k e n t o h i s w i l l , accepted from Y e l v e r t o n a d i s c l a i m e r o f a n y ill-feeling, a n d h i m s e l f c a r r i e d t o the k i n g for s i g n a t u r e t h e w a r r a n t for Y e l v e r t o n ' s p r o m o t i o n . Yelverton, however, thought it well to wait u p o n the k i n g soon after a n d m a d e h i m a p r e s e n t o f ;4ooo w h i c h t h e k i n g t o o k w i t h effusive g r a t i t u d e . became solicitor-general. T h o m a s Coventry, recorder of L o n d o n ,

161S

BACON

MADE

CHANCELLOR.

77

The

new

lord

keeper,

while

g i v i n g the

favourite

much

C H A P ,

e x c e l l e n t counsel, t o o k care t o c o m p l y w i t h a l l h i s h u m o u r s , save i n one i n s t a n c e , w o r t h y t o be r e c o r d e d as a n i l l u s t r a t i o n o f t h e manners o f that time. C o k e , whose f o r t i t u d e was n o t enough t o u p h o l d h i m i n disgrace, presently s o u g h t t o c l i m b b a c k i n t o f a v o u r a n d k n e w t h a t for t h i s p u r p o s e B u c k i n g h a m ' s g o o d w o r d was a l l - i m p o r t a n t . B u c k i n g h a m h a d to p r o v i d e for m a n y p o o r C o k e agreed relations, a m o n g t h e m for h i s elder brother, S i r J o h n V i l l i e r s , a c r e a t u r e as abject i n m i n d a n d p e r s o n as estate. p o r t i o n o f 10,000. father's c u s t o d y . t o g i v e h i s d a u g h t e r F r a n c e s to S i r J o h n V i l l i e r s a n d a d d a B u t h i s wife, a l a d y o f t h e h i g h e s t temper, w o u l d b y n o m e a n s consent, a n d t o o k t h e d a u g h t e r out o f h e r W i t h the help of B u c k i n g h a m ' s mother C o k e g o t a secretary's w a r r a n t to recover F r a n c e s , b r o k e h i s w a y i n t o t h e h o u s e w h e r e she h a d been p l a c e d , a n d c a r r i e d h e r off i n a s u m m a r y and brutal fashion. ruling favourite, B a c o n h a d seen w i t h n a t u r a l alarm the approaching alliance between h i s o l d e n e m y a n d the f i e h a d w r i t t e n to B u c k i n g h a m , t h e n a t t e n d BuckingBoth i n g on the k i n g i n a v i s i t to S c o t l a n d , a n d to the k i n g h i m s e l f e n f o r c i n g h i s o b j e c t i o n s t o the p r o p o s e d m a r r i a g e . h a m w a s n o t l i k e l y t o w e i g h p o l i t i c a l a r g u m e n t s i n such a case, n o r J a m e s t o a l l o w resistance t o B u c k i n g h a m ' s pleasure. ensured submission. assiduity the highest Buckingham. henceforwards J a n u a r y , 1618, m a s t e r a n d s e r v a n t w r o t e to t h e l o r d k e e p e r i n t e r m s w h i c h O n their return to L o n d o n , poor Frances B y deference a n d t h e greatest o f friendship o f In of E n g l i s h magistrates, sharp lesson was was m a r r i e d t o h e r c o n t e m p t i b l e h u s b a n d .

l i v i n g E n g l i s h m e n , regained the condescending B u t one his complaisance

h a d been enough, a n d without reproach.

h e was r a i s e d t o the d i g n i t y o f l o r d c h a n c e l l o r ,

a n d s o m e t i m e afterwards h e b e c a m e B a r o n V e r u l a m a n d V i s count S t . A l b a n s . I n f o r e i g n affairs J a m e s w a s s t i l l m o v i n g t o w a r d s a n a l l i a n c e with Spain. S o o n after t h e d e a t h o f H e n r y , P r i n c e o f W a l e s , U n d e r t h e influence o f h i s late d i s a p treating 1614 B u t the negoSarmiento, J a m e s t h o u g h t i t w e l l t o seek a w i f e for h i s s e c o n d s o n C h a r l e s , the heir to the crown. p o i n t m e n t w i t h S p a i n , h e t u r n e d to F r a n c e a n d b e g a n for the h a n d o f C h r i s t i n a , sister o f L o u i s X I I I . t i a t i o n m a d e so l i t t l e progress t h a t i n t h e h e once more thought of a Spanish marriage.

summer of

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1614

CHAP,
n i

w h o u n d e r s t o o d h i m better t h a n other S p a n i a r d s , a d v i s e d P h i l i p no longer to require t h a t t h e E n g l i s h p r i n c e s h o u l d become a c a t h o l i c before m a r r y i n g t h e i n f a n t a . Pope Paul V . , when c o n s u l t e d , was s t i l l a g a i n s t the m a r r i a g e , b u t a j u n t a o f S p a n i s h theologians, d e l i b e r a t i n g w i t h o u t k n o w l e d g e o f t h i s fact, r e s o l v e d that t h e course a d v i s e d b y S a r m i e n t o w o u l d be e x p e d i e n t i f i t h a d the pope's a p p r o v a l . begun between B e f o r e t h e close o f 1614, and with had The and the F r e n c h t r e a t y s t i l l p e n d i n g , a n i n f o r m a l n e g o t i a t i o n England and Spain. Church of Rome M e a n t i m e t h e affair o f C l e v e s h a d t a k e n a n e w t u r n . C o u n t of N e u b u r g , h a v i n g j o i n e d t h e

m a r r i e d a c a t h o l i c wife, sought for S p a n i s h h e l p i n t a k i n g possession o f the duchies, w h i l e h i s r i v a l o f B r a n d e n b u r g appealed to the D u t c h r e p u b l i c . T h e Marquis Spinola, commander-inc h i e f o f the S p a n i s h forces i n t h e N e t h e r l a n d s , c a m e to assist the count, a n d M a u r i c e , P r i n c e o f O r a n g e , t o assist his r i v a l , a n d i n t h e s p r i n g o f 1614 the duchies were m o s t l y occupied A s t h i s state o f t h i n g s about the treaty of either b y S p a n i s h o r b y D u t c h troops. interposed and

m e n a c e d the quiet o f E u r o p e , J a m e s a n d t h e R e g e n t o f F r a n c e i n N o v e m b e r ^ brought X a n t e n , b y w h i c h the two claimants made a temporary t i t i o n of the duchies. a n d D u t c h forces. East 1615, par-

B u t the m e d i a t o r s f o u n d it i m p o s s i b l e to Quarrels over the whale fishery a n d the In May, the the

arrange for a general e v a c u a t i o n o f t h e t e r r i t o r y b y t h e S p a n i s h I n d i a t r a d e h e l p e d to i r r i t a t e J a m e s agains t t h e D u t c h he r e c e i v e d t h e S p a n i s h draft o f a m a r r i a g e treaty, c o n d e m a n d that

a n d therefore t o r e v i v e h i s g o o d w i l l t o w a r d s S p a i n . t a i n i n g a m o n g o t h e r distasteful t h i n g s t h e and, when they came o f age,

c h i l d r e n o f the m a r r i a g e s h o u l d be b r o u g h t u p b y t h e i r m o t h e r , s h o u l d be free t o profess R o m a n catholic r e l i g i o n . ^ T h i s m i g h t h a v e g i v e n h i m pause. B u t the F r e n c h w e r e less i n c l i n e d t h a n e v e r t o a c c e p t h i s t e r m s . James, therefore, c o n t i n u e d to negotiate f o i a S p a n i s h princess, a n d i n 1616 b r o k e off t h e F r e n c h t r e a t y altogether. cautionary for I n the same y e a r t h e k i n g c a m e t o a n a g r e e m e n t w i t h t h e D u t c h for the s u r r e n d e r o f w h a t w e r e k n o w n as t h e townsthe B r i l l , F l u s h i n g , a n d R a m m e k e n s , w h i c h i n the infancy of-their r e p u b l i c t h e y h a d p l e d g e d t o E l i z a b e t h as s e c u r i t y moneys a d v a n c e d i n t h e struggle against S p a i n . England had

the r i g h t to g a r r i s o n these t o w n s a n d t h e d u t y o f m a i n t a i n i n g

1616

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both garrisons a n d fortifications. S p a i n i n 1609,

A f t e r m a k i n g a truce w i t h

CHAP. ^*

U n i t e d Provinces h a d undertaken to repay B u t they were

t h e E n g l i s h a d v a n c e s a t t h e rate o f 40,000 a y e a r , a n d i n 1616 t h e a m o u n t s t i l l o w i n g w a s 600,000. i m p a t i e n t t o r e g a i n possession o f t o w n s necessary t o t h e i r s a f e t y and freedom, while a round sum of m o n e y was always able t o K i n g J a m e s . acceptI t w a s a g r e e d i n A p r i l , 1616, t h a t t h e

D u t c h g o v e r n m e n t s h o u l d p a y at o n c e 215,000 i n f u l l d i s c h a r g e of their debt, a n d that the E n g l i s h government should surrender the cautionary towns. A s t h e g a r r i s o n s cost 26,000 a y e a r , Moreover, i f w a r a n d J a m e s w o u l d h a v e h a d t o w a i t fifteen y e a r s before t h e d e b t was d i s c h a r g e d , t h i s was n o b a d b a r g a i n . between t h e D u t c h a n d t h e S p a n i a r d s h a d b e e n r e n e w e d , as i t was r e n e w e d i n 1621, h e w o u l d h a v e b e e n b o u n d to m a i n t a i n the garrisons indefinitely while the instalments would have been suspended. I t w a s s a i d at t h e t i m e t h a t t h e c a u t i o n a r y t o w n s But it were v a l u a b l e f o r p o l i t i c a l a n d c o m m e r c i a l reasons.

w o u l d h a v e been base t o k e e p as o u r o w n t o w n s m e r e l y p l e d g e d for a debt, a n d f o o l i s h t o m a k e t h e D u t c h enemies o f E n g l a n d . X h e t r e a t y for t h e s u r r e n d e r o f t h e c a u t i o n a r y t o w n s w a s o n e o f t h e b e s t acts o f J a m e s I. T h e d u l l course o f forgotten d i p l o m a c y w a s s u d d e n l y v a r i e d b y events w h i c h s t i l l are fresh i n t h e m e m o r y o f m e n j R a l e i g h ' s expedition to Guiana a n d his execution. A t the court of James a S p a n i s h a n d a n a n t i - S p a n i s h f a c t i o n w e r e a l w a y s at strife, a n d , a l t h o u g h J a m e s u s u a l l y i n c l i n e d t o t h e first, t h e s e c o n d sometimes gained a momentary advantage. this t i m e c o u l d c o u n t o n t h e h e l p o f V i l l i e r s . A b b o t , the archI n t h e hope o f Raleigh h a d b i s h o p , a n d W i n w o o d , t h e secretary, w e r e a n t i - S p a n i s h , a n d a t breaking off the friendship w i t h S p a i n , t h e y procured the release o f R a l e i g h f r o m t h e T o w e r i n M a r c h , 1616. r e p e a t e d l y sued f o r l i b e r t y a n d f o r leave to m a k e a v o y a g e t o G u i a n a , a c o u n t r y w h i c h , h e s a i d , h e h a d o c c u p i e d i n I595> a-fid w h i c h therefore b e l o n g e d t o the c r o w n o f E n g l a n d . t h a t h e h a d f o u n d there a w o n d e r f u l g o l d m i n e . the m i n e , a n d t h e contest a t court w a s r e n e w e d . James was always i n want o f money. A s a protestant k i n g r u l i n g o v e r a protestant people, h e c o u l d n o t acquiesce i n t h a t papal bull w h i c h h a d reserved the new w o r l d to the Spaniards and H e believed N o w that h e

w a s free h e d e s i r e d a r o y a l c o m m i s s i o n to take possession o f

So nf "
P

THE S
u e s e

RISE ^
u t

OF CARR
e w a s

AND fryfog
t

OF
o k n i

VILLIERS.
t a c l o s e

r6i6 friendship

P o r t u

with Spain.

X o g r a n t s u c h a c o m m i s s i o n as R a l e i g h d e s i r e d was F o r R a l e i g h ' s purpose was n o t m e r e l y by by

to invite a Spanish war.

at v a r i a n c e w i t h t h e S p a n i s h c l a i m t o t h e w h o l e o f A m e r i c a , a c l a i m b e y o n d S p a n i s h p o w e r t o enforce, a n d set at n o u g h t the V i r g i n i a n c o l o n y . Guiana, whether actually occupied S p a n i a r d s o r not, l a y adjacent t o v a l u a b l e S p a n i s h empire.

possessions,

a n d a n E n g l i s h c o l o n y there w o u l d b e a m e n a c e t o t h e S p a n i s h T h e S p a n i a r d s h a d a l w a y s d o n e t h e i r best t o destroy on the u n o c c u p i e d i s l a n d s of t h e ^Vest E n g l i s h settlements

I n d i e s , a n d h a d t r e a t e d as pirates E n g l i s h m e n w h o sought t o trade e v e n w i t h those n a t i v e s o f A m e r i c a w h o w e r e n o t r e a l l y subject t o the K i n g o f S p a i n . occupation of the country i n aware o f these facts a n d T h e y c e r t a i n l y w o u l d not be alleged well by natural 1595. Raleigh, who Spaniards was as withheld from d o i n g the like i n G u i a n a b y R a l e i g h ' s viewed the

enemies, w o u l d , doubtless, h o l d t h a t force m i g h t be r e p e l l e d w h i c h he t h o u g h t just, profitable, a n d g l o r i o u s .

force, a n d w o u l d be g l a d o f a n y f a i r o c c a s i o n to r e n e w a struggle S a r m i e n t o saw i n the g r a n t o f a c o m m i s s i o n to R a l e i g h a d e l i b e r a t e a t t a c k o n S p a i n , a n d protested a g a i n s t s u c h a n outrage offered to a f r i e n d l y state. A s J a m e s d i d n o t m e a n to b e g i n a w a r w i t h S p a i n , h i s o n l y h o n o u r a b l e course was t o refuse R a l e i g h h i s c o m m i s s i o n . But, to d i v i d e d i n his o w n m i n d a n d d r a g g e d t h i s w a y a n d t h a t b y t h e people a b o u t h i m , h e a u t h o r i s e d R a l e i g h i n g e n e r a l t e r m s make the v o y a g e t o places i n S o u t h A m e r i c a or i n h a b i t e d b y h e a t h e n o r savage people, t o d i s c o v e r m i g h t find, s a v i n g a fifth p a r t t o the c r o w n . and Spain by attacking be h a n g e d booty. elsewhere profitable

c o m m o d i t i e s , a n d g a v e t h e adventurers a right t o w h a t e v e r t h e y S a r m i e n t o insisted James assured that R a l e i g h ' s real p u r p o s e was t o m a k e e n m i t y between E n g l a n d S p a n i s h possessions. S a r m i e n t o that, i f R a l e i g h a c t e d thus, he w o u l d send h i m t o i n t h e great square o f M a d r i d a n d restore a l l t h e he H e went further and betrayed to Sarmiento what

h a d learnt f r o m R a l e i g h u n d e r p l e d g e o f secrecy, t h e s i t u a t i o n o f the supposed m i n e a n d the s t r e n g t h o f R a l e i g h ' s a r m a m e n t . T h u s at t h e same t i m e t h e k i n g g a v e R a l e i g h a c o m m i s s i o n t o do w h a t w o u l d a l m o s t c e r t a i n l y i n v o l v e he s h o u l d suffer d e a t h w i t h i n f a m y . fighting the Spaniards, and promised Sarmiento that, i f R a l e i g h fought the Spaniards,

1617

RALEIGH'S

EXPEDITION

TO

GUIANA.

81

I m p o v e r i s h e d as R a l e i g h was, h e lost m u c h t i m e i n p r e paration. O n J u n e 12, 1617, he sailed f r o m P l y m o u t h with South made fourteen s h i p s , c a r r y i n g 900 m e n . A m e r i c a u n t i l N o v e m b e r 11. Contrary winds delayed his

CHAP,
i n

v o y a g e so m u c h t h a t h e d i d n o t s i g h t t h e m a i n l a n d o f followers d i e d , a n d h e w a s l a i d prostrate b y fever. t h e m o u t h o f t h e C a y e n n e R i v e r t o the Isles o f H e a l t h . made his final dispositions. seek f o r . t h e m i n e . his son G e o r g e i n g ^00 sailors a n d soldiers were to ascend He

S i c k n e s s b r o k e out, m a n y o f h i s

t h e coast n e a r C a p e O r a n g e a n d thence s a i l e d n o r t h w a r d s past H e r e he F i v e o f t h e s m a l l e r vessels c a r r y the O r i n o c o a n d

A s h e was s t i l l d i s a b l e d , C a p t a i n K e y m i s , t h e soldiers. With the

h i s d e v o t e d f o l l o w e r , was p u t i n c h a r g e o f t h e e x p e d i t i o n , a n d Raleigh commanded larger s h i p s R a l e i g h sailed o n past t h e m o u t h o f t h e guard against the approach of a S p a n i s h fleet. Orinoco

a n d c a m e t o a n c h o r i n t h e G u l f o f P a r i a , w h e r e he c o u l d k e e p I n his former v o y a g e R a l e i g h h a d c o m e t o k n o w o f a S p a n i s h settlement o n t h e O r i n o c o c a l l e d S a n Thom6, situated a b o v e t h e place w h e r e t h e m i n e w a s supposed to be. T h i s settlement, h e afterwards B u t the way learnt, h a d b e e n d e s t r o y e d b y t h e I n d i a n s , a n d h e m i g h t i n f e r t h a t there w e r e n o S p a n i a r d s i n that n e i g h b o u r h o o d . S p a n i a r d s h a d since further down the founded a new San river. W h e n , therefore, Thome" s o m e

K e y m i s and his K e y m i s readily through.

m e n h a d c l e a r e d t h e delta, t h e y c a m e u p o n t h e n e w S a n T h o m d , b e l o w t h e i m a g i n e d site o f t h e v i s i o n a r y m i n e . c a m e t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t h e m u s t fight h i s w a y

A f t e r l a n d i n g h i s m e n a league f r o m t h e t o w n , he w a i t e d t i l l n i g h t w h e n h e o r d e r e d b o t h shi ps a n d soldiers t o a d v a n c e against San Thome\ The S p a n i a r d s were p r e p a r e d , b u t after a s h a r p odds a n d the E n g l i s h broke H e w a s shot d e a d i n t h e encounter t h e y y i e l d e d t o h e a v y

i n t o the t o w n , y o u n g R a l e i g h s h o u t i n g t o h i s m e n t h a t t h i s was t h e o n l y m i n e t h e y w o u l d ever f i n d . assault. T h e t o w n was b u r n t , b u t t h e S p a n i a r d s still resisted i n

the woods, a n d K e y m i s , without discovering a trace o f the mine, h a d t o retreat. R a l e i g h saw that his expedition h a d failed. bitterly that the himself.
V O L .

Overcome

by

sickness, s o r r o w , a n d d i s a p p o i n t m e n t , h e r e p r o a c h e d K e y m i s so poor m a n retired to his cabin a n d stabbed they R a l e i g h , i t is s a i d , p r o p o s e d to h i s officers t h a t

VII.

s h o u l d l i e i n w a i t for t h e M e x i c o fleet, a n a c t i o n w h i c h h e cer-

o2
C H A P ,

THE

RISE

OF

CARR

AND

OF

VILLIERS.

1618

t a i n l y w o u l d not h a v e scrupled. Newfoundland.

A s they were not disposed to

r u n the r i s k , h e m a d e first for S t . C h r i s t o p h e r ' s a n d thence for I n J u n e , 1618, he d r o p p e d h i s a n c h o r for the last t i m e i n P l y m o u t h S o u n d . N o sooner h a d t h e S p a n i s h g o v e r n m e n t l e a r n t o f t h e a t t a c k on San T h o m e than Sarmiento, w h o m we m a y henceforward c a l l b y h i s n e w t i t l e C o u n t o f G o n d o m a r , w a s i n s t r u c t e d to dem a n d satisfaction a n d t h e e x e m p l a r y p u n i s h m e n t o f t h e assailants. K n o w i n g t h e k i n g ' s weakness, G o n d o m a r took the most i m B u t t h o u g h J a m e s left to some the perious tone a n d r e q u i r e d h i m t o fulfil h i s p r o m i s e o f s e n d i n g R a l e i g h t o M a d r i d for e x e c u t i o n . himself might have yielded anything, R a l e i g h still had f r i e n d s i n t h e c o u n c i l , a n d m o s t o f t h e c o u n c i l l o r s rejected thought of such an extreme humiliation. u p to L o n d o n a n d l o d g e d i n t h e T o w e r .

R a l e i g h was carried O n A u g u s t 17 he was

b r o u g h t before a c o m m i t t e e o f t h e p r i v y c o u n c i l f o r e x a m i n a t i o n , a n d then r e m a n d e d t o g i v e t i m e f o r c o l l e c t i n g f u r t h e r evidence. T h e keeper o f t h e state papers, S i r T h o m a s W i l s o n , was set to p l a y the s p y a n d to d r a w f r o m R a l e i g h b y i n s i d i o u s questions matter w h i c h m i g h t h e l p towards h i s c o n d e m n a t i o n . m c o n d e m n i n g h i m t o death. pardoned, a n d Something found treason 1616 the was g a i n e d i n t h i s w a y , b u t a t e c h n i c a l d i f f i c u l t y was B y his conviction for given i n 1604 h e b e c a m e d e a d i n the eye o f t h e l a w . been the commission

H e h a d never

to h i m in

d i d not, it was h e l d , operate as a p a r d o n or restore his c i v i l existence. A s h e c o u l d not be a g a i n t r i e d o r sentenced, commissioners suggested t h a t R a l e i g h s h o u l d b e e x a m i n e d o n c e m o r e a n d a l l o w e d t o speak i n h i s defence, a n d t h a t he s h o u l d t h e n be e x e c u t e d u n d e r h i s o l d sentence as a t r a i t o r j a n d t h i s course w a s a d o p t e d b y t h e k i n g w i t h the p r e c a u t i o n o f h o l d i n g the e x a m i n a t i o n i n p r i v a t e . O n O c t o b e r 22, therefore, R a l e i g h was a g a i n b r o u g h t before t h e c o m m i s s i o n e r s , a n d o n the 23 r d he appeared before t h e c o u r t o f k i n g ' s b e n c h , w h i c h a w a r d e d execution. a survivor O n t h e f o l l o w i n g d a y h e was b e h e a d e d of the heroic age of E l i z a b e t h . So in Palace became the much had needful Y a r d , m e e t i n g h i s fate w i t h t h e h i g h c o u r a g e w h i c h

p o p u l a r f e e l i n g relented t o w a r d s h i m , a n d so s t r o n g was disapproval of the king's conduct, that i t was thought

to d r a w u p a d e c l a r a t i o n o f t h e proceedings against S i r W a l t e r R a l e i g h , i n w h i c h B a c o n seems t o h a v e h a d t h e largest share.

1617

THE

SPANISH

MA TCH

RESUMED.

83
c

T h e k i n g ' s t r e a t m e n t o f R a l e i g h a d m i t s of f o r m a l e x c u s e , but c a n n e v e r be j u s t i f i e d t o p l a i n m e n . That Raleigh, with all h i s g e n i u s a n d v a l o u r , w a s a n u n s c r u p u l o u s a d v e n t u r e r is t r u e . N o n e t h e less i t was i g n o b l e to g i v e h i m a c o m m i s s i o n w i t h out g r a n t i n g h i m a p a r d o n ; it was a b s u r d a n d c r u e l to s e n d h i m o n an expedition w h i c h must almost necessarily end i n his doi n g what the k i n g had undertaken to punish w i t h death; and it w a s p a l t r y to e x e c u t e h i m u n d e r a stale sentence fourteen y e a r s old.
1

**^ p

J a m e s w a s one o f those s i n g u l a r persons w h o , a l t h o u g h

n o t w i c k e d , d o t h i n g s o f w h i c h t h e w i c k e d w o u l d be a s h a m e d . B u t t h e p i c t u r e o f the k i n g ' s f o l l y w o u l d be i m p e r f e c t w i t h o u t a d d i n g that, at t h e m o m e n t w h e n h e sent R a l e i g h o n h i s last v o y a g e , h e was p u s h i n g f o r w a r d t h e named suggest t h e means of trying Spanish S p a n i s h marriage. sincerity. The He and coma c o m m i s s i o n t o report o n t h e S p a n i s h overtures

missioners a f f i r m e d w i t h n o great w a r m t h that there w a s as m u c h assurance o f success as i n s u c h a case c o u l d be h a d . James then sent D i g b y b a c k t o M a d r i d t o treat o n the basis o f the S p a n i s h offers, b u t reserved the future c o n d i t i o n o f the E n g l i s h catholics for h i m s e l f t o determine. D i g b y was to stand out for a portion weakened colourless o f at least 500,000 w i t h the i n f a n t a . T h e d e a t h o f S e c r e t a r y W i n w o o d i n O c t o b e r , 1617, the anti-Spanish party. H e was succeeded by a official, S i r R o b e r t N a u n t o n .

D i g b y f o u n d n o t r o u b l e i n nego-

t i a t i n g t h e articles o f m e r e l y secular i m p o r t , b u t o n the r e l i g i o u s question K i n g P h i l i p w o u l d do n o t h i n g without the approval of the theologians w h o w e r e i n f l e x i b l e i n d e m a n d i n g t e r m s h i g h for K i n g James. T h u s i n t h e s u m m e r o f 1618 too the m a r -

riage t r e a t y ca m e t o a stand, a n d w o u l d h a r d l y h a v e been res u m e d h a d n o t t h e outbreak o f the T h i r t y Y e a r s ' W a r g i v e n the Spanish k i n g and his ministers a new motive for cajoling James and paralysing England. B u c k i n g h a m h a d veered r o u n d t o t h e and had supported G o n d o S p a n i s h p a r t y i n the course o f 1617

mar's d e m a n d f o r vengeance o n R a l e i g h , thus d i s a p p o i n t i n g , as the q u e e n h a d f o r e t o l d , the p o l i t i c i a n s w h o h a d i n t r o d u c e d h i m

See Spedding, Letters and Life of Bacon, v o l . v i . , for a n unqualified defence o f the king's action towards R a l e i g h . Raleigh's biographers, a m o n g
1

w h o m E d w a r d s , Stebbing a n d H u m e m a y be especially named, have usually taken the part o f their hero. See also Camden Societys Miscellany, vol. v., Documents R e l a t i n g to Sir W a l t e r Raleigh's L a s t V o y a g e .

6 *

84 CHAP,

THE

RISE

OF

CARR

AND

OF

VILLIERS.

IDlO

to court, b u t e n s u r i n g h i s h o l d o n the k i n g ' s favour. 1618, h e was raised t o t h e r a n k o f m a r q u i s .

I n January,

S t i l l h i s power fell

short o f h i s a m b i t i o n so l o n g as t h e H o w a r d s a n d t h e i r dependants h e l d so m a n y great offices a n d k e p t a share o f the r o y a l confidence. T h e E a r l o f N o r t h a m p t o n , the l o r d p r i v y seal, h a d B u t i n t h e same y e a r t h e E a r l o f Suffolk d i e d i n 16141 before t h e disgrace o f Somerset, i n w h i c h his o w n fame was tainted. admiral. client. enabled reformer. B u c k i n g h a m ' s first attack w a s p o i n t e d against the treasurer. L a d y S u f f o l k , w h o h a d l o n g been a t a k e r o f bribes, was form a l l y accused i n J u l y , 1618 ; her h u s b a n d was n e x t denounced ; he lost h i s office a n d t h e treasury was p u t i n t o c o m m i s s i o n . I n the f o l l o w i n g y e a r Suffolk a n d h i s countess were prosecuted i n the S t a r C h a m b e r a n d sentenced to h e a v y fines a n d i m p r i s o n ment at t h e k i n g s pleasure. his patron's fall. A l t h o u g h t h e p e n a l t y was r e m i t t e d , S i r T h o m a s L a k e shared Suffolk was d r i v e n f r o m p u b l i c life. h a d become l o r d treasurer. T h e E a r l o f N o t t i n g h a m was s t i l l L a k e , was their a

O n e o f t h e secretaries, S i r T h o m a s B u c k i n g h a m i n displacing them

T h e y m i g h t h a v e h e l d their g r o u n d b u t f o r faults w h i c h to g a i n credit as

H e h a d been d r a w n b y L a d y L a k e i n t o a disH i s succesAbout the

creditable quarrel w i t h t h e i r son-in-law, L o r d R o o s , w h i c h b r o u g h t t h e m under the correction o f the S t a r C h a m b e r . trusted n o t to w i t h s t a n d the e v e r - r i s i n g favourite. f r o m h i s office as master o f the court o f w a r d s . T h e r e r e m a i n e d the a d m i r a l , the E a r l o f N o t t i n g h a m , w h o t h i r t y years before h a d v a n q u i s h e d t h e A r m a d a . lation h a d Mansell. flourished In 1603 under h i m . Although a m a n o f h o n o u r , h e w a s o l d a n d careless, a n d j o b b e r y a n d pecuH e h a d chosen for treasurer the o f the n a v y the m o s t dishonest a n d shameless o f m e n , S i r R o b e r t a r o y a l commission h a d reported on abuses i n the n a v y , b u t w i t h o u t a n y result j a n d i n 1613 for a new i n q u i r y h a d been b a l k e d . B u t i n 1618 purpose. orders sor, S i r G e o r g e C a l v e r t , a respectable m a n o f business, m i g h t be same t i m e , Suffolk's son-in-law, L o r d W a l l i n g f o r d , was dismissed

Buckingham

carried t h e a p p o i n t m e n t o f a n e w c o m m i s s i o n w h i c h sat to some T h e c o m m i s s i o n e r s f o u n d that M a n s e l l h a d k e p t no moneys proper accounts ] t h a t places h a d been s o l d i n the m o s t i m p u dent m a n n e r ; t h a t t h e seamen h a d been defrauded o f d u e to t h e m ; t h a t charges were a n n u a l l y m a d e f o r the repair o f

l6i8

ADMINISTRATIVE

REFORMS.

5
CHAP,

s h i p s w h i c h h a d d i s a p p e a r e d f r o m t h e n a v y ; t h a t other ships w e r e r e p a i r e d i n s u c h a s l o w a n d careless f a s h i o n t h a t d e c a y h a d b e g u n a g a i n b e f o r e the r e p a i r was over, a n d t h a t m a n y o f t h e ships, f a r f r o m b e i n g fit f o r service, w e r e r e a d y t o s i n k i n h a r bour. 1619. A f t e r this report N o t t i n g h a m could not r e m a i n admiral. A s h e r e a l l y w i s h e d t h e n a v y t o be effective, a l t h o u g h h e It built two new H e r e s i g n e d a n d h i s place w a s t a k e n b y B u c k i n g h a m i n J a n u a r y , was n o t p r e p a r e d t o d r u d g e w i t h t h a t purpose, h e h a d t h e c o m m i s s i o n r e a p p o i n t e d as a p e r m a n e n t b o a r d . ships e v e r y year, r e p a i r e d o l d ones, a n d b y 1623 h a d r a i s e d t h e n u m b e r o f vessels fit f o r service f r o m t w e n t y - t h r e e t o forty-five. A t the s a m e t i m e the a n n u a l c h a r g e o f t h e n a v y fell f r o m t o ^30,000. $$)0OO Y e t i n v e t e r a t e abuses w e r e n o t a l t o g e t h e r u p r o o t e d ,

a n d a few y e a r s l a t e r t h e n a v y i l l - e n d u r e d t h e test o f a w a r against S p a i n . I n t h e g e n e r a l d i s p l a c e m e n t caused b y the d o w n f a l l o f t h e H o w a r d s a n e w m a n rose t o d i s t i n c t i o n . L i o n e l Cranfield h a d b e g u n l i f e as a n apprentice t o a m e r c h a n t a d v e n t u r e r , h a d m a r ried his daughter a n d had become a merchant o n his o w n account. L o r d N o r t h a m p t o n , s t r u c k w i t h h i s a b i l i t y , i n t r o d u c e d h i m to t h e k i n g , a n d i n 1615 he was appointed surveyor-general o f customs. deK e e n , e x a c t , l a b o r i o u s , C r a n f i e l d w a s a d m i r a b l y s u i t e d to sit o n c o m m i s s i o n s o f i n q u i r y , t o t r a c k abuses, a n d t o reorganise partments. k i n g ^23,000 a y e a r . B y a r i g o r o u s s c r u t i n y o f the h o u s e h o l d h e s a v e d t h e Succeeding one o f the king's favourites

as m a s t e r o f the w a r d r o b e , h e m a d e large economies there also. H e served o n t h e n a v a l c o m m i s s i o n a n d o n the n a v a l b o a r d . W h i l e the king's expenditure was m u c h reduced b y the rewas forms m a d e o n B u c k i n g h a m ' s m o t i o n , t h e k i n g ' s revenue sequence o f t h e g r o w i n g p r o s p e r i t y o f E n g l a n d . balance they of revenue to and expenditure; on a At

swelled b y a r e m a r k a b l e increase i n t h e c u s t o m s revenue, a c o n Michael1618, and mas, i6i7> t h e c o m m i s s i o n e r s o f t h e t r e a s u r y h a d h o p e d f o r a at M i c h a e l m a s , F o r the first ventured reckon surplus.

last t i m e o f h i s l i f e J a m e s was i n d e p e n d e n t

B u t the T h i r t y

Y e a r s ' W a r w a s s o o n to d r a w t h e k i n g i n t o n e w outlay, a n d h i s r e i g n c l o s e d as i t h a d b e g u n i n financial e m b a r r a s s m e n t . S i n c e t h e U l s t e r p l a n t a t i o n I r e l a n d h a d r e m a i n e d quiet. But t h e c a t h o l i c l a n d o w n e r s w e r e h a u n t e d b y the fear o f f u r t h e r c o n fiscation, a n d a l l catholics k n e w h o w precarious was t h e t o l e r a -

86 CHAP,

THE

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AND

OF

VILLIERS,

1611

tion w h i c h they actually enjoyed. 1611

T h e government resolved i n

t o c a l l t h e first p a r l i a m e n t o f t h e r e i g n , b u t o n l y w i t h a I t p r o p o s e d to b r i n g i n a b i l l

v i e w to c o n f i r m w h a t h a d been d o n e i n U l s t e r a n d t o harass i n new ways the catholic religion. b a n i s h i n g the c a t h o l i c priests a n d i n f l i c t i n g t h e p e n a l t y o f t r e a son o n those w h o returned, besides p u n i s h i n g severely t h e l a y m e n w h o received priests i n t o t h e i r houses. and T h e county members, protestants it was reckoned, w o u l d be e q u a l l y d i v i d e d between j o r i t y o f catholics.

catholics, a n d the ancient b o r o u g h s w o u l d r e t u r n a m a I n o r d e r t o t u r n the b a l a n c e i n f a v o u r o f

the c r o w n i t was d e t e r m i n e d t o m a k e t h i r t y - s i x n e w b o r o u g h s , w i t h e x c l u s i v e l y protestant c o r p o r a t i o n s , w h i c h w o u l d be sure t o return supporters o f t h e g o v e r n m e n t . of D u b l i n . I n fact, t h i r t y - n i n e n e w boroughs were created a n d m e m b e r s w e r e g i v e n to t h e U n i v e r s i t y S o m e o f these b o r o u g h s were c r e a t e d after t h e issue of the w r i t s , a n d , a c c o r d i n g to t h e c a t h o l i c s , t h e elections w e r e often u n f a i r l y h e l d . C e r t a i n l o r d s o f the P a l e g a v e the first s i g n a l o f resistance b y a p e t i t i o n against t h e new b o r o u g h s . met i n M a y , 1613? W h e n the parliament In t h e c a t h o l i c l o r d s r e n e w e d t h i s protest.

the house o f c o m m o n s the c a t h o l i c m i n o r i t y rejected t h e l o r d deputy's n o m i n e e as speaker, t r i e d t o c a r r y a c a n d i d a t e o f t h e i r own a n d at l e n g t h seceded. T h e n t h e c a t h o l i c s i n b o t h houses j o i n e d i n a s k i n g leave t o send a d e p u t a t i o n t o l a y t h e i r g r i e v a n c e s before t h e k i n g . and L e a v e w a s at l e n g t h g r a n t e d a n d t h e p a r l i a I n J u l y , James received the deputation to The commissioners reported The a m e n t was p r o r o g u e d .

resolved t o send four c o m m i s s i o n e r s o v e r t o I r e l a n d

e x a m i n e i n t o t h e i r grievances. o n l y concession borough finally

against t h e c a t h o l i c s o n m o s t p o i n t s , a l t h o u g h n o t o n a l l . h a d been created since t h e issue of

m a d e b y the k i n g w a s t h a t , w h e r e

the writs, the A t the same marriages

m e m b e r s s h o u l d n o t sit i n the current p a r l i a m e n t .

t i m e he o r d e r e d C h i c h e s t e r t o enforce the l a w s a g a i n s t recusants, b u i l d citadels i n C o r k a n d W a t e r f o r d , a n d f o r b i d between t h e settlers a n d t h e natives i n U l s t e r . priests. Y e t s o o n after-

wards he directed the w i t h d r a w a l of the b i l l against catholic T h e second session o f t h e I r i s h p a r l i a m e n t w h i c h b e g a n 11, 1614, proved v e i y calm, for Chichester, who on O c t o b e r

meant t o d e m a n d a s u b s i d y , d i d n o t h i n g t o p r o v o k e t h e c a t h olics, a n d the c a t h o l i c s w e r e g l a d t o be let alone. In a third

I6I8

IRELAND

AND

SCOTLAND.

87 1 JJ^^"

session, t h e f o l l o w i n g year, t h e same peaceable temper p r e v a i l e d . T h e g o v e r n m e n t accepted a n act to r e m o v e a l l legal d i s t i n c t i o n s between t h e different races i n h a b i t i n g the k i n g d o m a n d a n o t h e r act r e m o v i n g a p r o h i b i t i o n o n the i n t e r m a r r i a g e o f I r i s h a n d S c o t s ; w h i l e the houses granted the k i n g a s u b s i d y . T h e parliament was dissolved, a n d i n N o v e m b e r Chichester was recalled after a m e m o r a b l e t e r m o f office w h i c h h a d lasted t e n years. I n S c o t l a n d J a m e s c o n t i n u e d to p u s h the K i r k further a n d further t o w a r d s c o n f o r m i t y w i t h t h e C h u r c h of E n g l a n d . i n d u c e d t h e p a r l i a m e n t o f 1612 s t o r a t i o n o f episcopacy. I n 1616 t o c o n f i r m b y statute t h e He re-

he caused a general a s s e m b l y

to be h e l d at A b e r d e e n , the least p r e s b y t e r i a n o f S c o t c h t o w n s , a n d s o m e w h a t difficult o f access to m i n i s t e r s f r o m t h e south w h e r e presbyterian feeling was most intense. The assembly gave orders f o r d r a w i n g u p a n e w confession o f f a i t h a n d a n e w f o r m o f p u b l i c service. B u t w h e n the k i n g p r o p o u n d e d t o t h e b i s h o p s L o r d s supper in five n e w a r t i c l e s f o r t h e r e c e p t i o n o f t h e c o m m u n i o n k n e e l i n g , for the administration of baptism and the p r i v a t e houses i n case o f necessity, f o r t h e observance o f c e r t a i n C h u r c h festivals, a n d for the c o n f i r m a t i o n o f c h i l d r e n A r c h b i s h o p S p o t t i s w o o d e w a r n e d h i m o f t h e p r o b a b l e resistance i n terms so strong that the articles w e r e not pressed on the assembly. I n t h e s u m m e r o f 10"\J J a m e s r e - v i s i t e d his n a t i v e k i n g d o m . in the G r e a t was t h e s c a n d a l w h e n a n o r g a n a r r i v e d f o r use a n d apostles w e r e set u p t h e r e ; s t i l l greater w h e n

c h a p e l o f H o l y r o o d , a n d w h e n c a r v e d figures o f t h e p a t r i a r c h s the k i n g A bill enexternal archbishops, before five caused t h e p r i v y c o u n c i l t o k n e e l at c o m m u n i o n a n d w h e n D r . L a u d , D e a n o f Gloucester, p r e a c h e d i n a surplice. a c t i n g t h a t w h a t e v e r the k i n g s h o u l d d e t e r m i n e i n t h e g o v e r n m e n t o f the C h u r c h , w i t h the a d v i c e o f t h e

bishops, a n d a c o m p e t e n t n u m b e r o f t h e clergy, s h o u l d h a v e t h e force o f l a w was b r o u g h t i n t o p a r l i a m e n t , b u t w i t h d r a w n p r o t e s t i n g were p u n i s h e d . James returned to E n g l a n d . Andrews in November articles, and their final assembly, h e l d at a protest o f t h e m o r e zealous m i n i s t e r s , a l t h o u g h some o f t h o s e A f t e r g i v i n g orders t h a t t h e articles s h o u l d be presented t o a n e w general a s s e m b l y , K i n g T h e a s s e m b l y w h i c h m e t at S t . five every until another s h o w e d a s t r o n g distaste for t h e a d o p t i o n was d e l a y e d 1618. Although

Perth in August,

8$

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VILLIERS.

1618

CHAP, means had been used to ensure a majority, it was only the votes ^* of the nobles and bishops which turned the scale in favour of the king. W i t h the adoption of the articles of Perth the crown seemed to have won a decisive victory over the Scotch clergy, but such victories are more dangerous than defeats. W h i l e clerical opposition had been silenced, often b y harsh or unfair means, the zealous presbyterian laity were not convinced, and James was only preparing that reaction which, under Charles, swept away with the bishops the authority of the crown. The king's return from Scotland was the occasion of a manifesto which gave new offence to the E n g l i s h puritans, the Declaration of Sports. T h e puritans differed widely from the mass of the people as to the proper observance of Sunday, H o l d i n g that Sunday was the equivalent of the Jewish Sabbath, they required strict abstention on that day from all worldly pleasure as well as all worldly business. X o the rest of the nation Sunday was still a medieval holiday, on which men, after divine worship, might practise any lawful recreation, such as archery, wrestling, or dancing. In Lancashire, where the Roman catholics were unusually numerous and the protestants were largely puritan, some of the magistrates were so active in suppressing Sunday sports that the populace grew impatient. W h e n the king was passing through the county, the favourers of Sunday recreation appealed to h i m and he decided in their favour. Then the lower class began to abuse their freedom by disturbing public worship. T h e king, after consulting with Morton, Bishop of Chester, stated his will more explicitly i n a declaration which authorised Sunday sports, but only for those who had first attended service in the parish church. Those who failed to attend, whether from conscientious scruples or from mere carelessness, were debarred from Sunday recreation. Some time afterwards James resolved to make this declaration a rule for the whole kingdom and ordered that it should be read from every pulpit. S o many clergymen, however, proved unwilling to obey that he withdrew his order.

CHAPTER
THE

IV.

OUTBREAK OF T H E THIRTY YEARS' WAR.

W^E h a v e n o w r e a c h e d the t i m e at w h i c h t h e E u r o p e a n peace C H A P , so e a r n e s t l y d e s i r e d b y J a m e s w a s shattered, a n d J a m e s h i m s e l f ' was d r a w n u n w i l l i n g l y i n t o the conflict. E m b a r r a s s m e n t s a b r o a d forced h i m t o c a l l n e w p a r l i a m e n t s a n d b r o u g h t a b o u t fresh c o n flicts b e t w e e n t h e c r o w n a n d the n a t i o n .
I V

I n W e s t e r n E u r o p e t h e b a t t l e o f t h e r e f o r m a t i o n h a d been fought o u t w i t h t h e result t h a t G r e a t B r i t a i n was protestant, F r a n c e w a s c a t h o l i c , a n d t h e N e t h e r l a n d s w e r e d i v i d e d bet w e e n t h e creeds. B u t i n C e n t r a l E u r o p e t h e decision h a d been p o s t p o n e d . T h e f a i l u r e o f C h a r l e s V , to assert h i s o w n p o w e r a n d t h e s u p r e m a c y o f the C a t h o l i c C h u r c h h a d been f o l l o w e d i n 1555 b y the t r e a t y o f A u g s b u r g , w h i c h left e v e r y r u l e r i n t h e e m p i r e free t o adhere t o w h i c h f a i t h he pleased a n d to enforce i t o n h i s subjects. I n the e m p i r e t h e protestants h a d once been the m o r e n u m e r o u s p a r t y , b u t t h e y t e n d e d u p o n t h e w h o l e t o lose g r o u n d . T h e catholics were a l l united i n o n e c o m m u n i o n , b u t t h e protestants were d i v i d e d between L u t h e r a n s a n d C a l v i n i s t s , w h o w e r e a l m o s t as b i t t e r against each other as against t h e c o m m o n foe. T h e house o f H a p s b u r g , a n d therefore the e m p e r o r s , s t i l l i n a sense t h e sovereigns o f G e r m a n y , r e m a i n e d c a t h o l i c . T h e e m p e r o r s c o u l d c o u n t o n the g o o d w i l l o f the k i n d r e d k i n g s o f S p a i n , w h o h e l d t h e first p l a c e i n E u r o p e as a m i l i t a r y power, a n d w h o s e possessions w i t h i n o r a d j o i n i n g t h e e m p i r e g a v e t h e m the means o f p r o m p t interference. Above a l l , the c a t h o l i c s o f the e m p i r e were p a r t o f one i m m e n s e b o d y , t h e R o m a n C h u r c h , t h o r o u g h l y o r g a n i s e d f o r attack a n d defence u n d e r a single chief, w h o c o u l d grasp t h e conflict as a w h o l e , a n d w h o possessed i n t h e Jesuits a n d other religious orders a d i s c i p l i n e d force e q u a l l y d e v o t e d a n d unscrupulous.
89

90 CHAP.

OUTBREAK

OF

THE

THIRTY

YEARS'

WAR.

1617

S i n c e the peace o f A u g s b u r g , a c c o r d i n g l y , w h a t is k n o w n as the counter-reformation h a d s t e a d i l y g a i n e d g r o u n d i n C e n tral Europe. I t b e c a m e clear t h a t t h e R o m a n C h u r c h w o u l d protestants soon be i n a p o s i t i o n to appeal t o a r m s , a n d the useful measures o f defence. tries the a n earnest

g r e w m o r e a n d m o r e uneasy, a l t h o u g h t h e i r feuds h i n d e r e d a n y T h e reigning emperor, Matthias, M a t t h i a s had no was also K i n g o f B o h e m i a a n d o f H u n g a r y , a n d i n these c o u n protestants were v e r y n u m e r o u s . c h i l d , a n d h i s h e i r w o u l d be h i s c o u s i n , F e r d i n a n d o f S t y r i a , catholic of that t y p e w h i c h h a d been moulded b y H i t h e r t o he h a d been c o n H o w far the c r o w n o f but the struggle against the r e f o r m a t i o n .

fined to a n a r r o w t e r r i t o r y , b u t h e h a d a l r e a d y s h o w n h i m s e l f t h e i m p l a c a b l e e n e m y o f protestantism. B o h e m i a was elective, h o w far h e r e d i t a r y , w a s d o u b t f u l ;

M a t t h i a s n a t u r a l l y espoused t h e d o c t r i n e t h a t i t was h e r e d i t a r y ; and, feeling that h i s e n d was near, he presented F e r d i n a n d t o the B o h e m i a n estates as their future k i n g , at t h e same t i m e a d d u c i n g evidence t h a t the c r o w n w a s not elective, unless o n failure of heirs. A l t h o u g h most o f t h e m e m b e r s w e r e protestants, t h e N o sooner h a d t h e y c o m m i t t e d t h i s f o l l y W h e t h e r t h e protestants w e r e diet accepted F e r d i n a n d a n d swore a l l e g i a n c e t o h i m as the successor o f M a t t h i a s . t h a n t h e y h a d reason t o repent.

entitled b y t h e c h a r t e r o f t o l e r a t i o n g r a n t e d i n 1609 to b u i l d churches o n the- estates o f b i s h o p s a n d r e l i g i o u s houses was a d isp u t e d p o i n t . claim. T h e c l e r g y t o o k heart t o resist t h e protestant T h e n t h e protestants M a t t h i a s , h i m s e l f a c a t h o l i c a n d u p h e l d b y t h e fiercer

zeal o f F e r d i n a n d , s u p p o r t e d t h e c l e r g y .

h e l d a n i n f o r m a l m e e t i n g o f t h e estates at P r a g u e , t h r e w t h e regents w h o acted for M a t t h i a s out o f a w i n d o w o f t h e castle, a p p o i n t e d t h i r t y directors to g o v e r n t h e c o u n t r y , o r d e r e d a l e v y o f troops, a n d b a n i s h e d the Jesuits. T h u s , after p u t t i n g t h e m selves g r o s s l y i n t h e w r o n g , t h e y e n t e r e d o n a conflict w i t h t h e w h o l e power o f t h e house o f A u s t r i a a n d t h e C h u r c h o f R o m e . T h e G e r m a n protestant p r i n c e s w e r e r e s t r a i n e d b y m u t u a l d i s c o r d a n d b y l o y a l t y to t h e e m p e r o r , t h e representative done. of the G e r m a n nation, f r o m a p p r o v i n g what the Bohemians h a d Y e t , since t h e y c o u l d n o t forsake t h e i r b r e t h r e n , J o h n Frederick, E l e c t o r Palatine, M a t t h i a s , conscious o f his o w n w e a k George, E l e c t o r o f S a x o n y , a n d offered their m e d i a t i o n . ness, accepted

t h e offer, o n l y p r o p o s i n g t h a t M a x i m i l i a n , D u k e

I6I8

THE

BOHEMIAN

REVOLUTION.

o f B a v a r i a , a n d t h e E l e c t o r o f M a i n z , s h o u l d also be n a m e d mediators. the B u t Frederick, young, rash, a n d hurried forward b y R o m a n reaction, g a v e help insurgents. A s a H a p s b u r g , he was c o n c e r n e d for his C a l v i n i s t d r e a d a n d hate o f

CHAP,
I V

underhand to the ing i n the empire.

P h i l i p I I I . w a t c h e d w i t h e x t r e m e interest a l l t h a t w a s passk i n s m a n F e r d i n a n d j as K i n g o f S p a i n , h e was h e r e d i t a r y c h a m p i o n of t h e C a t h o l i c C h u r c h , a n d h e o n l y w a i t e d for a n o p p o r t u n i t y of interfering. B u t a S p a n i s h attack on G e r m a n protestantism Spain and E n g l a n d ; and Spain, m i g h t l e a d to a w a r between

far g o n e i n d e c l i n e a n d a l m o s t b a n k r u p t , w a s i n n o c o n d i t i o n t o w a g e a t once a l a n d w a r i n C e n t r a l E u r o p e a n d a m a r i t i m e war on the A t l a n t i c . B e f o r e P h i l i p c o u l d decide h o w t o act, h e So m u s t k n o w w h a t t h e K i n g o f E n g l a n d w a s g o i n g to d o .

l o n g as C a t h o l i c i s m a n d p r o t e s t a n t i s m w e r e s t r u g g l i n g for life, n o p r o t e s t a n t state c o u l d be indifferent t o the fortunes of p r o testants testant elsewhere. J a m e s , as t h e first protestant sovereign, c o n n e c t e d b y m a r r i a g e w i t h one o f t h e l e a d i n g princes o f p r o G e r m a n y , h a d to consider w h a t results m i g h t flow f r o m he should do if the conflict A s yet E n g l a n d was n o t c a l l e d t o interfere, But England might by reasonable the The civil w a r i n B o h e m i a and what became general.

nor was she prepared to take a p r i n c i p a l part i n m i l i t a r y operat i o n s at s u c h a distance. efforts prevent Spain from interfering i n Germany, and

d i s p u t e , t h u s n a r r o w e d , w o u l d be c l o s e d a l l the sooner. part of the E n g l i s h government. Spanish marriage;

e n d m i g h t p r o b a b l y have been a t t a i n e d b y a f i r m t o n e o n t h e J a m e s , h o w e v e r , l o n g e d for a and he he l i k e d t h e p a r t o f peacemaker,

e x p e c t e d h i s b r o t h e r k i n g s , n o less t h a n h i s subjects, t o receive h i s a w a r d l i k e t h e oracles o f G o d . A w a r e o f these foibles, P h i l i p a n d h i s m i n i s t e r s let J a m e s k n o w t h a t t h e y w o u l d be g l a d i f h e w o u l d m e d i a t e i n G e r m a n y a n d t h a t t h e y were a n x i o u s t o c o m plete t h e m a r r i a g e t r e a t y . J a m e s e a g e r l y accepted t h e p a r t o f m e d i a t o r , a n d thus satisfied P h i l i p t h a t i t w o u l d b e safe t o h e l p F e r d i n a n d w h e n e v e r the t i m e s h o u l d serve, M e a n t i m e the young Elector Palatine had aims of his o w n w h i c h h e c o u l d n o t a v o w t o a l l t h e protestant o r e v e n t o a l l t h e Calvinist princes. W h i l e professing to mediate between the Bohemians a n d M a t t h i a s , he hoped to become K i n g o f B o h e m i a h i m s e l f , a n d so possessor o f a great t e r r i t o r y e x t e n d i n g across t h e

OUTBREAK

OF

THE

THIRTY

YEARS

WAR.

161$

CHAP,
IV.

w h o l e b r e a d t h o f G e r m a n y , t h e c h i e f o f t h e G e r m a n prULColclIlLS, protestants a n d the m o s t powerful p r i n c e o f t h e e m p i r e . renew h i s defensive Bohemia. H e h a d sent B a r o n D o h n a t o s o u n d h i s father-in-law, b u t J a m e s , a l t h o u g h r e a d y to alliance w i t h the E v a n g e l i c a l U n i o n , would as King of not d o a n y t h i n g t o f u r t h e r F r e d e r i c k ' s e l e c t i o n ambassador to F r e d e r i c k . Matthias died. B o h e m i a n subjects

X o enforce h i s v i e w s , J a m e s sent L o r d D o n c a s t e r as O n M a r c h 20, i6i9> t h e Emperor t o his privileges; F e r d i n a n d t h e n notified h i s accession and promised to confirm their

but the directors m a d e n o r e p l y , a n d t h e p r i n c e s w h o h a d u n d e r t a k e n t o m e d i a t e between t h e m a n d F e r d i n a n d l a i d d o w n t h e i r thankless office. F r e d e r i c k persuaded the p r i n c e s o f the U n i o n t o p u t their forces o n a w a r f o o t i n g , a l t h o u g h he w o u l d n o t a v o w t h e for h e l p f r o m K i n g J a m e s . hemians. object H e h a d n o t r o u b l e i n g a i n i n g D o n c a s t e r ' s a p p r o v a l o f a. d e m a n d M e a n t i m e it w e n t i l l w i t h t h e B o C o u n t X h u m , t h e leader o f the r e v o l u t i o n , m a d e a n B u t reinforcements came to F e r d i n a n d , C o u n t M a n s f e l d , a soldier b y the eluded. purblind emperor estates be-

i n r o a d i n t o A u s t r i a a n d threatened V i e n n a w i t h the h e l p o f t h e disaffected protestants. a n d T h u m was f o r c e d t o retreat. A u s t r i a n general, B u c q u o i . his master's

o f fortune e m p l o y e d b y t h e directors, w a s also defeated m e d i a t i o n t o F e r d i n a n d , he was gently So

W h e n D o n c a s t e r w e n t o n to offer

T h e n came t h e election o f a n e w e m p e r o r at F r a n k f o r t , a n d t h e consequences o f protestant electors many ca m e came that on A u g u s t made the same d i v i s i o n were seen. 18 F e r d i n a n d was mistake w h i c h the Two a n d so f u l l o f m u t u a l d i s t r u s t a n d j e a l o u s y w e r e t h e protestant elected protestant w i t h o u t one dissentient v o i c e . X h e protestant princes o f G e r -

o f B o h e m i a h a d m a d e t w o y e a r s before, a n d F r e d e r i c k F e r d i n a n d ' s subject. emperor the d a y s before B o h e m i a n estates h a d I f F r e d e r i c k accepted elected

F e r d i n a n d beFrederick

to b e t h e i r k i n g .

the Bohemian crown, H e looked round to

he w o u l d be d e p r i v i n g h i s s o v e r e i g n o f a k i n g d o m t o w h i c h most m e n t h o u g h t t h a t s o v e r e i g n e n t i t l e d . f o r advice. a c c e p t ; h i s m o t h e r a n d h i s wisest entreaties together O n l y three p r i n c e s o f t h e U n i o n w o u l d h a v e h i m councillors urged h i m

refuse, but his y o u n g w i f e l o n g e d t o b e c o m e a queen, a n d h e r w i t h his own ambition prevailed. H e did, before indeed, send D o h n a t o ask t h e a d v i c e o f J a m e s ; but

1620

CATHOLIC

CONQUEST

OF

BOHEMIA.

93
CHAP,

J a m e s c o u l d pronounce, F r e d e r i c k h a d a c c e p t e d t h e B o h e m i a n c r o w n , t h u s d e f y i n g t h e house o f A u s t r i a t o m o r t a l c o m b a t a n d beginning the T h i r t y Y e a r s ' W a r . F e r d i n a n d agreed w i t h M a x i m i l i a n o f B a v a r i a t h a t t h e C a t h o lic L e a g u e s h o u l d espouse F e r d i n a n d ' s cause a n d that M a x i m i l i a n s h o u l d be r e w a r d e d w i t h F r e d e r i c k ' s l a n d s a n d electoral d i g n i t y . P h i l i p a t t h e s a m e t i m e g a v e orders t h a t t h e S p a n i s h t r o o p s i n the N e t h e r l a n d s s h o u l d h o l d themselves ready to march. I n E n g l a n d m a n y courtiers a n d p o l i t i c i a n s , t h e c l e r g y a n d t h e n a t i o n g e n e r a l l y were for t h e B o h e m i a n s , b u t t h e i r zeal for so remote a cause was s h a l l o w , a n d J a m e s , w h o h a t e d w a r and feared t h a t h i s son-in-law h a d c o m m i t t e d t h e s i n o f r e b e l l i o n , refused a n y h e l p t o F r e d e r i c k o r t h e princes o f the U n i o n bey o n d a l l o w i n g t h e m t o r e c r u i t volunteers. to a i d i n the defence o f the P a l a t i n a t e . n o t act alone. I n this w a y a small corps was f o r m e d a n d sent o u t u n d e r t h e b r a v e S i r H o r a c e V e r e T h e D u t c h would willhelp i n g l y h a v e g o n e to w a r f o r F r e d e r i c k b u t d e c l a r e d t h a t t h e y c o u l d F i n d i n g t h a t there w a s so l i t t l e h o p e o f f r o m a b r o a d , t h e princes o f the U n i o n o n J u n e 23, 1620, c o n c l u d e d a t r e a t y at U l m w i t h the p r i n c e s o f t h e L e a g u e b y w h i c h b o t h confederacies w i t h d r e w f r o m the war. T h e Elector of Saxo n y f e a r i n g lest F r e d e r i c k , master o f B o h e m i a as w e l l as t h e P a l a t i n a t e , m i g h t p r o v e a dangerous n e i g h b o u r , b e c a m e t h e a l l y o f M a x i m i l i a n a n d the emperor. n o t h i n g w a s r e a d y f o r defence. invaded Silesia. T h e n S p i n o l a l e d 24,000 S p a n A l i t t l e later t h e A u s t r i a n a n d i s h t r o o p s f r o m the N e t h e r l a n d s to attack t h e P a l a t i n a t e , w h e r e B a v a r i a n forces i n v a d e d B o h e m i a , w h i l e t h e E l e c t o r o f S a x o n y F r e d e r i c k h a d w a s t e d h i s t i m e i n the shows o f Hungarians who had r o y a l t y ; t h e B o h e m i a n troops a n d t h e

j o i n e d t h e m w e r e w i t h o u t d i s c i p l i n e , t h e generals were m o s t l y incompetent, the towns nearly all unfortified. O n O c t o b e r 29 the battle o f t h e W h i t e M o u n t a i n , close to t h e w a l l s o f P r a g u e , r u i n e d t h e cause o f K i n g F r e d e r i c k a n d o f the B o h e m i a n n a t i o n . O n l y t h e u n i t e d a n d v i g o r o u s i n t e r v e n t i o n o f a l l t h e protestant powers c o u l d n o w save to F r e d e r i c k a n y p a r t o f h i s possessions o r stay t h e re-conquest o f G e r m a n y b y R o m e . J a m e s was l o t h t o believe that a n y d i s p u t e c o u l d be h i s w i s d o m t o compose. bassadors who were e v e r y w h e r e treated w i t h c i v i l beyond A f t e r sending hither and thither a m contempt,

h e h a d been r o u g h l y a w a k e n e d b y t h e S p a n i s h i n v a s i o n o f t h e

94

OUTBREAK

OF

THE

THIRTY

YEARS'

WAR.

1620

CHAP.
IV.

Palatinate.
" L I J . 1

For, although
"D "L * "L

he w o u l d not help
U J. 11 "C* J

Frederick
* I 4-"L

the

rebel to Keep r j o n e m i a , n e would, n o t a l l o w r r e a e n c K t n e s o n - i n l a w to lose h i s h e r e d i t a r y d o m i n i o n s , a n d h e r e q u i r e d F r e d e r i c k ' s enemies to act u p o n t h i s delicate d i s t i n c t i o n . i n g o f a benevolence. Pie thought of h e l p i n g the princes o f the U n i o n a n d gave o r d e r s f o r t h e l e v y T h e P r i n c e o f W a l e s , t h e courtiers, a n d themselves w i l l i n g , b u t o n l y a few rest o f the A a parliament, the c i t y o f L o n d o n s h o w e d kingdom.

thousand p o u n d s c o u l d b e squeezed f r o m a l l t h e I t was f o u n d necessary to s u m m o n

a n d a p r o c l a m a t i o n t o t h a t effect a p p e a r e d o n N o v e m b e r 6. London.

few d a y s later the result o f t h e b a t t l e o f P r a g u e was k n o w n i n T h e n fresh ambassadors w e r e sent i n m a n y directions. Frederick Sir of S i r E d w a r d Villiers h a d it i n charge to promise

help so soon as h e s h o u l d renounce t h e B o h e m i a n c r o w n . testant princes. S i r R o b e r t A n s t r u t h e r w a s t o a s k the K i n g A

A l b e r t u s M o r t o n w e n t t o W o r m s w i t h m o n e y to h e l p the p r o D e n m a r k for a loan. c o u n c i l o f war was a p p o i n t e d to c o n -

sider w h a t s h o u l d be done for t h e defence o f t h e P a l a t i n a t e . A s J a m e s r a r e l y t h o u g h t i t w o r t h w h i l e t o s t u d y the feelings o f h i s subjects, e a c h n e w p a r l i a m e n t b r o u g h t h i m surprises. unpleasant T h e people o f E n g l a n d w i s h e d w e l l to the protestant T h e o l d leaders o f o p p o s i t i o n w e r e Pym, to

cause o n t h e c o n t i n e n t , b u t t h e y w e r e s t i l l m o r e d e s i r o u s to redress grievances at h o m e . returned a g a i n , a n d w i t h t h e m C o k e , n o l o n g e r c h i e f j u s t i c e ; a n d one destined to obscure t h e f a m e o f all t h e rest, J o h n m e m b e r for t h e l i t t l e b o r o u g h o f C a l n e . excuse former m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g s . dom. At ^When t h e p a r l i a m e n t the time of his first

assembled o n J a n u a r y 30, 1621, t h e k i n g t o o k t h e occasion

parliament, h e was u n a c q u a i n t e d w i t h the c u s t o m s o f t h e k i n g T h e f a i l u r e o f h i s second p a r l i a m e n t h e ascribed to " a H e h a d called this no of his o w n free m o t i o n . A s h e h a d received strange k i n d o f beasts c a l l e d u n d e r t a k e r s parliament

grant for t e n y e a r s past a n d h a d r e f o r m e d h i s e x p e n d i t u r e , h e m i g h t w e l l e x p e c t t h e m t o s u p p l y his wants. H e would do his utmost to b r i n g a b o u t a h a p p y peace, but i f h e c o u l d n o t get it, he w o u l d s p e n d a l l , h i s son's b l o o d a n d h i s o w n b l o o d , to save the P a l a t i n a t e a n d t h e cause o f r e l i g i o n . The houses d i d n o t k n o w t h a t at this t i m e t h e k i n g still B u t t h e house a d m i t t e d G o n d o m a r to his fullest confidence a n d t a l k e d w i t h h i m about a r e c o n c i l i a t i o n to t h e C h u r c h o f R o m e .

1621

NEW

PARLIAMENT.

95 CHAP.
I V

o f c o m m o n s s h o w e d itself resolute to f o l l o w i n t h e traces o f i t s predecessors. It began w i t h t a k i n g the communion in a b o d y I t u r g e d t h e enforcement o f It went into committee to catholics. so as t o p u r g e itself o f recusants. the penal l a w s a g a i n s t the c o m m i t t e e

consider t h e i n f r i n g e m e n t s o f l i b e r t y o f speech i n t h e past, a n d advised the introduction o f a bill forbidding After a n y s u c h i n f r i n g e m e n t i n t h e future. T h e k i n g sought to d i -

v e r t these discussions b y r a i s i n g t h e q u e s t i o n o f s u p p l y .

w e i g h i n g a l l t h e circumstances, t h e c o u n c i l o f w a r h a d c o m e t o the c o n c l u s i o n that a n a r m y o f 30,000 m e n w o u l d b e r e q u i r e d f o r the r e c o v e r y o f t h e P a l a t i n a t e a n d t h a t t h e r a i s i n g a n d e q u i p p i n g of s u c h a n a r m y w o u l d cost 250,000, a n d i t s m a i n t e n a n c e f o r a single y e a r >QOO,QOQ. T h e r e is n o reason t o d o u b t t h e correctSecretary Calvert, A s an ness o f t h i s c a l c u l a t i o n , b u t there w a s n o t t h e least h o p e o f o b t a i n i n g f r o m p a r l i a m e n t a g r a n t so e n o r m o u s . therefore, i n f o r m e d t h e house t h a t 30,000 m e n w o u l d be necessary, b u t d i d n o t v e n t u r e t o a s k for m o r e t h a n ,500,000. earnest o f t h e i r g o o d w i l l t h e c o m m o n s v o t e d t w o subsidies, o r 160,000, a l t h o u g h i t was unusual t o m a k e a g r a n t so e a r l y i n t h e session. T h e n they returned to the consideration of grievances, especially the g r o w t h o f m o n o p o l i e s a n d t h e abuses committed b y the monopolists. A l t h o u g h t h e p r i n c i p l e t h a t c o m m e r c i a l f r e e d o m , at least w i t h i n the bounds o f the k i n g d o m , is required b y public policy h a d n o t y e t been a d m i t t e d , t h e s p i r i t o f t h e c o m m o n l a w h a d always house been averse t o a n y restraint o f trade. before b y Elizabeth. Nevertheless of the m o n o p o l i e s h a d been established o f S t u a r t , especially t h e accession

T h e abuses a n d

h a r d s h i p s w h i c h i n e v i t a b l y f o l l o w e d h a d aroused so m u c h i l l h u m o u r t h a t E l i z a b e t h ' s last p a r l i a m e n t protested s t r o n g l y , a n d E l i z a b e t h t h o u g h t w e l l to soothe t h e c o m m o n s b y d e c l a r i n g that a l l the patents s h o u l d be e x a m i n e d a n d s u c h as w e r e f o u n d to be injurious s h o u l d be recalled. granting monopolies continued. U n d e r J a m e s t h e practice o f S o m e o f these m o n o p o l i e s were

g i v e n t o r e w a r d i n v e n t o r s o r introducers o f n e w i n d u s t r i e s o r n e w processes, a n d were analogous t o t h e patents o f o u r o w n t i m e . I n other cases t h e advantages o f h i n d e r i n g f r a u d a n d e n s u r i n g a better q u a l i t y o f g o o d s w e r e alleged as reasons f o r t h e g r a n t . B u t , w h a t e v e r t h e m o t i v e o f t h e grant, i t was c o m m o n l y m a d e o n t h e request o f persons h a v i n g influence at court, w h o m e a n t

96

OUTBREAK

OF

THE

THIRTY

YEARS'

WAR.

1621

CHAP,

to sell t h e w o r k i n g o f the m o n o p o l y t o m e n o f business.

The

results ot tne s y s t e m u n o e r j a m e s were s u c n as i t n a a proauceQ under E l i z a b e t h , a n d the general d i s c o n t e n t w a s as b i t t e r as i t h a d been t w e n t y y e a r s before. O n e m o n o p o l y was r e n d e r e d e s p e c i a l l y o d i o u s b y t h e t y r a n n i c a l measures t a k e n i n its defence. and silver t h r e a d h a d been g r a n t e d alleged A patent f o r m a k i n g g o l d t o c e r t a i n persons who

that t h e y w e r e v i r t u a l l y i n t r o d u c i n g a n e w i n d u s t r y .

Infringements o f t h e patent h a v i n g d r a w n t h e attention o f the c o u n c i l , i t was repeatedly discussed a n d at l e n g t h a fresh patent was m a d e out to t h e o l d patentees a l o n g w i t h some n e w persons. T h e y w e r e to i m p o r t b u l l i o n t o the a m o u n t o f 5 , 0 0 0 a year, a n d m a k e g o o d t o the t r e a s u r y w h a t i t m i g h t lose i n the d u t y on imported thread. Buckingham's half-brother S i r E d w a r d T h e goldApparently V i l l i e r s e m b a r k e d some c a p i t a l i n t h e u n d e r t a k i n g . a n d went o n m a k i n g the patented c o m m o d i t i e s .

s m i t h s c h a l l e n g e d t h e v a l i d i t y o f the n e w p a t e n t as o f t h e o l d , because t h e c o u r t o f e x c h e q u e r c o u l d n o t be trusted to convict t h e m , the k i n g b y p r o c l a m a t i o n recalled t h e p a t e n t a n d took the business i n t o h i s o w n hands, w h i l e g r a n t i n g p e n s i o n s secured o n the profits to S i r E d w a r d V i l l i e r s a n d t o a n o t h e r b r o t h e r of B u c k i n g h a m w h o h a d n o c l a i m whatever. B a c o n justified the r e s u m p t i o n o f t h e patent b y q u o t i n g a n obsolete act o f H e n r y V I I . , w h i c h forbade t h e use o f g o l d o r s i l v e r for s u c h a purpose. H e went further, a n d a d v i s e d the a p p o i n t m e n t o f a c o m m i s s i o n to discover a n d p u n i s h those w h o i n f r i n g e d t h e m o n o p o l y , so that t h e y were t h u s d e n i e d the benefit o f a h e a r i n g i n the ord i n a r y courts. A l t h o u g h the c o m m i s s i o n e r s a c t e d w i t h vigour, A m o n g the b y their t h e i r powers were d e e m e d insufficient a n d a n e w c o m m i s s i o n g i v i n g larger p o w e r s was issued i n O c t o b e r , 1618. commissioners S i r Giles Mompesson, a k i n s m a n of B u c k i n g h a m , a n d S i r F r a n c i s M i c h e l l d i s t i n g u i s h e d themselves tyrannous zeal. A s even t h e i r efforts d i d n o t answer, the c h a n -

cellor a n d the c h i e f justice, M o n t a g u , a d v i s e d t h a t the g o l d s m i t h s a n d the s i l k mercers s h o u l d be forced to enter i n t o b o n d s n o t t o sell their m a t e r i a l s t o u n l i c e n s e d persons. S o m e s i l k mercers w h o refused t o d o so w e r e sent to p r i s o n b y B a c o n , b u t s u c h was the i n d i g n a t i o n i n the c i t y t h a t the k i n g o r d e r e d t h e i r release. T h e government persevered, h o w e v e r , i n u p h o l d i n g t h e m o n o p o l y a n d the p u b l i c w e r e s t i l l a n g r y w h e n t h e n e w p a r l i a m e n t

1621

THE

ATTACK

ON

THE

MONOPOLIES.

97
CHAP,

assembled.
-

t h e g r o u n d t n a t ne, l i k e n i s c o n t e m p o r a r i e s , a t t a c h e d a p e c u l i a r i m p o r t a n c e t o e v e r y t h i n g w h i c h m i g h t affect t h e t r a d e i n b u l l i o n .

B a c o n ' s a c t i o n i n t b i s m a t t e r has been e x c u s e d o n

,
R

iv.

B u t i t is h a r d t o believe t h a t so wise a m a n w o u l d h a v e gone so far i n a course e q u a l l y u n l a w f u l , unjust, a n d u n p o p u l a r , i f t h e house o f V i l l i e r s h a d n o t been c o n c e r n e d i n p r e s e r v i n g t h e m o n opoly o f g o l d a n d silver thread. T h e c o m m o n s resolved t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e m o n o p o l i e s i n a c o m m i t t e e o f t h e w h o l e house. oppressive a n d u n p o p u l a r . licences t o i n n - k e e p e r s . B e s i d e t h e patents creating equally m o n o p o l i e s r i g h t l y so c a l l e d there w e r e o t h e r p a t e n t s

T h u s a p a t e n t h a d b e e n issued t o I t was t a k e n f i r s t ; M o m p e s s o n a n d T h e y h a d licensed money from houses honest

S i r G i l e s M o m p e s s o n a n d t w o others, e m p o w e r i n g t h e m to g r a n t others were e x a m i n e d , a n d i t was s h o w n t h a t t h e patentees h a d been g u i l t y o f i n f a m o u s t y r a n n y . o f b a d repute, w h i l e t h e y h a d e x t o r t e d stood their exactions. blackmail.

inn-keepers, a n d h a d t r i e d t o r u i n b y p r o s e c u t i o n a l l w h o w i t h A patent f o r l i c e n s i n g alehouses w a s c o n s i d e r e d n e x t a n d f o u n d t o h a v e been u s e d as a m e a n s o f l e v y i n g I t appeared that S i r F r a n c i s M i o h e l l h a d used his A n outburst Tower a u t h o r i t y as a m a g i s t r a t e t o f u r t h e r t h i s e x t o r t i o n . of justice.

of natural anger led the house into u s u r p i n g the d u t y o f a court O n C o k e ' s m o t i o n M i c h e l l w a s sent t o t h e a n d d e c l a r e d unfit t o h o l d a n y m a g i s t r a c y . B u t the commons

were o b l i g e d i n a f e w d a y s t o o w n t h a t t h e y h a d n o j u r i s d i c t i o n over s u c h offenders a n d t o p r o c e e d a g a i n s t M i c h e l l b y w a y o f impeachment. T h e s a m e course w a s t a k e n w i t h M o m p e s s o n , flight to the continent. called i n question. w h o forestalled c o n d e m n a t i o n b y

H i t h e r t o n o great personage h a d b e e n

B u t N o y a n d C o k e d w e l t o n the fact t h a t patents c r e a t i n g a m o n o p o l y h a d n e v e r been i s s u e d w i t h o u t p r e v i o u s reference f o r c o n s i d e r a t i o n to persons h i g h i n t h e service o f t h e c r o w n , w h o w e r e therefore a n s w e r a b l e f o r t h e ill-effects w h i c h those p a t e n t s m i g h t have occasioned. T h e i n q u i r y i n t o t h e patent for m a k i n g the of g o l d a n d s i l v e r t h r e a d r e v e a l e d s u c h c r y i n g offences t h a t c o m m o n s resolved to d e m a n d an i n q u i r y i n t o the conduct t h e referees. t o a c c o u n t before a p a r l i a m e n t a r y t r i b u n a l .
* Gardiner, c h . xxxiii, VOL. VII.

M e n i n the highest place w o u l d thus be called T h e k i n g , enraged

98

OUTBREAK

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THIRTY

YEARS'

WAR.

1621

CHAP,

at the boldness o f t h e c o m m o n s , i n t e r p o s e d , a n d w o u l d h a v e h a d t h e m l a y a s i d e a l l o t h e r business until they had voted Buckingt h e s u b s i d i e s ; but, f i n d i n g t h a t t h e peers w o u l d n o t h e l p h i m , h e d r e w back a n d left t h i n g s t o t a k e t h e i r course. h a m , b y whose m e a n s so m a n y patents h a d been issued, felt a l a r m e d for h i s o w n safety, a n d s o u g h t t h e a d v i c e o f h i s f r i e n d John Williams, D e a n of Westminster. age. W i t h some g r a v e faults W i l l i a m s had more sagacity t h a n any other clergyman of that H e w a r n e d B u c k i n g h a m o f t h e f o l l y o f t r y i n g t o resist t h e c o m m o n s w h e r e t h e y w e r e so c l e a r l y p e r f o r m i n g a p u b l i c d u t y . T h e o n l y safe course w a s t o i n t e r c e p t t h e h o n o u r o f a r e f o r m w h i c h could not be prevented, to induce the k i n g to revoke the monopolies, a n d t o l e a v e those w h o h a d a b u s e d h i s confidence t o their punishment. B u c k i n g h a m was convinced. He readily The went of the p e r s u a d e d t h e k i n g to d o w h a t h e w a n t e d a n d t o o k t h e first o c casion o f professing h i s zeal for t h e redress o f g r i e v a n c e s . result justified W i l l i a m s , for t h e c o m m o n s , a l t h o u g h t h e y Mompesson, dropped their demand action of the referees. T h o s e that will strike danger. for an i n q u i r y into

o n w i t h a b i l l against m o n o p o l i e s a n d w i t h t h e i m p e a c h m e n t

B a c o n h a d b e e n so m u c h a l a r m e d at t h a t d e m a n d t h a t h e h a d s o l i c i t e d t h e k i n g t o interfere a g a i n . at y o u r c r o w n . at y o u r chancellor, h e w r o t e , i t is m u c h t o be feared w i l l s t r i k e H e d i d n o t suspect a m o r e serious T h e c o m m i t t e e o f t h e c o m m o n s a p p o i n t e d t o i n q u i r e i n t o abuses i n t h e courts o f j u s t i c e h a d d i s c o v e r e d c e r t a i n m a l p r a c t i c e s o n the p a r t of the registrars i n c h a n c e r y . T h e n witnesses c a m e f o r When w a r d w i t h charges o f c o r r u p t i o n a g a i n s t t h e c h a n c e l l o r .

the chairman, S i r R o b e r t Phelips, brought u p the report of the c o m m i t t e e , h e w a s o r d e r e d to l a y these c h a r g e s before the h o u s e of lords. B a c o n h a d a l r e a d y a p p e a l e d t o B u c k i n g h a m as t h e J a m e s w o u l d doubtless h a v e v i c t i m of undeserved persecution.

interfered t o s t o p the p o l i t i c a l i m p e a c h m e n t o f a m i n i s t e r , b u t he felt t h e s h a m e a n d t h e d a n g e r o f t r y i n g t o stifle a n h o n e s t inquiry into judicial corruption. screen h i m . A l t h o u g h still B a c o n s friend, he w o u l d n o t e n g a g e i n conflict w i t h t h e house o f c o m m o n s t o H e suggested, i n d e e d , t h a t t h e charges s h o u l d b e T h e c o m m o n s m i g h t h a v e been t r i e d before a c o u r t o f s i x peers a n d t w e l v e m e m b e r s o f t h e commons named b y himself. t e m p t e d b y the p r o s p e c t o f g a i n i n g so m u c h j u d i c i a l p o w e r , b u t

i62i

THE

FALL

OF LORD

CHANCELLOR

BACON.

99 CHAP,
I V

the wiser m e m b e r s saw that b y m a k i n g a precedent of this k i n d they w o u l d render the k i n g arbiter of a l l such prosecutions i n future a n d w o u l d estrange t h e l o r d s , w h o s e a i d t h e c o m m o n s c o u l d n o t afford t o s l i g h t m t h e i r controversies w i t h t h e c r o w n . At the advice o f C o k e a n d S a c k v i l l e the house r e s o l v e d t o return no answer to the k i n g until t h e y h a d consulted w i t h the l o r d s , a n d w h e n t h i s was m a d e k n o w n t o t h e k i n g , h e s a i d n o more. A f t e r a conference between t h e houses t h e e v i d e n c e w a s They p l a c e d i n t h e h a n d s o f t h e peers, t o use as t h e y saw fit. against the chancellor. T h e conference t o o k p l a c e o n M a r c h 19. Although Bacon m a d e l i g h t o f t h e accusations b r o u g h t a g a i n s t h i m , distress h a d p r e y e d o n h i s m i n d so m u c h t h a t h e w a s too i l l t o leave h i s house. A w e e k l a t e r t h e k i n g addressed t h e houses w i t h m o r e t h a n h i s usual tact, p r o m i s i n g t o r e c a l l t h e patents w h i c h h a d been c o n d e m n e d , a n d w h i l e f o r b e a r i n g f r o m a l l interference e x horting t h e m to keep a judicial temper. T h e houses w e r e t h e n evidence, a d j o u r n e d , b u t c o m m i t t e e s o f t h e l o r d s sat t o t a k e embodied i n one nation. report.

r e s o l v e d t o c a l l witnesses themselves, a n d charges a c c u m u l a t e d

a n d w h e n p a r l i a m e n t r e - a s s e m b l e d o n A p r i l \J t h e results w e r e I t w a s e n o u g h t o ensure c o n d e m I n s o m e o f t h e cases a l l e g e d a g a i n s t h i m B a c o n h a d

d o n e n o m o r e t h a n accept a present f r o m o n e o f t h e parties t o a suit after h e h a d g i v e n j u d g m e n t ; a p r a c t i c e w h i c h , h o w e v e r h a r m f u l , w a s t h e n r e c o g n i s e d , a n d t h e r e f o r e n o t t o be as c o r r u p t i o n . taken presents of great value while the suit w a s taxed had B u t t h e r e w e r e o t h e r cases i n w h i c h h e

pending.

B a c o n h i m s e l f , w h e n h e h a d seen a c o p y o f t h e d e p o s i t i o n s , d e s p a i r e d o f h i s cause. H e b e s o u g h t t h e k i n g to persuade t h e N e x t d a y he made such a sublords to be content w i t h his submission i n general terms a n d his r e s i g n a t i o n o f t h e great s e a l . m i s s i o n , e n t r e a t i n g t h e l o r d s t o spare a n y further sentence. T h e l o r d s , d e c l i n i n g a s u b m i s s i o n so g e n e r a l , sent h i m a c o p y o f t h e e v i d e n c e a n d t h e a r t i c l e s o f accusation, i n o r d e r t o give h i m the means of confessing point b y point. later B a c o n m a d e a f u l l confession o f g u i l t . Six days T h e n a deputation

o f t h e l o r d s c a m e t o l e a r n w h e t h e r h i s s i g n a t u r e w a s genuine. " M y l o r d s , " s a i d t h e u n h a p p y m a n , " i t is m y act, m y h a n d , m y heart. reed" I beseech y o u r lordships be merciful unto a b r o k e n 7 * H a v i n g o b t a i n e d t h e k i n g ' s a u t h o r i t y , t h e l o r d s sent

xoo

OUTBREAK

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THE

THIRTY

YEARS

WAR.

1621

CHAP, ^*

another d e p u t a t i o n t o d e m a n d t h e s u r r e n d e r o f the great seal. B a c o n was still too sick to attend at the bar, but on M a y 3 it was r e s o l v e d w i t h one v o i c e that h e h a d b e e n g u i l t y o f c o r r u p t i o n . H e w a s sentenced t o p a y a fine o f 40,000, t o b e i m p r i s o n e d d u r i n g pleasure, t o be i n c a p a b l e o f a n y p l a c e or e m p l o y m e n t , a n d t o be d i s a b l e d f r o m s i t t i n g i n p a r l i a m e n t a n d f r o m c o m i n g within twelve miles of the court. B u c k i n g h a m alone voted against t h e sentence. great seal o f E n g l a n d . M u c h affectionate i n g e n u i t y has been spent i n p r o v i n g o n B a c o n ' s b e h a l f w h a t n o n e w o u l d h a v e a t t e m p t e d to p r o v e for a less d i s t i n g u i s h e d offender. gifts i n m e r e carelessness,
1

X h u s e n d e d t h e p u b l i c life o f t h e m o s t

illustrious a m o n g t h e m a n y e m i n e n t m e n w h o h a v e b o r n e t h e

I t has been s a i d t h a t B a c o n t o o k

or after c o n v i n c i n g h i m s e l f t h a t h e I t has been s a i d been

m i g h t h o n e s t l y d o so ; p o o r excuses for a w e a k m a n , a n d w o r s e for a m a n so acute a n d i n d u s t r i o u s as B a c o n , that B a c o n c a n n o t b e s h o w n i n a n y o n e case t o h a v e be s a i d o f e v e r y c o r r u p t j u d g e .

determined i n his j u d g m e n t b y the bribe ; a n d the same m a y I t has been u r g e d t h a t n e i t h e r judicial inquiries, which is a n y m a l i c e against B a c o n . house w a s w e l l fitted to c o n d u c t t r u e ; b u t n e i t h e r house b e t r a y e d

F a r f r o m t r y i n g t o s h a k e the e v i d e n c e c o l l e c t e d b y t h e m , B a c o n resigned t h e t h o u g h t of defence as soon as h e k n e w w h a t c o u l d be proved for the prosecution. He behaved with all the d i g n i t y possible i n s u c h a d o w n f a l l , b u t t h e inference t h a t h e felt h i m s e l f pure m i g h t seem t o o m u c h e v e n for t h e s i m p l i c i t y of a biographer. T h e commons d i d no more than their d u t y i n e x p o s i n g t h e grievances o f t h e subject a n d t h e l o r d s d i d n o m o r e t h a n t h e i r d u t y i n p u n i s h i n g t h e g u i l t o f t h e chancellor. T h e k i n g , w h o a l l o w e d the l a w t o t a k e its course, a n d t h e n r e m i t t e d a l l t h e p e n a l t y save e x c l u s i o n f r o m office a n d f r o m parliament, was a better m o d e r n apologists. T h e c o n d e m n a t i o n o f B a c o n is m e m o r a b l e o n other g r o u n d s t h a n as i t affects B a c o n ' s character. T h a t a g r e a t officer o f t h e I t is c r o w n s h o u l d b e c a l l e d t o account b y p a r l i a m e n t w a s a n event w h i c h h a d not o c c u r r e d s i n c e t h e r e i g n o f H e n r y V I .
1

friend to B a c o n t h a n some

of

his

S p e d d i n g , "Letters and Life of Bacon, vii., ch. 6, minimises the fault a n d arraigns the tribunal. Gardiner, c h . xxxiv., is more reasonable, but still indulgent.

1621

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CASE.

tot CHAP,
I V

true t h a t t h e p r o c e e d i n g against B a c o n was n o t t e c h n i c a l l y a n i m p e a c h m e n t , for the c o m m o n s d i d n o t act as prosecutors ; t h e y m e r e l y sent u p to t h e l o r d s t h e e v i d e n c e w h i c h t h e y h a d c o l lected. I t i s a l s o true t h a t t h e c h a n c e l l o r w a s t r i e d , n o t for the I t was c r i m i n a l , n o t p o l i t i c a l , r e s p o n s i b i l i t y w h i c h differing f r o m t h e houses i n p o l i c y , b u t for a b r e a c h o f criminal law. interfered.

the houses s o u g h t t o enforce, a n d for t h i s reason J a m e s h a d n o t N e v e r t h e l e s s B a c o n ' s t r i a l m a r k s the first stage o f a revolution w h i c h ended b y m a k i n g ministers generally accountable t o p a r l i a m e n t j for i f m e n t h i n k a m i n i s t e r ' s p o l i c y w i c k e d a n d p e r n i c i o u s , t h e y are a p t to m a k e h i m out a c r i m i n a l ; a n d t h e y a r e c e r t a i n t o d o so, i f t h e y k n o w n o t h o w t o get r i d o f h i m i n a n y other manner. T h e o t h e r proceedings interest. o f t h e session were o f far lower T h a t M o m p e s s o n , t h o u g h absent, a n d M i c h e l l s h o u l d

be p r o s e c u t e d t o c o n v i c t i o n ; t h a t t h e patent for l i c e n s i n g i n n s , t h e p a t e n t for l i c e n s i n g ale-houses a n d s u n d r y m o n o p o l i e s s h o u l d be v o t e d t o be grievances, w e r e m a t t e r s o f course. But one i n c i d e n t m u s t b e r e c o r d e d as s h o w i n g h o w r e a d i l y t h e houses u n d e r t h e i m p u l s e o f p a s s i o n c o u l d p l a y the t y r a n t as w e l l as ever d i d t h e S t a r C h a m b e r . A c e r t a i n F l o y d , a barrister, a n o l d m a n a n d a catholic, was accused o f e x u l t i n g over t h e battle o f t h e W f i i t e M o u n t a i n a n d speaking scornfully of F r e d e r i c k a n d E l i z a beth. against W i t h o u t a shadow of right the commons h a d h i m brought him. T h e n m e m b e r after member, even a m o n g the to t h e b a r a n d , a l t h o u g h h e d e n i e d t h e charge, h e a r d witnesses better sort, v i e d i n p r o p o s i n g c r u e l a n d outrageous p u n i s h m e n t s . A t l e n g t h t h e house sentenced F l o y d t o b e p i l l o r i e d t h r i c e a n d to p a y a fine o f 1,000. W h e n the k i n g , through the chancellor o f t h e e x c h e q u e r , a s k e d t h e m for p r o o f o f t h e i r j u r i s d i c t i o n i n s u c h a case, t h e y h a d n o u g h t t o a n s w e r a n d c o u l d o n l y a s k t h a t h e w o u l d c o n f i r m t h e i r sentence. lords. T h e k i n g then declared of t h a t h e w o u l d l e a v e F l o y d to t h e j u d g m e n t o f t h e house

T h e l o r d s , n o t t o b e o u t d o n e i n l o y a l t y , r a i s e d t h e fine T h e k i n g at once r e m i t t e d t h e w h i p p i n g a n d , after

t o 5,000 a n d a d d e d t h e p a i n s o f w h i p p i n g a n d p e r p e t u a l i m prisonment. liberty. t h e e n d o f t h e session, r e m i t t e d t h e fine a n d g a v e F l o y d h i s N e v e r d i d h e appear t o m o r e a d v a n t a g e i n c o m p a r i s o n

1

w i t h t h e houses t h a n i n h i s m e r c y t o F l o y d .
* Commons ^ournals, i . 596-624, Lords
t

^foutnoils, iii., no~34

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CHAP.

J a m e s was fast b e c o m i n g w e a r y o f the p a r l i a m e n t .

When

i t re-assembled i n A p r i l , h e h a d m a d e k n o w n t h a t the s u b s i d i e s a l r e a d y v o t e d were spent, a n d h e h a d a s k e d for a further s u p p l y t o m a k e those w a r l i k e p r e p a r a t i o n s w h i c h w e r e necessary e v e n f o r t r e a t i n g w i t h the h o p e o f success. h o w e v e r , t o o k n o notice. T h e house o f c o m m o n s , A t t h e e n d o f M a y i t was still i m within

m e r s e d i n grievances a n d seemed m o s t u n l i k e l y to g i v e m o r e . T h e k i n g bade the c o m m o n s w i n d u p t h e i r business a week, i n o r d e r t o a n a d j o u r n m e n t . Before dispersing they

r e s o l v e d o n a d e c l a r a t i o n that, i f t h e t r e a t y failed, t h e y w o u l d be r e a d y o n r e - a s s e m b l i n g t o a d v e n t u r e t h e i r lives a n d estates for t h e m a i n t e n a n c e o f t h e cause o f G o d a n d o f h i s m a j e s t y s r o y a l issue. T h e d e c l a r a t i o n was a d o p t e d w i t h one v o i c e , t h e Nor But m e m b e r s r i s i n g , w a v i n g their hats a n d s h o u t i n g , so t h a t t h e l i k e h a d scarcely ever been k n o w n i n t h a t grave a s s e m b l y . need w e d o u b t t h a t the e m o t i o n , i f transient, was sincere. thought of waging a costly war i n Central E u r o p e to the Palatinate.

neither the E n g l i s h people n o r t h e E n g l i s h p a r l i a m e n t s e r i o u s l y recover W h a t t h e y d e s i r e d was a w a r w i t h S p a i n , a

useful d i v e r s i o n for the protestant cause i n G e r m a n y , b u t a l s o a l i k e l y means o f g a i n a n d g l o r y f o r E n g l a n d . Little as King James liked the vulgar to meddle with mysteries o f state, h e w e l c o m e d t h e d e c l a r a t i o n o f the c o m m o n s a n d h a d i t translated i n t o f o r e i g n languages as a p r o o f t h a t h i s subjects were eager t o u p h o l d h i s p o l i c y . house. B u t h e was s t i l l d i s pleased o n v a r i o u s g r o u n d s w i t h p a r t i c u l a r m e m b e r s o f e i t h e r T h e E a r l of S o u t h a m p t o n a n d the E a r l of O x f o r d a n d not S i r E d w i n S a n d y s were i m p r i s o n e d \ a n d w i t h t h e m o n e f a v o u r o f the h o u s e o f c o m m o n s . a moment. of Lincoln

y e t a m e m b e r , J o h n S e l d e n , w h o h a d g i v e n a legal o p i n i o n i n T h i s severity was o n l y f o r D e a n W i l l i a m s h a d g a i n e d so m u c h c r e d i t b y t h e a n d l o r d keeper. H i s voice was still g i v e n f o r

success o f h i s counsel t o B u c k i n g h a m t h a t h e was m a d e B i s h o p lenient a n d p o p u l a r courses. regained h i s l i b e r t y . A A l l t h e persons l a t e l y i m p r i s o n e d

were set free a n d even t h e u n h a p p y E a r l o f N o r t h u m b e r l a n d n u m b e r o f m o n o p o l i e s were r e c a l l e d Cranfield, of At a n d some smaller abuses r e m e d i e d b y p r o c l a m a t i o n .

w h o h a d s h o w n r e m a r k a b l e t a c t i n g a i n i n g the confidence fidence o f the k i n g , w a s a m p l y r e w a r d e d f o r h i s services.

t h e m a j o r i t y o f t h e house o f c o m m o n s w i t h o u t l o s i n g t h e c o n -

1618 FREDERICK

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t h e close o f t h e session he w a s created B a r o n C r a n f i e l d 5 i n C H A P . S e p t e m b e r h e succeeded L o r d M a n d e v i l l e as treasurer, a n d a y e a r later h e b e c a m e E a r l o f M i d d l e s e x . S c a r c e l y a n y l a y m a n o f h u m b l e o r i g i n h a d ever r i s e n t o so great a p l a c e i n E n g l a n d before. M e a n t i m e n o progress h a d b e e n m a d e t o w a r d s e n d i n g c i v i l strife i n G e r m a n y . A f t e r the battle o f t h e W h i t e M o u n t a i n , F r e d e r i c k s t i l l h e l d some fortresses i n B o h e m i a together w i t h S i l e s i a a n d M o r a v i a . B u t these p r o v i n c e s c o u l d not b e m a i n t a i n e d a g a i n s t the S a x o n s o n t h e o n e side a n d t h e A u s t r i a n s o n t h e other. F r e d e r i c k h a d t o flee f r o m B r e s l a u as h e h a d fled f i o m P r a g u e . O n J a n u a r y 12, 1621, t h e e m p e r o r p r o c l a i m e d h i s b a n a g a i n s t F r e d e r i c k a n d h i s followers, w h o w e r e t o suffer forfeiture o f t h e i r l a n d s a n d h o n o u r s , e x e c u t i o n b e i n g e n t r u s t e d t o M a x i m i l i a n o f B a v a r i a . F r e d e r i c k t o o k refuge at t h e Hague^ h o p i n g t o interest t h e D u t c h i n h i s cause, so n e a r l y b o u n d u p w i t h t h e i r o w n . A t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f A p r i l t h e protestant princes d i s s o l v e d t h e i r U n i o n a n d r e c a l l e d t h e i r t r o o p s f r o m the Palatinate. I n M a y , J a m e s sent D i g b y to V i e n n a to d e m a n d that the emperor should pardon Frederick upon his r e n o u n c i n g B o h e m i a a n d m a k i n g s u b m i s s i o n for past offences, a n d t o threaten w a r i n case o f refusal. D i g b y r e a c h e d V i e n n a e a r l y i n J u l y a n d r e c e i v e d a d i l a t o r y answer. F r e d e r i c k refused to make any submission. B u t w h e n M a x i m i l i a n invaded the U p p e r Palatinate, M a n s f e l d was unable to stand his ground a n d retreated i n t o t h e L o w e r P a l a t i n a t e . S u c h a state o f affairs m i g h t h a v e p e r p l e x e d t h e wisest mediator. J a m e s was t h r o u g h o u t m i s l e d a n d b e n u m b e d b y t h e fixed persuasion that, i f h e c o u l d effect a m a r r i a g e t r e a t y w i t h S p a i n , S p a i n w o u l d use a l l its influence, n a y , t a k e u p a r m s , t o ^bring about t h e r e s t o r a t i o n o f t h e E l e c t o r P a l a t i n e a n d a settlement o f G e r m a n y a g r e e a b l e t o t h e protestants. Profiting b y this illusion, the S p a n i s h government h a d from the outbreak o f t h e B o h e m i a n t r o u b l e s s h o w n r e n e w e d interest i n t h e m a r r i a g e scheme. James h a d made D i g b y a baron that he might b e m o r e e q u a l t o t h i s h i g h negotiation, a n d h a d s u s p e n d e d the l a w s against t h e recusants at t h e v e r y t i m e w h e n t h e protestant z e a l o f h i s subjects w a s r i s i n g t o fever. Philip had held h i m in p l a y b y a p p l y i n g for a d i s p e n s a t i o n w h i c h t h e p o p e w o u l d n o t g r a n t save o n t h e h a r d e s t c o n d i t i o n s , so t h a t m o n t h after m o n t h

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C H A P . was sure t o pass i n letters a n d messages b e t w e e n R o m e a n d IV. M a d r i d . E a r l y i n 1620 G o n d o m a r r e t u r n i n g to E n g l a n d q u i e t l y r e s u m e d c o n t r o l over t h e k i n g , w h o f a n c i e d h i m s e l f t h e a r b i t e r o f E u r o p e . T h e n t h e w e a r y h a g g l i n g o v e r r e l i g i o n was r e n e w e d . J a m e s w a s r e a d y to a l l o w t h e i n f a n t a t h e free e n j o y m e n t o f h e r o w n f a i t h a n d t o g r a n t t h e catholics a v i r t u a l t o l e r a t i o n . G o n d o m a r w a n t e d more, b u t w o u l d n o t k i l l t h e treaty b y c l a i m i n g f u l l freedom for t h e catholics. I n M a r c h , 1621, P h i l i p I I I . d i e d , a n d h i s successor, P h i l i p I V . , i d l e a n d ignorant, left a l l business t o favourites, a m o n g w h o m the C o u n t o f O l i v a r e s soon g a i n e d a n d l o n g k e p t a n ascendancy w h i c h m a d e h i m t h e real ruler o f S p a i n . A t l e n g t h , i n O c t o b e r , 1621, D i g b y , r e t u r n i n g f r o m h i s f r u i t less m i s s i o n , roused the k i n g t o s e n d a l i t t l e m o n e y for t h e soldiers i n t h e P a l a t i n a t e a n d t o s u m m o n p a r l i a m e n t . Even t h e n James assured G o n d o m a r t h a t n o t h i n g s h o u l d be d o n e t o displease the K i n g o f S p a i n . W h e n p a r l i a m e n t m e t o n N o v e m b e r 20, the l o r d keeper o n t h e k i n g ' s b e h a l f a d v i s e d the c o m m o n s to m a k e a g r a n t for t h e r e l i e f o f t h e P a l a t i n a t e , p o s t p o n i n g a l l other business t o t h e s p r i n g . S o o n t h e o l d divergence between J a m e s a n d t h e c o m m o n s reappeared. The delicate subject o f freedom o f speech was discussed a g a i n . AVhen the house w e n t o n t o c o n s i d e r f o r e i g n affairs, the sense o f the m a j o r i t y was a l l against the p o l i c y o f t h e k i n g . They h o p e d to ensure b y a w a r w i t h S p a i n t h e v e r y benefits w h i c h h e h o p e d f r o m a S p a n i s h alliance. P e r r o t , D i g g e s , P h e l i p s , a n d C o k e a l l gave expression t o t h e g e n e r a l hate a n d fear o f the S p a n i s h k i n g . O n the other side, R u d y e r d , S a c k v i l l e , C a l v e r t , a n d W e n t w o r t h u r g e d the i n s t a n t needs o f the P a l a t i n a t e . At last the c o m m o n s a g r e e d to g i v e a s m a l l s u p p l y for the m a i n tenance o f the troops i n the P a l a t i n a t e , l e a v i n g further g r a n t s t o w a i t for f u l l e r i n f o r m a t i o n . A t the same t i m e t h e y resolved o n a petition t h a t the l a w s against the papists m i g h t be d u l y e x e cuted. T h e p e t i t i o n as f i n a l l y s e t t l e d was a p t to offend the k i n g i n every way. I t declared that the f a v o u r s h o w n t o the S p a n i s h a m b a s s a d o r a n d the e x p e c t a t i o n o f a S p a n i s h m a r r i a g e h a d raised the s p i r i t s o f the p a p i s t s ; i t called for severity a g a i n s t . t h e m a n d a w a r against S p a i n , a n d a s k e d for the m a r r i a g e o f the prince t o one o f h i s o w n r e l i g i o n .
1
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Rushworth, Historical

Collections, i . , 40.

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J a m e s , h a v i n g h e a r d o f t h e contents o f t h e p e t i t i o n f r o m C H A P . G o n d o m a r , d i d n o t w a i t t o h a v e i t presented, b u t w r o t e a sharp * letter to the speaker, f o r b i d d i n g the house t o m e d d l e w i t h m y s t e r i e s o f state a n d w a r n i n g t h e m t h a t h e t h o u g h t h i m s e l f v e r y free a n d able t o p u n i s h a n y m a n ' s misdemeanours i n parliament. T h e n the h o u s e refused to enter o n a n y business u n t i l t h e i r privileges h a d b e e n cleared. I n a second p e t i t i o n , w h i l e y i e l d i n g o n other p o i n t s , t h e y m a i n t a i n e d as t h e y h a d d o n e a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e r e i g n that their f r e e d o m o f speech w a s their u n d o u b t e d r i g h t a n d i n h e r i t a n c e d e r i v e d f r o m t h e i r ancestors, a n d besought t h e k i n g to t a k e a w a y the doubts a n d scruples r a i s e d b y his l a t e letter.^ A d e p u t a t i o n sent w i t h t h i s p e t i t i o n to t h e k i n g at N e w m a r k e t w a s n o t u n k i n d l y r e c e i v e d . J a m e s g a v e its m e m b e r s a l e t t e r for the house i n h i s o w n s t r a n g e style, a g a i n a c c u s i n g t h e c o m m o n s o f e n c r o a c h m e n t o n h i s p r e r o g a t i v e a n d i n s i s t i n g t h a t t h e i r privileges were d e r i v e d f r o m t h e grace o f his a n c e s t o r s , a l t h o u g h , so l o n g as t h e y c o n t a i n e d themselves w i t h i n t h e b o u n d s o f their d u t y , h e w o u l d be c a r e f u l t o preserve t h e i r l a w f u l liberties/* A g a i n t h e c o m m o n s felt t h a t t h e y c o u l d n o t l e t t h e c l a i m thus m a d e pass u n c h a l lenged. A l l agreed t h a t t h e h o u s e s h o u l d g o i n t o c o m m i t t e e t o t a k e its privileges i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n . J a m e s then w r o t e t o S e c r e t a r y C a l v e r t , e x p l a i n i n g h i s w o r d s , but w i t h o u t a d m i t t i n g t h e c o n t e n t i o n o f the c o m m o n s . I n a subsequent letter he t o l d t h e m that, i f t h e y w o u l d h a v e t h e session e n d at C h r i s t m a s , t h e y m u s t go t o w o r k a t o n c e , a n d he w o u l d be content t o h a v e t h e s u b s i d y i n t h e n e x t session. T h e house, w h i l e t h a n k i n g t h e k i n g f o r h i s l e t t e r , w a s f i r m t o m a k e a protestation o f its privileges.
I v 1

T h e protestation a s s e r t e d o n c e m o r e t h a t t h e liberties a n d p r i v i l e g e s o f p a r l i a m e n t w e r e t h e ancient a n d u n d o u b t e d b i r t h r i g h t a n d inheritance o f t h e subjects o f E n g l a n d , a n d that a l l affairs c o n c e r n i n g k i n g a n d r e a l m a n d C h u r c h were p r o p e r subjects o f counsel a n d debate i n p a r l i a m e n t . It was not l a i d before t h e k i n g b u t s i m p l y e n t e r e d o n t h e j o u r n a l s o f the h o u s e . On D e c e m b e r 19, the p a r l i a m e n t w a s adjourned u n t i l F e b r u a r y . A f t e r C h r i s t m a s the k i n g s e n t for the journals a n d i n f u l l c o u n c i l tore out t h e p r o t e s t a t i o n w i t h h i s o w n h a n d . C o k e a n d
4
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R u s h w o r t h , i, 43. Ibid., 46.

'^Ibid., 44*

Ibid., 53*

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C H A P . P h e l i p s a n d a less d i s t i n g u i s h e d m e m b e r , M a l l o r y , were sent t o the X o w e r , a n d P y m was o r d e r e d t o confine h i m s e l f to his house i n L o n d o n . F i n a l l y the p a r l i a m e n t w a s d i s s o l v e d o n J a n u a r y

6, 1622.
I n f o r m e r p a r l i a m e n t s r e l i g i o n a n d t a x a t i o n h a d been t h e chief matters i n dispute between k i n g a n d c o m m o n s . I n this parliament a n e w t h e m e o f c o n t e n t i o n was found i n f o r e i g n policy. J a m e s was r e s o l v e d to pursue a course i n foreign affairs w h i c h his people c o u l d i l l u n d e r s t a n d a n d , so far as t h e y understood, a b h o r r e d . J a m e s d r e a m t t h a t he c o u l d c o m p o s e E u r o p e w i t h the h e l p o f S p a n i s h g o o d offices, h i s subjects w a n t e d t o aggrandise their c o u n t r y a n d r e l i g i o n b y a w a r w i t h Spain. J a m e s w a n t e d t o effect a S p a n i s h m a r r i a g e i n o r d e r that P h i l i p m i g h t h e l p i n r e s t o r i n g a n e n e m y o f t h e C h u r c h o f R o m e a n d a rebel against P h i l i p ' s k i n s m a n the e m p e r o r t o those l a n d s a n d honours o f w h i c h i n P h i l i p ' s e s t i m a t i o n h e h a d been m o s t r i g h t e o u s l y d e p r i v e d . H i s subjects felt t h a t a wife c o m m o n l y has some influence w i t h h e r h u s b a n d , t h a t a mother a l m o s t always has great p o w e r over her c h i l d r e n , a n d that a R o m a n catholic m a r r i a g e for P r i n c e C h a r l e s i m p l i e d p e r haps a c a t h o l i c p o l i c y i n the n e x t r e i g n , a n d p r o b a b l y a c a t h o l i c sovereign i n t h e r e i g n f o l l o w i n g . J a m e s earnestly desired to . c a l m the strife o f r e l i g i o n s , b u t b y a w a k e n i n g the reasonable fears of h i s subjects h e sharpened t h e i r c r u e l intolerance. Had he m a r r i e d h i s h e i r to a protestant princess, E n g l i s h m e n w o u l d h a v e felt secure against a c a t h o l i c r e a c t i o n j t h e house o f S t u a r t m i g h t h a v e been c o n f i r m e d o n t h e throne, the p u r i t a n s m i g h t h a v e b e c o m e less n a r r o w a n d bitter, a n d t h e struggle for fuller p o l i t i c a l a n d religious l i b e r t y , a l t h o u g h i t c o u l d not have b e e n a v o i d e d , tnight h a v e b e e n softened. T h e f o l l y o f rulers is s o m e t i m e s m o r e p r o d u c t i v e t h a n t h e i r w i s d o m , a n d t h e intolerance o f t h e E n g l i s h g o v e r n m e n t h a s h e l p e d t o diffuse the E n g l i s h race a n d speech over t h e largest p a r t of N o r t h A m e r i c a . T h o s e puritans w h o shook off a l l c o m m u n i o n w i t h t h e C h u r c h a n d b e c a m e k n o w n as B r o w n i s t s o r separatists f o u n d t h e i r c o n d i t i o n so p a i n f u l a n d dangerous i n E n g l a n d t h a t e v e n before t h e d e a t h o f E l i z a b e t h m a n y h a d emigrated t o H o l l a n d . T o fly f r o m persecution was itself a crime, since none m i g h t quit t h e k i n g d o m w i t h o u t t h e r o y a l leave w h i c h w o u l d n o t be accorded i n t h a t case. Nevertheless

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a little congregation w h i c h h a d gathered round a deprived minis- C H A P , IV. ter n a m e d R i c h a r d C l i f t o n i n t h e v i l l a g e o f S c r o o b y i n N o t t i n g h a m s h i r e , a n d h a d c o m e to a d o p t separatist o p i n i o n s , m a d e u p t h e i r m i n d s t o flee a n d j o i n t h e b r e t h r e n i n A m s t e r d a m . After a first f a i l u r e to escape b y w a y o f B o s t o n , t h e y s t r a g g l e d o v e r one b y o n e i n t h e course o f 1608. B u t finding t h a t t h e c o m m u n i t y at A m s t e r d a m , t h o u g h s m a l l ' a n d obscure, was r e n t b y t h e o l o g i c a l disputes, t h e y d e p a r t e d thence a n d d w e l t at L e y d e n f o r t h e n e x t e i g h t y e a r s , m a i n t a i n i n g themselves b y the l a b o u r o f t h e i r h a n d s a n d w o r s h i p p i n g i n peace after t h e i r o w n fashion, for t h e rep u b l i c was o f a l l great powers t h e m o s t tolerant. J o h n R o b i n s o n , a d e p r i v e d c l e r g y m a n o f N o r w i c h , succeeded C l i f t o n as t h e i r s p i r i t u a l g u i d e a n d g a v e t h e m a coherent d o c t r i n e . S t i l l t h e y d e s i r e d t o find a h o m e where t h e y m i g h t preserve t h e i r p e c u l i a r f a i t h a n d m a n n e r s i n o r i g i n a l p u r i t y a n d b e j o i n e d b y others w h o s h a r e d t h e i r tenets. A n d t h u s i n t h e y e a r 1618 they f o r m e d the resolution of e m i g r a t i n g to the n e w w o r l d . T h e y first o b t a i n e d a n i n d i r e c t assurance f r o m t h e c r o w n t h a t t h e y s h o u l d n o t be m o l e s t e d for t h e i r r e l i g i o n i n those r e m o t e l a n d s . T h e n , as t h e y p r o p o s e d to settle n e a r t h e m o u t h o f t h e H u d s o n , w i t h i n the n o r t h e r n l i m i t o f the r e g i o n assigned t o t h e V i r g i n i a C o m p a n y , t h e y o b t a i n e d t h e c o m p a n y s patent. T h e y h a d n e x t to find m o n e y , w h i c h t h e y c o u l d o n l y d o b y a n agreement w i t h a c e r t a i n T h o m a s ^A^eston t h a t h e s h o u l d f o r m a p a r t n e r s h i p to a d v a n c e t h e f u n d s a n d t o share the profits of their undertaking. I n J u l y , 1620, t h e l i t t l e b a n d left L e y d e n f o r S o u t h a m p t o n , w h e r e t h e Mayflower o f 180 t o n s a n d t h e Speedwell o f 60 w e r e w a i t i n g t o b e a r t h e m t o America. M e n , women, and children they numbered i n all a b o u t 120 persons. E a r l y i n A u g u s t t h e y cleared S o u t h a m p ton Water. T h e Speedwell was declared t o b e l e a k y , a n d at l e n g t h t h e y w e r e f o r c e d t o leave h e r b e h i n d at P l y m o u t h w i t h t h o s e w h o l o s t heart w h e n t h e y c a m e t o t r y t h e t e r r i b l e v o y a g e . O n S e p t e m b e r 6 t h e Mayflozver left P l y m o u t h , a n d o n N o vember- 9 the emigrants sighted Cape C o d ; but two months w e r e spent i n r e c o n n o i t r i n g , often u n d e r e x t r e m e h a r d s h i p , a n d a t l e n g t h t h e y p l a n t e d t h e i r settlement, n o t w h e r e t h e y h a d at first d e s i g n e d , b u t a l o n g w a y farther east a n d o u t s i d e t h e d o m a i n of the V i r g i n i a Company. I t was n o t u n t i l D e c e m b e r 11 t h a t t h e y l a n d e d o n t h e shores o f P l y m o u t h B a y , a n a m e g i v e n b y

io8

OUTBREAK

OF THE

THIRTY

YEARS'

WAR.

1620

CJIAP. a n earlier e x p l o r e r . T h e y h a d a l r e a d y d r a w n u p an i n s t r u m e n t of g o v e r n m e n t a n d c h o s e n one of t h e i r n u m b e r , J o h n C a r v e r , t o be g o v e r n o r . T h e i r sufferings w e r e o n l y b e g u n , for t h e y h a d c o m e ashore i n t h e d e p t h o f t h a t N e w E n g l a n d w i n t e r w h i c h t a x e s m o d e r n art a n d l u x u r y to m a k e i t endurable. H a l f o f t h e i r n u m b e r d i e d o f h a r d s h i p a n d disease before s u m m e r came, a l t h o u g h t h e s t r o n g m i n i s t e r e d to the w e a k w i t h a c o n stancy and a charity w h i c h more orthodox Christians have not a l w a y s s h o w n i n s u c h severe trials. H a d not t h e I n d i a n s b e e n l a t e l y a l m o s t swept a w a y b y pestilence, t h e settlement w o u l d scarcely h a v e s u r v i v e d m a n y m o n t h s . W h e n s u m m e r came t h e severest t r i a l o f t h e c o l o n y w a s over. T h e n e w governor, W i l l i a m B r a d f o r d , p r o v e d e m i n e n t l y fit for h i s difficult office. Soon the colonists h a d ensured their o w n subsistence, a n d b y 1625 t h e y h a d a surplus o f c o m for sale t o t h e natives. I n 1627 t h e y c l o s e d their c o n n e c t i o n w i t h W e s t o n s p a r t n e r s h i p , w h i c h t r a n s f e r r e d its interest t o s i x o f t h e chief m e n o f P l y m o u t h . O t h e r settlers c a m e out a n d n e w establishments were f o r m e d i n M a s s a c h u s e t t s B a y . I n 1629 Massachusetts received its first c h a r t e r f r o m t h e c r o w n . It r e m a i n e d a p u r i t a n c o l o n y t h r o u g h o u t , b u t its p u r i t a n i s m w a s fiercer a n d m o r e i n t o l e r a n t t h a n t h a t o f t h e p i l g r i m fathers w h o founded P l y m o u t h .
1

CHAPTER
T H E C L O S E O F

V.
O F J A M E S I.

T H E R E I G N

N o w t h a t J a m e s h a d q u a r r e l l e d w i t h the c o m m o n s , h e c o u l d n o t l o o k f o r p a r l i a m e n t a r y s u p p l y , a n d w i t h o u t t h a t s u p p l y he c o u l d n o t w a g e w a r . N o s o v e r e i g n c a n g a i n m u c h e v e n b y the m o s t s k i l f u l d i p l o m a c y w h e n h i s r i v a l s a n d e n e m i e s are c o n v i n c e d t h a t h e c a n n o t fight. J a m e s was forced t o rest a l l his hopes f o r the r e c o v e r y o f the P a l a t i n a t e o n the g o o d offices o f P h i l i p , w h i l e P h i l i p was freed f r o m the h a u n t i n g fear w h i c h a l o n e c o u l d m a k e h i m desirous o f g r a t i f y i n g J a m e s . A s P h i l i p was secure, t h e e m p e r o r m i g h t e x a c t t h e full p e n a l t y f r o m F r e d erick w i t h o u t r e g a r d t o t h e wishes o f t h e K i n g o f E n g l a n d . I n G e r m a n y t h e n e e d for a c t i o n b e c a m e m o r e p r e s s i n g e v e r y m o m e n t . J a m e s g a v e out t h a t he w o u l d s e n d 8,000 f o o t a n d 1,600 horse t o F r e d e r i c k ' s h e l p , a n d , i n o r d e r t o raise funds, he a d d e d to t h e i m p o s i t i o n s a n d d e m a n d e d a benevolence. But these m e a n s w e r e w h o l l y inadequate a n d the force n e v e r c a m e i n t o b e i n g . C o u n t T i l l y a n d t h e B a v a r i a n t r o o p s i n concert w i t h t h e S p a n i s h forces d r o v e F r e d e r i c k a n d M a n s f e l d out o f t h e L o w e r Palatinate. H e i d e l b e r g was taken b y T i l l y o n September 6, M a n h e i m fell i n the f o l l o w i n g m o n t h , a n d b y the e n d o f N o v e m b e r F r e d e r i c k ' s b a n n e r w a v e d over F r a n k e n t h a l alone. J a m e s was s t e a d i l y d r i v e n b a c k u p o n t h a t last^ e x p e d i e n t , a m a r r i a g e t r e a t y w i t h S p a i n . P h i l i p a n d his a d v i s e r s a b h o r r e d t h e t r e a t y i n t h e i r hearts a n d w e r e resolved i n a n y case n o t to m a k e w a r a g a i n s t the e m p e r o r , b u t t h e y m e a n t to h o l d t h e b a i t o f a m a r r i a g e before the E n g l i s h k i n g as l o n g as p o s s i b l e , a n d at l e n g t h t o l a y the w h o l e b l a m e o f d i s a p p o i n t m e n t u p o n the pope's resistance. T o a i d i n the conduct of t h i s t h o r n y business, G o n d o m a r h a d been recalled f r o m E n g l a n d i n M a y . A t M a d r i d
log

C H A P ,

no

THE CLOSE

OF THE REIGN

OF JAMES

1622

C H A P , he w o r k e d w i t h h i s usual s k i l l t o f u r t h e r t h e negotiation, for h e r e a l l y t h o u g h t the m a r r i a g e d e s i r a b l e , i f c o n c l u d e d o n terms o f sufficient advantage to S p a i n . T h e court o f R o m e after m a t u r e deliberation r e q u i r e d f o r its assent t o t h e m a r r i a g e c o n d i t i o n s so severe as to threaten a n e n d o f t h e treaty. T h e infanta s c h a p e l was t o be o p e n to a l l w h o w i s h e d to enter , a l l her servants were to be catholic * t h e priests o f h e r h o u s e h o l d were to be free f r o m subjection to t h e l a w o f the l a n d , h e r c h i l d r e n were to be educated b y t h e i r m o t h e r , the b o y s u n t i l fourteen, the girls u n t i l t w e l v e years o f age. A general liberty of worship for catholics w a s also d e m a n d e d , a n d the h o p e was expressed that the K i n g o f K n g l a n d h i m s e l f m i g h t return to the true faith. E v e n J a m e s w a s p r o v o k e d b y these demands i n t o dec l a r i n g that, i f h i s f o r m e r offers were n o t accepted w i t h i n t w o months, the n e g o t i a t i o n m u s t e n d . B u t he c o u l d not forego a h o p e so l o n g cherished, a n d h e s a w n o other means o f h e l p i n g F r e d e r i c k . H e was u r g e d i n t h e same d i r e c t i o n b y the j o i n t influence o f h i s favourite a n d of h i s o n l y s o n . Charles, P r i n c e o f W a l e s , h a d reached his twenty-second year. After a brief period o f i l l - w i l l he h a d fallen under B u c k i n g h a m s fascination, a n d was t h u s l e d t o interest h i m s e l f i n the project o f a S p a n i s h m a r r i a g e . H e h a d even offered to v i s i t M a d r i d incognito, i f G o n d o m a r o n h i s r e t u r n h o m e s h o u l d approve o f the adventure. I n o r d e r t o l e a r n h o w such a v i s i t w o u l d be taken, the friends sent E n d y m i o n P o r t e r , a client o f B u c k i n g h a m a n d g e n t l e m a n o f t h e p r i n c e s bedchamber, o n a secret m i s s i o n to M a d r i d . T h e I n f a n t a M a r i a , t h e destined v i c t i m o f a l l these d i p l o m a t i s t s , a g o o d s i m p l e g i r l o f n a r r o w u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d i r r e p r o a c h a b l e p i e t y , l o a t h i n g a heretic for a h u s b a n d , t o l d O l i v a r e s t h a t she w o u l d rather g o to a n u n n e r y , a n d besought P h i l i p t o save h e r w i t h so m u c h fervour that his heart relented a n d he b a d e O l i v a r e s f i n d s o m e w a y out o f the m a r r i a g e t r e a t y . T h e k i n g a n d his m i n i s t e r were, n o t w i t h standing, resolved to p l a y the c o m e d y as l o n g as possible, i n the hope that R o m e w o u l d b r e a k off the i n t r i g u e w h e n necessary. T h e y n o longer i n s i s t e d that t h e infanta's chapel s h o u l d be o p e n to the p u b l i c . T h e y w o u l d b e content that she s h o u l d h a v e t h e education o f h e r c h i l d r e n t o t h e age o f n i n e . They would accept an i n f o r m a l letter f r o m t h e k i n g a n d p r i n c e , p r o m i s i n g to refrain f r o m a n y persecution o f t h e catholics, t o a l l o w t h e m ,
v

1623

PLANS

OF CHARLES

AND

BUCKINGHAM.

i n

i n fact, t h e free e x e r c i s e o f their r e l i g i o n i n t h e i r o w n houses. C H A P . T h e y p r o m i s e d t h e i r b e s t endeavours w i t h the p o p e t o accept t h i s c o m p r o m i s e a n d t o s a n c t i o n the m a r r i a g e w i t h o u t d e l a y . B u t t h e y d e c l i n e d s u m m o n i n g t h e e m p e r o r to surrender t h e towns o f the Palatinate w i t h i n a fixed time. E n d y m i o n P o r t e r , b e a r i n g t h e a m e n d e d articles o f t h e m a r r i a g e treaty, reached E n g l a n d i n the b e g i n n i n g o f J a n u a r y , i6"23 J a m e s a n d C h a r l e s s i g n e d t h e m w i t h o u t d e m u r as w e l l as t h e l e t t e r r e q u i r e d b y P h i l i p , b u t t h i s was n o t to be d e l i v e r e d u n t i l the dispensation h a d come from R o m e . The king might flatter h i m s e l f t h a t h i s p o l i c y was o n the v e r g e o f success. He consented that Charles should visit M a d r i d , intending probably that, w h e n the n e g o t i a t i o n h a d been c o m p l e t e d , the p r i n c e s h o u l d e m b a r k o n t h e fleet w h i c h w o u l d s a i l u n d e r B u c k i n g h a m ' s c o m m a n d to fetch h o m e the i n f a n t a . T h e friends p r o posed to do something more romantic. T h e y would travel post t o M a d r i d , break i n u p o n the solemn Spanish court and c o n v i n c e the i n f a n t a o f h e r lover's d e v o t i o n b y the t o i l a n d p e r i l w h i c h he h a d e n d u r e d for h e r sake. In February they t o l d t h e k i n g w h a t t h e y w i s h e d to d o a n d he a g a i n assented. O n the n e x t day his m i n d misgave h i m . A t that t i m e t h e p e r s o n o f a p r i n c e was o f m o r e account i n p o l i t i c s t h a n n o w , a n d the s a n c t i t y o f i n t e r n a t i o n a l l a w was less c o n s i d e r e d . S h o u l d t h e K i n g o f S p a i n f i n d the h e i r o f E n g l a n d i n h i s p o w e r , h e m i g h t be t e m p t e d to h o l d h i m as a p l e d g e f o r further concessions i n the m a r r i a g e treaty, i f for n o other object. The j o u r n e y across F r a n c e w a s not w i t h o u t danger. A n affectionate, n a y , a d o t i n g parent, J a m e s resolved, n o t i n d e e d to f o r b i d t h e a d v e n t u r e , b u t to b e g his s o n a n d servant that t h e y w o u l d l a y i t aside.
v

C h a r l e s a n d B u c k i n g h a m h a d n a m e d for the c o m p a n i o n s o f t h e i r j o u r n e y F r a n c i s C o t t i n g t o n , the prince's secretary, a n d E n d y m i o n P o r t e r . W h e n , therefore, t h e y came to the k i n g t o settle the details, he sent f o r C o t t i n g t o n , a n d a s k e d w h a t h e t h o u g h t o f the j o u r n e y . Cottington i n much agitation replied t h a t h e c o u l d n o t t h i n k w e l l o f it, J a m e s fell b a c k o n h i s b e d w e e p i n g a n d c r y i n g o u t that h e s h o u l d lose " B a b y C h a r l e s W h i l e C h a r l e s out o f respect s t o o d silent, B u c k i n g h a m r a t e d C o t t i n g t o n l i k e a slave, t o l d t h e k i n g that, i f he n o w r e c a l l e d h i s p e r m i s s i o n , he w o u l d be c o v e r e d w i t h shame, a n d f o r c e d h i m

U2
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t o a n absolute surrender o f h i s fears a n d scruples.* Cottington a n d P o r t e r w e r e sent before to hire a vessel, a n d o n F e b r u a r y 17 the p r i n c e a n d B u c k i n g h a m set out i n d i s g u i s e w i t h a few attendants. O n the 19th t h e y l a n d e d at B o u l o g n e a n d o n t h e 21st t h e y reached P a r i s , w h e r e C h a r l e s at a masque b e h e l d h i s future bride, the Princess H e n r i e t t a M a r i a . T h e n r i d i n g post across F r a n c e , t h e y o u n g m e n reached t h e f r o n t i e r o n M a r c h 2. F i v e d a y s later t h e y d i s m o u n t e d at B r i s t o l ' s house i n M a d r i d . G o n d o m a r was soon i n f o r m e d o f t h e i r a r r i v a l a n d c a r r i e d the news to O l i v a r e s . S t r a n g e i n itself, the adventure w a s d o u b l y s u r p r i s i n g t o S p a n i s h statesmen, w h o h a d a l w a y s seen t h e i r o w n princes s u b m i t e v e r y i m p u l s e to a r i g i d , a l m o s t O r i e n t a l etiquette. Olivares c o u l d not believe that C h a r l e s h a d acted t h u s w i t h o u t a n y serious m e a n i n g , a n d , as he c o u l d n o t i m a g i n e a m a n earnest i n a n y f a i t h save t h a t o f R o m e , h e i n f e r r e d t h a t t h e p r i n c e m u s t h a v e c o m e to M a d r i d resolved to c h a n g e h i s r e l i g i o n . I f t h i s w e r e so, O l i v a r e s c o u l d reconcile e v e r y c o n t r a d i c t i o n . T h e m a r r i a g e w o u l d b e c o m e desirable i n t h e eyes o f h i s k i n g a n d c o u n t r y m e n , the scruples o f the i n f a n t a w o u l d be h u s h e d , E n g l a n d w o u l d p r o b a b l y r e t u r n to the catholic faith, a n d a l l a n x i e t y a b o u t Ger~ m a n politics w o u l d be assuaged. P h i l i p s h a r e d his minister's satisfaction a n d the p r i n c e was w e l c o m e d w i t h e v e r y refinement o f S p a n i s h courtesy. O n M a r c h 8, B u c k i n g h a m h a d a n i n t e r v i e w w i t h O l i v a r e s , a n d o n t h e n e x t d a y P h i l i p m e t C h a r l e s for t h e first t i m e . Then followed a strange i n t r i c a c y o f m u t u a l m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g a n d falsehood. A l t h o u g h B u c k i n g h a m d e c l a r e d t h a t the p r i n c e h a d n o i n t e n t i o n o f f o r s a k i n g his r e l i g i o n , O l i v a r e s professed t h e utm o s t zeal to hasten the marriage. Charles and Buckingham w r o t e h o m e that the p o p e w a s the o n l y h i n d r a n c e , a n d s o u n d e d the k i n g about a c k n o w l e d g i n g h i m as h e a d o f C h r i s t e n d o m . E v e n B r i s t o l was m o v e d b y current r u m o u r t o ask the p r i n c e whether h e r e a l l y m e a n t t o b e c o m e a c a t h o l i c . F i n d i n g t h a t Charles w a s r e s o l v e d not t o c h a n g e h i s r e l i g i o n , B r i s t o l a d v i s e d h i m to s p e a k out, since the S p a n i s h c o u r t w o u l d d e l a y t h e d i s pensation as l o n g as h e s e e m e d t o w a v e r . S o i t p r o v e d . O l i Clarendon, ch. xliii.
1

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vares, t h r o w i n g a l l the b l a m e o f d e l a y u p o n R o m e , h i n t e d that C H A P , t h e prince's p r o m i s e o f full f r e e d o m t o the E n g l i s h catholics w o u l d e n d the matter. B u c k i n g h a m h a d n o p o w e r t o g o b e y o n d h i s m a s t e r s p r o m i s e t o c o n n i v e at the c a t h o l i c w o r s h i p i n private. T h e n Olivares turned to the N u n c i o D e M a s s i m i , w h o pron o u n c e d t h i s concession unsure a n d inadequate. Olivares, no l o n g e r d e s i r i n g t o effect the m a r r i a g e , sent the D u k e o f P a s t r a n a , a m b a s s a d o r t o R o m e , n o m i n a l l y to hasten the d i s p e n s a t i o n , r e a l l y t o ensure the pope s refusal. I t was t o o late. Before P a s t r a n a c o u l d reach R o m e , O l i v a r e s learnt that t h e c a r d i n a l s h a d r e s o l v e d t o g r a n t the d i s p e n s a t i o n . I t came, b u t c l o g g e d w i t h h a r d c o n d i t i o n s . I t was n o t to b e d e l i v e r e d u n t i l the p r i n c e h a d g i v e n s e c u r i t y for h i s p r o m i s e s , a n d P h i l i p h a d s w o r n that he w o u l d e x a c t performance f r o m E n g l a n d even b y a r m s i f necessary. A t the s a m e t i m e the m a r r i a g e articles h a d been a l t e r e d i n s e v e r a l respects t o h a r m o n i s e w i t h the former d e m a n d s o f Rome. Charles made little w a y w i t h his wooing. A solemn visit t o t h e i n f a n t a d i d n o t prepossess h e r i n h i s favour. A n att e m p t t o a p p r o a c h her m o r e f a m i l i a r l y i n t h e palace g a r d e n m e r e l y p u t h e r to flight. I n o t h e r w a y s h e f o u n d h i m s e l f i l l at ease. K i n g J a m e s h a d sent out a n u m b e r o f g e n t l e m e n a n d servants to m a k e a fitting r e t i n u e for his son. U p o n a h i n t f r o m the S p a n i s h m i n i s t e r s , C h a r l e s t h o u g h t w e l l t o b i d most of them return f r o m Santander, where they h a d disembarked. H e was n o t a l l o w e d t o hear the E n g l i s h C h u r c h s e r v i c e i n the palace. B u c k i n g h a m ' s arrogant i l l - m a n n e r s g a v e g e n e r a l offence to t h e S p a n i a r d s a n d p r o v o k e d a personal f e u d w i t h O l i v a r e s . * Y e t C h a r l e s was p r e p a r e d t o m a k e a n y concess i o n , b i n d h i m s e l f b y a n y u n d e r t a k i n g , sooner t h a n a c k n o w l e d g e t h a t h i s b o y i s h enterprise h a d b e e n a f o l l y . S t e p b y step h e g a v e w a y t o t h e theologians w h o g u a r d e d P h i l i p s conscience. F i n a l l y t h e y declared t h a t t h e i n f a n t a m u s t r e m a i n i n S p a i n f o r a y e a r after her m a r r i a g e . I n the interval the freedom granted to the catholics must be p u b l i c l y proclaimed i n E n g l a n d ; the k i n g , t h e p r i n c e , a n d the p r i v y c o u n c i l l o r s m u s t swear t h a t i t w o u l d n e v e r b e r e v o k e d , a n d t h e y m u s t at least m a k e s o m e progress i n g e t t i n g t h e a p p r o v a l o f parliament. C h a r l e s a g a i n
1

Gardiner, ch. xliv., has shown that B u c k i n g h a m ' s ill-manners were only VOL. VII.

a m i n o r cause of the final rupture.

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y i e l d e d a n d sent C o t t i n g t o n t o E n g l a n d to ask f o r the k i n g ' s consent t o t h e latest articles. Careless o f h i s o w n d i g n i t y a n d o n l y l o n g i n g t o see h i s son once m o r e , J a m e s agreed t o t h e s e h a r d t e r m s , b u t u r g e d C h a r l e s to r e t u r n w i t h o u t d e l a y . P h i l i p a n d C h a r l e s s i g n e d the m a r r i a g e contract o n the u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a t t h e i n f a n t a s h o u l d n o t g o to E n g l a n d u n t i l t h e s p r i n g , a l t h o u g h the c e r e m o n y was to be p e r f o r m e d as soon as J a m e s h a d s w o r n to the articles a n d the pope h a d g i v e n h i s a p p r o v a l . T h e tedious t r e a t y seemed at l e n g t h c o m p l e t e a n d the p r i n c e m i g h t d e e m h i m s e l f the b e t r o t h e d of t h e i n f a n t a . S o o n afterwards it was k n o w n that J a m e s a n d the p r i v y c o u n c i l h a d s w o r n t o the m a r r i a g e articles. Charles a n d B u c k i n g h a m desired t h e k i n g t o c o m m a n d their r e t u r n , m order t h a t t h e y m i g h t press for a s p e e d y celebration of t h e marriage a n d that they might take the infanta w i t h t h e m , a favour w h i c h t h e y s t i l l h o p e d to o b t a i n . B u t on this point P h i l i p was f i r m . R e l i g i o u s s q u a b b l e s between the p r i n c e s attendants a n d t h e S p a n i s h priests l e d P h i l i p t o r e q u i r e t h a t C h a r l e s s h o u l d d i s m i s s e v e r y p r o t e s t a n t i n h i s train. Charles n e x t learnt t h a t t h e K i n g o f S p a i n w o u l d n o t quarrel w i t h the emperor t o please h i m n o r p r o m i s e t o effect t h e restoration o f the E l e c t o r P a l a t i n e . T h e d e l i v e r y o f t h e d i s p e n s a t i o n was d e l a y e d b y the illness a n d d e a t h o f G r e g o r y X V . , a n d at l e n g t h P h i l i p t o l d C h a r l e s t h a t he c o u l d best further the c o m p l e t i o n o f the m a r r i a g e b y r e t u r n i n g t o E n g l a n d t o advise h i s father. O n A u g u s t 28 C h a r l e s s o l e m n l y s w o r e t o the m a r r i a g e treaty a n d u n d e r t o o k t o leave h i s p r o x y i n B r i s t o l ' s h a n d s . H e t h e n bade f a r e w e l l t o t h e i n f a n t a a n d w e n t w i t h t h e k i n g t o s p e n d one or t w o d a y s at the E s c u r i a l . O n S e p t e m b e r 2 he p a r t e d f r o m Philip. E a c h testified t h e w a r m e s t affection for the other, b u t P h i l i p r e j o i c e d t o feel that h i s l o n g e m b a r r a s s m e n t was n e a r l y over, a n d C h a r l e s felt a l l the s u l l e n rage o f a y o u t h w h o has been d u p e d f o r t h e first t i m e . H i s passion for the i n f a n t a , at best n o m o r e t h a n a l a d s caprice, was a l l t u r n e d i n t o a l o n g i n g f o r freed o m . T h e n e x t d a y h e w r o t e f r o m S e g o v i a to B r i s t o l t o w i t h h o l d the p r o x y u n t i l s e c u r i t y h a d been g i v e n that the i n f a n t a , even a l t h o u g h b e t r o t h e d , w o u l d n o t save herself f r o m a detested u n i o n b y g o i n g i n t o a c o n v e n t . O n the 12th h e r e a c h e d S a n t ander, a n d a few d a y s l a t e r h e s a i l e d for E n g l a n d , l a n d i n g at P o r t s m o u t h , O c t o b e r 5. T h e n a t i o n was d e l i g h t e d to w e l c o m e

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t h e p r i n c e h o m e , d o u b l y d e l i g h t e d because h e h a d c o m e w i t h o u t the infanta. W i t h h i m came B u c k i n g h a m , w h o m James h a d c r e a t e d a d u k e w h i l e h e y e t h o p e d t h a t the v i s i t t o M a d r i d m i g h t p r o v e successful. C h a r l e s p o u r e d f o r t h to h i s f a t h e r a l l h i s p e n t - u p b i t t e r n e s s a g a i n s t t h e S p a n i a r d s , a n d J a m e s l e a r n t t h e failure o f t h e s c h e m e o n w h i c h h e h a d l a v i s h e d so m u c h v a i n t o i l a n d f o r w h i c h h e h a d s t o o p e d to so m a n y h u m i l i a t i o n s . A t n o t i m e , h o w e v e r , c o u l d J a m e s w i t h s t a n d the i m p e t u o u s w i l l o f a n y p e r s o n w h o m h e l o v e d , a n d n o w t h a t h e was v i s i b l y d e c l i n i n g he b e c a m e t h e p a s s i v e i n s t r u m e n t o f h i s s o n a n d f a v o u r i t e to u n r a v e l t h e w o r k o f a n x i o u s years. T h e k i n g wrote to B r i s t o l that the marriage c o u l d not take place until satisfaction h a d been given regarding the Palatinate. T h e K i n g of S p a i n naturally replied that h e c o u l d d o n o m o r e t h a n u r g e r e s t i t u t i o n t o F r e d e r i c k ' s descendants. J a m e s n e x t d e m a n d e d t h a t t h e infanta's w h o l e d o w r y s h o u l d be p a i d i n ready money, a t h i n g quite i m p o s s i b l e , a n d o r d e r e d B r i s t o l to l e a v e S p a i n u n l e s s P h i l i p c o m p l i e d w i t h i n twenty days. M e a n t i m e t h e n e w pope, U r b a n V I I I . , h a d authorised the nuncio to deliver the dispensation, a n d the d a t e f o r t h e c e r e m o n y , N o v e m b e r 29* h a d b e e n f i x e d . Only t h r e e d a y s before t h a t d a y B r i s t o l r e c e i v e d a p e r e m p t o r y o r d e r for p o s t p o n e m e n t . P h i l i p thereupon stopped all preparations for t h e m a r r i a g e a n d o r d e r e d t h e i n f a n t a t o cease h e r s t u d y o f the E n g l i s h language. T h e i m p r u d e n c e o f James a n d Charles h a d a l l o w e d h i m to withdraw honourably from an alliance w h i c h he h a d never desired.
1

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I >

I n w i s h i n g t o s h o w f o r b e a r a n c e t o w a r d s c a t h o l i c s at h o m e a n d t o l i v e i n peace w i t h c a t h o l i c s a b r o a d , J a m e s was w i s e r t h a n m o s t o f h i s subjects a n d m a y c l a i m t h e r e g a r d o f l a t e r ages. B u t h e w a s g u i l t y o f a gross b r e a c h o f t r u s t i n c o n s e n t i n g t o m a k e t h e p o s i t i o n o f h i s c a t h o l i c subjects a m a t t e r o f b a r g a i n with a foreign power. H e made a fatal mistake when he a b a n d o n e d t h e h i g h p l a c e w h i c h h e i n h e r i t e d f r o m E l i z a b e t h as chief o f the protestant w o r l d . A t a t i m e when religious hatreds w e r e so p o w e r f u l , conflicts b e t w e e n r e l i g i o n s were i n e v i t a b l e
1

G a r d i n e r , c h . xliii.-xlv., has given the first full and trustworthy account It is curious and interesting a n d throws a s t r o n g

o f the prince's visit to M a d r i d .

light o n the character of Charles.

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a n d t h e m e r e d i s l i k e o f w a r was n o t a p o l i c y . A g o o d m a n w o u l d n o t h a v e s o u g h t a q u a r r e l w i t h a n y c a t h o l i c power, b u t a brave m a n w o u l d not h a v e s h r u n k f r o m t a k i n g h i s p a r t i n t h e defence o f p r o t e s t a n t i s m . C o n c e i t o f h i s office l e d J a m e s i n t o t h i n k i n g t h a t nations h a v e n o u g h t t o d o w i t h h i g h m y s teries o f state w h i c h s h o u l d b e left t o m o n a r c h s a l o n e . Conceit o f h i s o w n w i s d o m suggested t h a t h i s b r o t h e r m o n a r c h s w o u l d b o w t o h i s a w a r d , h o w e v e r i t m i g h t m o r t i f y t h e i r interest or t h e i r conscience. C a r i n g at b o t t o m far m o r e about t h e i n heritance o f h i s g r a n d c h i l d r e n t h a n a b o u t t h e r e l i g i o n o r f r e e d o m of h a l f E u r o p e , he h o p e d t o g a i n h i s e n d s b y negotiation w i t h the a s p i r i n g house o f A u s t r i a , a n d t h e i n f l e x i b l e court o f R o m e . T h e w o r l d was to be s t i l l e d b y t h e m a r r i a g e of a b o y a n d a g i r l , a n d emperor a n d p o p e were t o c o n f i n e t h e m s e l v e s w i t h i n the b o u n d s traced b y the K i n g o f E n g l a n d . B u t t h e m a r c h o f t h e counter-reformation c o u l d n o t be s t a y e d b y e x c h a n g i n g c i v i l i ties w i t h its chiefs. A l l t h a t J a m e s a c h i e v e d b y h i s elaborate d i p l o m a c y was to a n n u l t h e w e i g h t o f h i s o w n k i n g d o m , to fulfil the r u i n o f his son-in-law, t o p r o l o n g the w a r i n G e r m a n y , a n d t o b r i n g the p r o t e s t a n t cause t o t h e v e r y v e r g e o f destruction. A new p o l i c y , i t m i g h t s e e m t h e reverse of the o l d one, was to be t r i e d for t h e recovery o f t h e P a l a t i n a t e , b u t u n d e r auspices w h i c h scarcely a l l o w e d a r e a s o n a b l e h o p e o f success. O f the t w o thoughtless y o u n g m e n w h o w e r e s c h e m i n g a g r a n d attack on the K i n g o f S p a i n a n d t h e e m p e r o r , B u c k i n g h a m was i m p e l l e d b y p i q u e solely, C h a r l e s b y a m i x t u r e o f p i q u e w i t h c o n c e r n for h i s unfortunate sister, a n d b o t h were e q u a l l y hasty, e q u a l l y i g n o r a n t o f the state o f E u r o p e , e q u a l l y i n c a p a b l e o f g r a s p i n g a n y c o m p l e x question o r f r a m i n g a n y coherent s y s t e m . T h e y set e a g e r l y to w o r k . A s a w a r w i t h S p a i n w o u l d be p o p u lar, t h e y p e r s u a d e d t h e k i n g to c a l l a n e w p a r l i a m e n t w i t h o u t delay. B r i s t o l was o r d e r e d t o r e t u r n h o m e t h a t h e m i g h t g i v e a n account o f h i s conduct, t h a t is, p a y t h e p e n a l t y o f h a v i n g d i s pleased B u c k i n g h a m at M a d r i d . T h e D u t c h were i n v i t e d t o appoint c o m m i s s i o n e r s for n e g o t i a t i n g a n a l l i a n c e w i t h E n g l a n d . A m b a s s a d o r s w e r e to v i s i t t h e k i n g s o f D e n m a r k a n d S w e d e n , the princes o f N o r t h G e r m a n y , t h e D u k e o f S a v o y a n d t h e R e public of Venice, a n d enlist a l l these powers i n the war against the house o f H a p s b u r g . T h e Q u e e n - M o t h e r o f F r a n c e h a v i n g

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h i n t e d t h a t she was r e a d y t o b e s t o w h e r y o u n g e s t d a u g h t e r , H e n r i e t t a M a r i a , u p o n t h e P r i n c e o f W a l e s , it w a s resolved to s e n d H e n r y R i c h , V i s c o u n t K e n s i n g t o n , a m b a s s a d o r to P a r i s , i n o r d e r t o c l e a r the w a y for a m a r r i a g e t r e a t y . S o l i t t l e h a d C h a r l e s p r o f i t e d b y h i s late e x p e r i e n c e t h a t , w h i l e p r e p a r i n g for a p r o t e s t a n t w a r a n d i n f l a m i n g the protestant passions o f E n g l a n d , h e was as f o r w a r d as e v e r t o w e d a c a t h o l i c bride. T h e last p a r l i a m e n t o f J a m e s I. m e t o n F e b r u a r y 19, 1624. I n t e m p e r the n e w h o u s e o f c o m m o n s s t r o n g l y r e s e m b l e d those w h i c h h a d g o n e before. A l l the o l d leaders o f the p o p u l a r p a r t y h a d f o u n d seats, a n d t h e y were j o i n e d b y t w o y o u n g e r colleagues o f e x t r a o r d i n a r y gifts, J o h n S e l d e n , s e c o n d o n l y to B a c o n i n b r e a d t h a n d acuteness o f m i n d , a n d s e c o n d t o n o n e i n deep a n d v a r i e d l e a r n i n g ; a n d S i r J o h n E l i o t , a m a n o f generous a n d h e r o i c t e m p e r a n d u n r i v a l l e d eloquence, a l t h o u g h n o t a l w a y s fars e e i n g o r sure i n j u d g m e n t . M o s t o f the m e m b e r s w e r e s t a u n c h protestants, w i l l i n g t o enact n e w penalties a g a i n s t recusants a n d t o m a k e w a r o n S p a i n , b u t l i t t l e a c q u a i n t e d w i t h f o r e i g n affairs a n d v e r y l o a t h t o e n g a g e i n c o n t i n e n t a l wars. So completely h a d J a m e s b e e n u n n e r v e d b y the f a i l u r e o f his dearest hopes, t h a t h e c o n d e s c e n d e d to ask the a d v i c e o f the houses u p o n t h o s e q u e s t i o n s o f f o r e i g n p o l i c y w h i c h heretofore he h a d r e s e r v e d t o himself. B u c k i n g h a m t o l d t h e houses the s t o r y o f the prince's l a t e a d v e n t u r e , i n s i s t i n g that the S p a n i a r d s h a d n e v e r m e a n t t o k e e p t h e i r p r o m i s e o f h e l p t o w a r d s r e g a i n i n g the P a l a t i n a t e , a n d u r g i n g t h a t the t r e a t y w i t h S p a i n s h o u l d be d r o p p e d as f r u i t less. S o far h i s hearers w e r e r e a d y t o believe a n d a p p l a u d . T h e l o r d s r e s o l v e d t o a s k t h e k i n g t o b r e a k off a l l further n e g o t i a t i o n . I n t h e c o m m o n s t h e n e e d for a s s u r i n g f r e e d o m o f s p e e c h w a s pressed b y E l i o t , b u t t h e m a t t e r was s h e l v e d b y reference t o a c o m m i t t e e . T h e h o u s e r e v e r t e d t o f o r e i g n affairs a n d p e t i t i o n e d t h e k i n g t o act i n defence o f protestantism. T h e y were disposed to m a k e a grant, but they wished it to be spent i n r e p a i r i n g t h e fortresses, s t r e n g t h e n i n g the g a r r i s o n o f I r e l a n d , fitting o u t a fleet, a n d s u c c o u r i n g t h e D u t c h r e p u b l i c , measures a l l o f t h e m p r e l i m i n a r y to a m a r i t i m e w a r w i t h S p a i n . A c c o r d i n g l y , w h e n J a m e s r e c e i v e d t h e deputations f r o m t h e houses, i t a p p e a r e d h o w far w e r e h i s t h o u g h t s f r o m t h e t h o u g h t s o f the commons. H e w a n t e d a b o v e a l l t h i n g s to r e c o v e r t h e P a l a -

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CHAP, tinate, a n d therefore to use h i s best efforts i n C e n t r a l E u r o p e , w h i l e he s t i l l h o p e d to a v o i d a S p a n i s h war. T h e n h e was i n debt a n d w a r l i k e preparations w e r e c o s t l y . M o n e y he m u s t have, but the m o n e y f o r t h e w a r s h o u l d be p a i d over to treasurers a p p o i n t e d b y the p a r l i a m e n t , w h i c h w o u l d t h u s be assured t h a t the g r a n t h a d been e x p e n d e d a c c o r d i n g t o its i n tention. A few d a y s afterwards he e s t i m a t e d h i s w a n t s at s i x subsidies a n d t w e l v e fifteenths, about 780,000 i n a l l . T h e c o m m o n s r e t u r n e d to t h e i r house i n a v e r y b a d temper. " T h e P a l a t i n a t e , " said S i r F r a n c i s S e y m o u r , " w a s the p l a c e intended b y his majesty. T h i s w e never t h o u g h t of, n o r is i t fit for the consideration o f the house i n r e g a r d o f t h e i n f i n i t e charge.' E l i o t s u m m e d u p the sense o f the c o m m o n s i n a f e w significant words. " A r e w e p o o r ? S p a i n is rich. T h e r e are our Indies. B r e a k w i t h t h e m j we s h a l l break o u r necessities together." A breach between the c o m m o n s a n d t h e c r o w n was averted b y the p r i n c e a n d B u c k i n g h a m , w h o d e s i r e d a w a r i n the Palatinate, it is true, b u t d e s i r e d a w a r w i t h S p a i n even m o r e B u c k i n g h a m coerced the k i n g a n d C h a r l e s s o o t h e d the houses i n t o s e e m i n g h a r m o n y . T h e c o m m o n s v o t e d t h r e e s u b sidies a n d three fifteenths, less t h a n h a l f o f the o r i g i n a l d e m a n d , while the k i n g declared h i m s e l f w i l l i n g to b r e a k o f f a l l f u r t h e r treaty w i t h S p a i n . B u t the c o m m o n s h a d p u t o n r e c o r d t h a t their g r a n t was m a d e f o r the purposes a b o v e - n a m e d , a n d the k i n g , w h i l e a p p r o v i n g o f those purposes, s h u n n e d a n y m e n t i o n o f a S p a n i s h w a r a n d a v o w e d that his one a i m w a s t o r e c o v e r the Palatinate.
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T h e S p a n i s h e n v o y s t r i e d as a last desperate resource t o shake the credit o f B u c k i n g h a m w i t h h i s master. T h e y dwelt o n the favourite's insolent a n d d o m i n e e r i n g w a y s , a n d assured J a m e s t h a t B u c k i n g h a m was r e s o l v e d to m a k e h i m a t o o l o r even to d e t h r o n e h i m i f h e c o n t i n u e d obstinate. T h e s e accusations o n l y hastened the f a l l o f the m i n i s t e r m o s t d e s i r o u s t o preserve peace w i t h S p a i n . T h e l o r d treasurer, M i d d l e s e x , h a d l o n g been at variance w i t h B u c k i n g h a m , w h o t h o u g h t t h a t he ha.d p r o m p t e d the ambassadors. B u c k i n g h a m resolved to ruin M i d d l e s e x , a n d easily d r e w C h a r l e s i n t o e n c o u r a g i n g an i m p e a c h m e n t for c o r r u p t i o n i n h i s office. T h e house o f
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c o m m o n s w a s w i l l i n g e n o u g h , a n d J a m e s v a i n l y w a r n e d his s o n C H A P , a n d h i s f a v o u r i t e that t h e y w o u l d l i v e t o h a v e m o r e t h a n t h e y wanted of impeachments. M i d d l e s e x h a d apparently done some i n e x c u s a b l e t h i n g s . C o k e a n d S a n d y s c a r r i e d u p the articles o f i m p e a c h m e n t , a n d o n M a y 13 t h e treasurer was f o u n d g u i l t y b y t h e l o r d s a n d sentenced t o b e f o r ever i n c a p a b l e o f office u n d e r t h e c r o w n , to be e x c l u d e d f r o m p a r l i a m e n t a n d the court, to p a y a fine o f 50,000, a n d t o b e i m p r i s o n e d d u r i n g t h e k i n g ' s pleasure. A s usual, the heaviest p a r t o f the sentence was rem i t t e d , b u t M i d d l e s e x was b a n i s h e d f r o m p u b l i c life. T h e p r o c e e d i n g a g a i n s t h i m was t h e first i m p e a c h m e n t i n the s t r i c t sense o f t h a t t e r m b r o u g h t a g a i n s t a m i n i s t e r o f the c r o w n since the i m p e a c h m e n t o f the D u k e o f S u f f o l k i n 1450. T h e a l l i a n c e o f the p r i n c e a n d B u c k i n g h a m w i t h the p o p u l a r p a r t y r e n d e r e d possible the act a g a i n s t m o n o p o l i e s w h i c h i s the one m e m o r a b l e statute o f the r e i g n o f J a m e s I. B y this act the l a w was p l a c e d a l m o s t o n its present footing. Monopolies g e n e r a l l y w e r e m a d e v o i d , a n d a l l questions as t o w h a t c o n s t i t u t e d a m o n o p o l y were to be j u d g e d i n the courts o f c o m m o n l a w . P e r s o n s t r y i n g to stay o r d e l a y a n y a c t i o n o n a m o n o p o l y b y m e a n s o f a n y a u t h o r i t y o t h e r t h a n the court w h e r e i n i t was p e n d i n g w e r e to suffer the p e n a l t y o f a pr&inumre. Existing patents o f twenty-one years o r less w e r e to be v a l i d , i f g r a n t e d t o t h e i n t r o d u c e r s o f n e w manufactures. S i m i l a r patents f o r f o u r t e e n years o r less m i g h t b e g r a n t e d i n future. A s a v i n g was also inserted f o r p r i v i l e g e s c o n f e r r e d b y a n y f o r m e r statute. A l t h o u g h s o m e v e x a t i o u s m o n o p o l i e s w e r e established i n t h e r e i g n o f C h a r l e s I., the influence o f t h i s s t a t u t e u p o n t h e later course o f E n g l i s h c o m m e r c e a n d i n d u s t r y has b e e n incalculable. B u t the t e m p e r o f J a m e s , a l w a y s i r r i t a b l e , h a d n o w b e c o m e senile. T h e sense o f f a i l u r e a n d o f impotence,^ the p e r p l e x i t i e s o f t h e s i t u a t i o n a b r o a d , the i m p e a c h m e n t o f M i d d l e s e x , the i m p o r t u n i ties o f t h e c o m m o n s for h a r s h measures against the recusants a n d for a war w i t h Spain, h a d wrought h i m to a querulous e x a s p e r a t i o n , a n d he p r o r o g u e d t h e p a r l i a m e n t o n N o v e m b e r 2 w i t h as l i t t l e grace as o n a n y f o r m e r occasion. I n M a y , K e n s i n g t o n w a s j o i n e d at P a r i s b y the E a r l o f
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M a r i a w a s pressed f o r w a r d . T h e d i f f i c u l t y o f r e l i g i o n i m m e d i a t e l y arose. J a m e s h a d p r o m i s e d t h e c o m m o n s a n d C h a r l e s h a d s w o r n i n the l o r d s t h a t n o t r e a t y o f t h i s k i n d s h o u l d affect the c o n d i t i o n o f c a t h o l i c recusants. A c c o r d i n g l y the E n g l i s h representatives h a d b e e n i n s t r u c t e d n o t t o e n t e r i n t o a n y b a r g a i n regarding the treatment of catholics i n E n g l a n d . T h e F r e n c h c o m m i s s i o n e r s p r o p o u n d e d articles f o r a m a r r i a g e t r e a t y o n the m o d e l o f those f o r m e r l y agreed o n b e t w e e n E n g l a n d a n d S p a i n . T h e E n g l i s h ambassadors refused e v e n t o discuss t h e m , a n d were supported for a moment b y the resolution o f their master. T h a t r e s o l u t i o n was soon u n d e r m i n e d b y t h e arts o f the n e w ambassador, the M a r q u i s o f Effiat. J a m e s , c o m p l y i n g w i t h a s u g g e s t i o n m a d e b y the F r e n c h m i n i s t e r L a V i e u v i l l e , u n d e r t o o k t o e x p r e s s i n a p r i v a t e letter t o L o u i s his b e n i g n i n t e n t i o n s t o w a r d s h i s c a t h o l i c subjects, b u t L o u i s w a s so l i t t l e satisfied w i t h t h i s i n f o r m a l e n g a g e m e n t t h a t he d i s m i s s e d L a V i e u v i l l e for h a v i n g p r o p o s e d it. R i c h e l i e u succeeded to power. A l t h o u g h not a bigot, he h a d the keenest sense o f w h a t was d u e t o t h e m a j e s t y o f F r a n c e , t o h i s o w n character as a c a r d i n a l , a n d t o h i s p o l i c y o f h u m b l i n g t h e house o f A u s t r i a w i t h o u t s e e m i n g to f o r g e t the interests o f the C h u r c h o f R o m e . H e required that an article i n f a v o u r o f the E n g l i s h c a t h o l i c s s h o u l d be i n s e r t e d i n the treaty. J a m e s a n d C h a r l e s refused t o a d m i t s u c h a n a r t i c l e . B u t after s o m e w r a n g l i n g the w e a k m i n d b e n t before t h e s t r o n g , and the K i n g o f E n g l a n d accepted the v e r y f o r m u l a dictated b y C a r d i n a l R i c h e l i e u , t h o u g h s t i l l i n s i s t i n g t h a t i t m u s t be e m bodied i n a letter a n d f o r m no part o f the treaty. The privy c o u n c i l was i n d u c e d t o a p p r o v e w h a t he h a d d o n e , a n d K e n s i n g t o n was r e w a r d e d w i t h the t i t l e o f E a r l o f H o l l a n d . A s t h e k i n g could not meet parliament without o w n i n g his weakness, h e p r o r o g u e d i t afresh u n t i l F e b r u a r y , 1625. E v e n then the F r e n c h government was not content I t s t i l l rejected the f o r m o f a letter a n d d e m a n d e d t h a t t h e p r o m i s e o f t o l e r a t i o n t o catholics s h o u l d b e c o u c h e d i n a f o r m a l e n g a g e m e n t , a l t h o u g h this engagement m i g h t remain private a n d not appear i n the marriage treaty. A g a i n J a m e s s t r u g g l e d , hesitated, y i e l d e d . H e entered i nto a private engagement w i t h L o u i s that the E n g l i s h catholics s h o u l d e n j o y a l l the l i b e r t y w h i c h h a d b e e n assured to t h e m b y t h e m a r r i a g e articles w i t h S p a i n , a n d t h i s

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p r o m i s e w a s s u b s c r i b e d b y the P r i n c e o f W a l e s . T h e m a r r i a g e C H A P , treaty, s i g n e d b y the ambassadors o n N o v e m b e r 10, was ratified ^" b y t h e k i n g o n D e c e m b e r 12. A f e w d a y s later, orders were issued t o s u s p e n d a l l proceedings against R o m a n catholics, to set those i m p r i s o n e d at l i b e r t y a n d t o r e p a y a l l fines. It rem a i n e d t o be seen w h a t h e l p i n m e n o r m o n e y f o r t h e r e c o v e r y o f t h e P a l a t i n a t e h a d been p u r c h a s e d b y e n t e r i n g i n t o a n a g r e e m e n t w h i c h c o u l d neither b e k e p t w i t h safety n o r b r o k e n with honour.
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T h e F r e n c h k i n g i n h e r i t e d a feud w i t h the house o f A u s t r i a a n d w a s desirous o f w e a k e n i n g the S p a n i s h k i n g , whose d o m i n ions s e e m e d t o encompass a n d t h r e a t e n his o w n , b u t he was n o t eager t o b e f r i e n d G e r m a n heretics. Y e t s o m e t h i n g must be d o n e t o a m u s e t h e K i n g o f E n g l a n d . Count Mansfeld, whose t r a d e h a d been s p o i l t i n G e r m a n y b y the success o f the i m p e r i a l armies, was a n x i o u s to f i n d a n e w e m p l o y e r a n d a n e w field o f profit a n d h o n o u r . L o u i s expressed himself w i l l i n g t o share the e x p e n s e o f p r o v i d i n g M a n s f e l d w i t h an a r m y w h i c h m i g h t u n d e r t a k e a G e r m a n c a m p a i g n . W h e n the o l d s o l d i e r o f fortune v i s i t e d E n g l a n d i n A p r i l , the s i m p l e p u b l i c w e l c o m e d h i m as a protestant hero, a n d the k i n g u n d e r t o o k to f i n d 10,000 foot a n d 3*000 horse a n d t o p a y for their support 20,000 a m o n t h , if the K i n g o f F r a n c e w o u l d d o l i k e w i s e . A c o u n c i l o f w a r , consisting o f the m e n m o s t n o t e d for s k i l l a n d e x p e r i e n c e , w a s established to e x e r c i s e a g e n e r a l d i r e c t i o n o v e r m i l i t a r y affairs. I n J u n e the k i n g c o n c l u d e d a t r e a t y w i t h the D u t c h r e p u b l i c b y w h i c h he w a s t o m a i n t a i n for t w o y e a r s a b o d y o f 6,000 troops for the defence o f D u t c h t e r r i t o r y . As H o l l a n d w a s n o t threatened b y a n y assailant save the S p a n i a r d s , such a n alliance on modern principles i m p l i e d war w i t h S p a i n ; but i t w a s t h e n deemed possible for a state t o a i d one belligerent, y e t r e m a i n at peace w i t h t h e o t h e r \ a n d J a m e s strove to the l a s t t o a v o i d a direct b r e a c h w i t h P h i l i p . H e h a d r e a l l y n o f u n d s w h e r e w i t h to d e f r a y M a n s f e l d ' s e x p e d i t i o n , since the modest s u p p l y g r a n t e d b y the c o m m o n s h a d b e e n e x p r e s s l y a p p r o p r i a t e d t o other purposes for w h i c h it was b a r e l y sufficient, a n d h a d b e e n p a i d over to treasurers o f
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C H A P , their choice. T h e s e treasurers w o u l d a d v a n c e nothing" save o n a w r i t t e n o r d e r f r o m t h e c o u n c i l o f war, a n d t h e c o u n c i l refused t o m a k e s u c h a n order e x c e p t f o r one o f t h e purposes m e n t i o n e d i n t h e statute. N o r h a d J a m e s y e t r e a c h e d a definite u n d e r s t a n d i n g w i t h a n y o f the G e r m a n princes, n o r h a d a n y coherent p l a n o f c a m p a i g n i n G e r m a n y been settled. A l l these objections were o v e r - r i d d e n b y t h e eagerness o f t h e k i n g , the prince, a n d t h e d u k e t o s t r i k e a b l o w for t h e P a l a t i n a t e . T h e c o u n c i l o f w a r was i n d u c e d t o w a i v e its scruples, a n d o n its orders the p a r l i a m e n t a r y treasurers i s s u e d 15,000 f o r l e v y i n g the troops promised t o M a n s f e l d a n d 40,000 to p a y t h e m f o r the n e x t two m o n t h s . W h e r e p a y w a s t o be f o u n d after that t i m e h a d elapsed was m o r e t h a n u n c e r t a i n ; b u t i t w a s h o p e d that a s u d d e n success w o u l d k i n d l e zeal at h o m e a n d a t t r a c t allies a b r o a d . T h e one w a r l i k e enterprise o f t h e r e i g n was n o t destined to shed a n y g l o r y o n its close. A s E n g l a n d possessed n o regular a r m y , a n d n o n e were l i k e l y t o v o l u n t e e r for such a service, the m e n w h o m M a n s f e l d r e q u i r e d w e r e f o u n d b y i m p r e s s m e n t . S i n c e a l l w h o h a d friends o r m o n e y c o u l d e v a d e impressment, its v i c t i m s w e r e u s u a l l y the m o s t unfortunate o r t h e most w o r t h less o f the c o m m u n i t y ; i n t h e w o r d s o f Shakespeare, " such as indeed were never soldiers, b u t d i s c a r d e d , unjust s e r v i n g m e n , y o u n g e r sons t o younger b r o t h e r s , r e v o l t e d tapsters a n d ostlers trade-fallen j t h e cankers o f a c a l m w o r l d a n d l o n g peace ^7Vhen the p o o r wretches b e g a n t h e i r w i n t r y m a r c h f r o m a l l parts o f t h e r e a l m towards D o v e r , t h e i r d e s p a i r i n g faces m o v e d the p i t y o f t h e onlookers. ^When t h e y m u s t e r e d there towards Christmas, t h e m o n e y issued f r o m t h e treasury h a d been spent a n d n o m o r e was f o r t h c o m i n g . N o s h i p s w e r e r e a d y a n d n o food h a d b e e n p r o v i d e d . T o save t h e i r lives m a n y deserted, a n d m a n y w a n d e r e d about K e n t r o b b i n g a n d b r e a k i n g i n t o houses. B y t h i s t i m e i t h a d b e c o m e apparent that t h e E n g l i s h a n d F r e n c h g o v e r n m e n t s were n o t o f o n e m i n d r e g a r d i n g t h e e x pedition. I n E n g l a n d i t w a s a s s u m e d that M a n s f e l d w o u l d be a l l o w e d t o d i s e m b a r k h i s soldiers i n a F r e n c h port, w o u l d then take o v e r the F r e n c h contingent, a n d w o u l d m a r c h w i t h his whole force b y t h e d i r e c t r o a d across F r a n c e t o t h e R h i n e land. B u t w h i l e M a n s f e l d ' s c o m m i s s i o n f r o m J a m e s e x p r e s s l y forbade h i m t o molest S p a n i s h t e r r i t o r y , L o u i s , c a r i n g n o t h i n g

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for t h e P a l a t i n a t e , h a d f r o m t h e first resolved t o m a k e the e x - C H A P , p e d i t i o n a m e a n s o f e m b r o i l i n g E n g l a n d w i t h S p a i n o r else to w i t h d r a w f r o m i t altogether. I n t h e p r e v i o u s J u l y the S p a n i a r d s u n d e r S p i n o l a h a d l a i d siege to B r e d a , t h e m a i n b u l w a r k of the D u t c h frontier, a n d the D u t c h w e r e n o t s t r o n g e n o u g h to a t t e m p t its relief. L o u i s therefore p r o p o s e d t h a t JMansfeld s h o u l d j o i n forces w i t h t h e P r i n c e o f O r a n g e to raise the siege. J a m e s s t i l l refused t o m a k e d i r e c t w a r o n S p a i n a n d assured P h i l i p t h a t he w o u l d n o t a l l o w M a n s f e l d t o attack t h e N e t h e r l a n d s . T h e r e u p o n L o u i s refused t o let M a n s f e l d pass t h r o u g h F r e n c h t e r r i t o r y a n d p r o p o s e d that h e s h o u l d t a k e h i s t r o o p s t o H o l l a n d , w h e r e the P r i n c e o f O r a n g e , w h o s t i l l h o p e d t o use t h e m for t h e r e l i e f o f B r e d a , was u r g i n g t h e S t a t e s - G e n e r a l t o r e c e i v e t h e m h o s p i t a b l y . A t t h e e n d o f J a n u a r y , 1625, the E n g l i s h government u n w i l l i n g l y gave way, and M a n s f e l d sailed w i t h h i s r a g g e d r e g i m e n t s to F l u s h i n g . J a m e s h a d n o m o n e y o r s u p p l i e s t o send, b u t h e s t i l l refused t o l e t t h e D u t c h e m p l o y the m e n against S p i n o l a . D i s e m b a r k e d on a foreign l a n d i n the depth o f winter, without lodging, without food and almost w i t h o u t clothes, t h e s t a r v i n g s o l d i e r s f e l l s i c k a n d d i e d b y hundreds. B y the e n d o f M a r c h , o u t o f 12,000 scarcely onef o u r t h w e r e fit for service. L o u i s h a d reduced his contingent t o a h a n d f u l o f c a v a l r y , a n d these also w e r e t h i n n e d b y sickness a n d desertion. F a r f r o m re-conquering the Palatinate, what rem a i n e d of M a n s f e l d ' s a r m y c o u l d n o t cross t h e f r o n t i e r , b u t l a y h e l p l e s s u n d e r cover o f the D u t c h fortresses. T h e alliance of E n g l a n d a n d F r a n c e h a d p r o v e d b a r r e n o f a n y g o o d result.
v >

I t was, however, fruitful of embarrassment. T h e natural d i s t r u s t a n d fear w i t h w h i c h the H u g u e n o t s regarded t h e i r c a t h o l i c sovereign a n d f e l l o w - c o u n t r y m e n l e d s o m e o f t h e m at t h i s t i m e i n t o a n u n w i s e revolt, a n d the great m a r i t i m e c i t y o f R o c h e l l e b e c a m e the centre o f resistance. Louis, who d i d not possess a n a v y fit to cope w i t h its cruisers, a s k e d h i s allies, t h e D u t c h a n d t h e E n g l i s h , to l e n d h i m ships. T h e D u t c h g o v e r n m e n t c o u l d g r a n t the request w i t h o u t hesitation, for a l l D u t c h m e n r e g a r d e d t h e g o o d - w i l l o f F r a n e e as v i t a l t o t h e i r safety. J a m e s also p r o m i s e d h e l p , b u t n o measure c o u l d b e m o r e c o n t r a r y to E n g l i s h p u b l i c o p i n i o n o r m o r e l i k e l y to increase the difficulty of m a n a g i n g parliament, w h i c h was again prorogued. M e a n w h i l e t h e prince's m a r r i a g e was r e t a r d e d f o r

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C H A P , lack of the papal dispensation. A l t h o u g h granted i n N o v e m ber, i t d i d n o t r e a c h P a r i s u n t i l F e b r u a r y . T h e pope h a d e x a c t e d c o n d i t i o n s m o r e onerous t h a n those o f the m a r r i a g e treaty, i n c l u d i n g the r e q u i r e m e n t o f a p u b l i c written assurance o f r e l i g i o u s freedom t o t h e E n g l i s h catholics. E v e n J a m e s w o u l d n o t consent t o s u c h a n act o f f o l l y , a n d R i c h e l i e u was n o t d i s p o s e d t o d r i v e h i m to e x t r e m i t y . L o u i s u n d e r t o o k that, i f t h e p o p e d i d n o t w i t h d r a w his d e m a n d s w i t h i n t h i r t y days, the m a r r i a g e s h o u l d be c e l e b r a t e d w i t h o u t a d i s p e n s a t i o n . Before the i n t e r v a l h a d elapsed J a m e s was n o m o r e . A t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f the y e a r J a m e s l e a r n t the result o f h i s embassies t o t h e n o r t h e r n k i n g d o m s . Gustavus A d o l p h u s , K i n g o f S w e d e n , s t i l l y o u n g i n years b u t m a t u r e as a s o l d i e r a n d a statesman, was r e a d y to c h a m p i o n t h e protestant cause i f f u r n i s h e d w i t h means sufficient t o afford reasonable h o p e o f success. A great force w o u l d be necessary, a n d he e x p e c t e d E n g l a n d to bear o n e - t h i r d o f t h e charge. C h r i s t i a n IV*. o f D e n m a r k , b r a v e a n d active, but f a r i n f e r i o r t o G u s t a v u s i n j u d g m e n t , was r e a d y to t a k e t h e field w i t h a m u c h s m a l l e r a r m y a n d o n l y a s k e d E n g l a n d t o m a i n t a i n 6,000 foot a n d 1,000 horse at a charge o f perhaps 180,000 a y e a r . What G u s t a v u s a s k e d was n o t too m u c h for v i c t o r y , a n d w h a t C h r i s t i a n a s k e d was m o r e t h a n E n g l a n d c o u l d afford. I n s u c h cases i t is wise to s p e n d l a r g e l y o r to s p e n d n o t h i n g . J a m e s d e c l i n e d t h e proposals o f the S w e d e a n d l i s t e n e d f a v o u r a b l y to those o f t h e D a n e \ b u t the m a k i n g o f an a l l i a n c e was reserved for h i s successor. H e suffered m u c h f r o m gout, a n d t h e cares a n d d i s a p p o i n t m e n t s o f t h e last t w o y e a r s h a d p r e y e d u p o n h i s spirits. I n M a r c h , 1625, w h e n s t a y i n g at T h e o b a l d s , w h i c h h e h a d a c q u i r e d f r o m L o r d S a l i s b u r y i n e x c h a n g e for H a t f i e l d , h e was seized w i t h a n ague w h i c h h e c o u l d n o t s h a k e off. A l t h o u g h h e w o u l d n o t o b e y h i s p h y s i c i a n s , he t o o k remedies from B u c k i n g h a m a n d Buckingham's mother which had no effect, a n d w e r e afterwards m a d e proofs o f a n i n t e n t to a d minister poison. H e r a l l i e d once o r twice, b u t o n the 24th became so i l l t h a t the l o r d keeper, B i s h o p W i l l i a m s , a s k e d for t h e prince's leave to t e l l h i m t h a t he was d y i n g . O n t h e s a m e d a y the b i s h o p a d m i n i s t e r e d t h e c o m m u n i o n a n d o n t h e 2 / t h K i n g J a m e s d i e d . H i s queen, A n n e o f D e n m a r k , h a d d i e d s i x years before.

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H e was o n e o f those m e n w h o s e f a i l i n g s are r a t h e r e n - C H A P , h a n c e d t h a n c u r e d b y t i m e . H i s r e i g n was v o i d o f g r e a t events ^* a n d far f r o m g l o r i o u s . B u t we s h o u l d be a s c r i b i n g too m u c h consequence t o p o l i t i c a l i n t r i g u e s a n d ecclesiastical quarrels i f w e t h o u g h t o f t h o s e y e a r s as b a r r e n o r miserable. T h e peace w h i c h J a m e s m a i n t a i n e d w i t h s o m e loss o f h o n o u r a n d t h e l i g h t t a x a t i o n e n s u r e d b y t h e w a n t o f h a r m o n y between c r o w n a n d p a r l i a m e n t were favourable t o i n d u s t r y , c o m m e r c e , a n d t h e a c c u m u l a t i o n o f riches. A b r o a d the f o u n d a t i o n s o f a n i m m e n s e c o l o n i a l e m p i r e w e r e l a i d a l m o s t w i t h o u t effort a n d w i t h o u t notice. T h e E n g l i s h g a i n e d t h e i r first f o o t h o l d i n t h e E a s t I n d i e s . T h e p l e n t y a n d c o m f o r t w h i c h h a d m a r k e d the later years of E l i z a b e t h were equally apparent under James, a n d the m i d d l e class c o n t i n u e d t o g r o w i n n u m b e r s a n d self-confidence. A b o v e a l l , the r e i g n o f J a m e s d i v i d e s w i t h the r e i g n o f E l i z a b e t h t h e h o n o u r s o f the m o s t s p l e n d i d p e r i o d o f E n g l i s h literature. T o t h a t r e i g n b e l o n g t h e later p l a y s o f S h a k e s p e a r e a n d n e a r l y a l l t h e p l a y s o f B e a u m o n t a n d F l e t c h e r , as w e l l as the noblest m o n u m e n t o f E n g l i s h prose, the a u t h o r i s e d version o f the S c r i p tures. T h e s a m e r e i g n w i t n e s s e d t h e b i r t h o f a n e w i n t e l l e c t u a l m o v e m e n t i n t h e p u b l i c a t i o n o f t h e Novum Organum. The k i n g seems to have h a d l i t t l e f e e l i n g o f these marvels. He l o v e d b o o k s a n d l e a r n e d m e n , b u t h i s t h o u g h t s were t u r n e d t o C h u r c h a n t i q u i t i e s a n d t h e o l o g i c a l debate.

CHAPTER
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F I R S T A N D S E C O N D P A R L I A M E N T S O F C H A R L E S I.

CHAP.
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C H A R L E S w a s i n h i s t w e n t y - f i f t h y e a r w h e n h e became K i n g o f E n g l a n d . T h e p u b l i c are p r o n e t o t h i n k k i n d l y o f a n e w s o v e r e i g n a n d C h a r l e s a p p e a r e d w o r t h y o f h i s h i g j i office. I n c o n t r a s t w i t h h i s father, h e was a n a c t i v e a n d v i g o r o u s m a n , o f n o b l e a n d graceful b e a r i n g . T h e m a n y p o r t r a i t s b y V a n d y k e h a v e m a d e h i s face as f a m i l i a r as t h o u g h he h a d l i v e d a m o n g us a n d h a v e i n v e s t e d features n o t i n themselves b e a u t i f u l w i t h a l l the c h a r m t h a t a g r e a t master c a n bestow. C h a r l e s w a s p e r s o n a l l y b r a v e a n d he h a d m a n y o f the virtues t h a t d i g n i f y p r i v a t e life. B y h i s strict fidelity to his queen he set a n e x a m p l e as r a r e as i t w a s p r a i s e w o r t h y a m o n g the sover e i g n s o f t h a t t i m e . H e was s i n c e r e l y r e l i g i o u s w i t h o u t t h e t h e o l o g i c a l p e d a n t r y o f h i s father., H e was i n d u s t r i o u s i n the r o u t i n e o f k i n g s h i p . H e h a d a better taste m the fine arts a n d i n e l e g a n t l i t e r a t u r e t h a n a n y k i n g o f E n g l a n d before o r since. H e spoke a n d wrote correctly a n d w i t h dignity, although w i t h o u t t h e o c c a s i o n a l touches o f h u m o u r o r o f i n s i g h t w h i c h relieved the garrulity of James. S u c h a k i n g might i n ordinary times have reigned in happiness a n d w i t h h o n o u r . B u t a n e x t r a o r d i n a r y t i m e disclosed i n C h a r l e s t h o s e f a u l t s o f i n t e l l e c t a n d c h a r a c t e r w h i c h descended l i k e h e i r l o o m s i n the house o f S t u a r t . W i t h a l l h i s c u l t u r e C h a r l e s l a c k e d i m a g i n a t i o n a n d therefore l a c k e d i n s i g h t . He wanted the statesmanlike faculty of d i v i n i n g how a policy w i l l i m p r e s s g r e a t masses o f p l a i n m e n . H e c o u l d n o t b e n d h i s m i n d t o accept u n p l e a s a n t facts o r a c k n o w l e d g e to h i m s e l f t h a t m e n m i g h t h o n e s t l y t h i n k o t h e r w i s e t h a n he d i d . H e a d o p t e d i n g o o d f a i t h the d o c t r i n e o f a b s o l u t e s o v e r e i g n t y w h i c h h i s father h a d so c a r e f u l l y t a u g h t i h e a c t e d o n t h a t
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d o c t r i n e so far as circumstances a l l o w e d , a n d w h e n i t failed C H A P . h i m i n p r a c t i c e he h a d n o other p o l i t i c a l compass. N o r had h e t h e g i f t o f c h o o s i n g s u c h advisers as m i g h t best s u p p l y h i s o w n defects. H e f o l l o w e d the g u i d a n c e of those w h o m he l o v e d a n d w h o m he c e r t a i n l y d i d n o t choose f o r t h e i r p o l i t i c wisdom. F i r s t Buckingham, then L a u d , and lastly Henrietta M a r i a b o r e greater s w a y w i t h h i m t h a n a n y other c o u n c i l l o r . M u c h as t h e y differed i n other respects, t h e y w e r e a l i k e i n b e i n g the m o s t dangerous persons w h o c o u l d t h e n h a v e g a i n e d t h e ear o f a k i n g o f E n g l a n d . I n t h e course o f the c i v i l w a r h e a l l o w e d m o r e w e i g h t to the f a n c i f u l schemes o f a n i n t r i g u e r l i k e D i g b y t h a n to the r e a s o n i n g o f a statesman l i k e H y d e . C h a r l e s c o u l d n e v e r h a v e p l a c e d i n a n y superior m i n d t h a t i m p l i c i t confidence w h i c h L o u i s X I I I . p l a c e d i n R i c h e l i e u . H i s w o r s t m o r a l fault, i t has b e e n often a n d t r u l y s a i d , was i n s i n c e r i t y . I n a strait h e w o u l d p r o m i s e a l m o s t a n y t h i n g a n d t r u s t t o chance to save h i m f r o m k e e p i n g h i s w o r d . A s he a c t e d at M a d r i d w h e n a y o u t h , so he a c t e d at H a m p t o n Court or Carisbrooke when a grey and discrowned k i n g , and h e w r o u g h t h i s o w n v i o l e n t e n d b y c o n v i n c i n g o n e p a r t y after a n o t h e r t h a t w i t h C h a r l e s t h e y c o u l d m a k e no stable agreement. V i e w i n g a l l resistance t o h i s w i l l as either w i c k e d o r a b s u r d , he f e l t as l i t t l e scruple i n d e c e i v i n g a n o p p o n e n t as c o m m o n m e n w o u l d feel i n u s i n g falsehood to d i s a r m a b u r g l a r o r a m a d m a n .
V L

T h e n e w k i n g received f r o m h i s f a t h e r a n inheritance o f difficulties. I n the C h u r c h the d i v i s i o n between parties w i d e n e d d a y by day. H a l f - h e a r t e d p e r s e c u t i o n h a d w r o u g h t its u s u a l effect i n m a k i n g the puritans narrower a n d more militant. M a n y p u r i t a n s n o w r e g a r d e d the C h u r c h as t h o r o u g h l y c o r r u p t , a n d episcop a c y as c o n t r a r y to the W o r d o f G o d . I n o p p o s i t i o n to the p u r i t a n s there h a d arisen a p a r t y w h i c h t h e y t e r m e d A r m i n i a n a n d w h i c h i n E n g l a n d m a y be t e r m e d A n g l o - c a t h o l i c . T h e 3ustere a n d d o g m a t i c t e m p e r o f C a l v i n h a d a t t r a c t e d m a n y o f t h e m o s t intense m i n d s i n the first age o f t h e reform a t i o n , a n d as the C a l v i n i s t s b o r e t h e b r u n t o f t h e s t r u g g l e w i t h R o m e i n W e s t e r n E u r o p e , t h e i r influence w a s w i d e a n d deep. I n F r a n c e , i n S c o t l a n d , a n d i n H o l l a n d , C a l v i n i s m was a l m o s t co-extensive w i t h p r o t e s t a n t i s m . I t left a n i m p r e s s e v e n u p o n t h e C h u r c h o f E n g l a n d w h i c h h a d been r e f o r m e d b y r o y a l a u t h o r i t y i n t h e m o s t conservative s p i r i t . B u t a s y s t e m

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CHAP, so n a r r o w a n d r i g i d c o u l d not a l w a y s satisfy m i n d s w h i c h the r e i o r m a t i o n nad. excited, to mQepenaenc t n o u g n t . m nonana a s t a n d a r d o f r e v o l t w a s raised b y J a m e s H e r m a n s z o o n , better k n o w n as A r m i n i u s , a l e a r n e d a n d a m i a b l e m a n w h o denied t h e C a l v i n i s t d o c t r i n e r e g a r d i n g grace a n d predestination. H e f o u n d so m a n y adherents a m o n g the w e a l t h y a n d c u l t i v a t e d class t h a t a difference o f o p i n i o n i n d i v i n i t y t h r e a t e n e d to p r o d u c e a political schism. M a u r i c e , P r i n c e o f O r a n g e , s t r o n g i n the a t t a c h m e n t o f the a r m y a n d the c o m m o n people, crushed the A r m i n i a n s as a p o l i t i c a l faction. T h e S y n o d o f D o r t , w h i c h m e t i n 161p,, reasserted the C a l v i n i s t doctrines, c o n d e m n e d the A r m i n i a n s as a sect, a n d g a v e the s i g n a l for their persecution. K i n g James of E n g l a n d , a Calvinist b y early training, although n o t b y i n s t i n c t i v e s y m p a t h y , sent d i v i n e s t o represent h i m at D o r t a n d a p p r o v e d the conclusions o f the s y n o d . Y e t at this v e r y t i m e a n d w i t h his encouragement a reaction against C a l v i n i s m w a s s p r e a d i n g i n his o w n k i n g d o m . T h e first reformers appealed f r o m the a u t h o r i t y o f R o m e to the S c r i p t u r e s a n d to the t e a c h i n g a n d p r a c t i c e o f the p r i m i tive C h u r c h . H u t w n i l e a l l p r o c l a i m e d S c r i p t u r e to be the f i n a l test o f t r u t h , t h e y differed i n the degree o f i m p o r t a n c e w h i c h they ascribed to Christian antiquity. T h e Calvinists t e n d e d to l a y a n e x c l u s i v e stress u p o n S c r i p t u r e a n d to d i s p a r a g e other guidance. T h e leaders o f the reaction, w h i l e a c k n o w l e d g i n g , l i k e other protestants, t h a t S c r i p t u r e was the o n e i n f a l l i b l e g u i d e i n matters o f f a i t h a n d that even a g e n e r a l c o u n c i l m i g h t err, d i d not a l l o w t h a t the i n d i v i d u a l was sufficient t o i n t e r p r e t it, but h e l d that the t r a d i t i o n a l teaching a n d usages o f t h e C h u r c h o u g h t to be accepted as b i n d i n g w h e n not i n contradiction w i t h Scripture. H e n c e their t e n d e n c y was conservative. Vvhile rejecting the d o c t r i n e o f transubstant i a t i o n , t h e y a d m i t t e d the d o c t r i n e o f the R e a l Presence a n d r e g a r d e d t h e sacrament as far m o r e t h a n a s i m p l e c o m m e m o r a t i v e rite. T h e c l e r g y i n their eyes h a d a h i g h e r a n d m o r e m y s terious character t h a n belongs t o m e n m e r e l y set apart to t e a c h religious t r u t h a n d give an example of good living. Government b y bishops w a s n o t m e r e l y a l a w f u l f o r m o f C h u r c h g o v e r n ment, b u t t h e o n l y f o r m w h i c h h a d D i v i n e sanction. W i t h o u t bishops there c o u l d be n o true C h u r c h , a n d w i t h o u t a p o s t o l i c succession n o true bishops.

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T h e y a d m i r e d that magnificence i n s a c r e d b u i l d i n g s w h i c h C H A P , has a l w a y s d i s t i n g u i s h e d the C h u r c h o f R o m e a n d w a s there* fore a b h o r r e d b y the C a l v i n i s t s . C o n d e m n i n g the i n v o c a t i o n o f saints a n d t h e a d o r a t i o n o f images, t h e y y e t declared statues a n d p i c t u r e s a n d stained glass w i n d o w s useful as b r i n g i n g the events o f s a c r e d h i s t o r y before the w o r s h i p p e r i n the w a y m o s t l i k e l y to s t i r h i s feelings a n d i m p r e s s h i s m e m o r y . I n the s a m e s p i r i t t h e y v a l u e d s a c r e d m u s i c a n d f a v o u r e d the r e t e n t i o n o f ceremonies. P r e a c h i n g , w h i c h , w i t h the C a l v i n i s t s a s s u m e d so e x c l u s i v e a n i m p o r t a n c e , t h e y r e g a r d e d as o n l y one means o f c o n v e y i n g D i v i n e t r u t h or e x c i t i n g religious emotion. W h i l e the C a l v i n i s t i d e n t i f i e d the C h r i s t i a n S u n d a y w i t h the J e w i s h S a b b a t h a n d e n f o r c e d its observance w i t h P h a r i s a i c r i g o u r , the A n g l o - c a t h o l i c s accepted the o l d e r a n d m o r e genial v i e w that, after t h e d i s c h a r g e o f t h e i r r e l i g i o u s duties, m e n m i g h t devote t h e rest o f t h e d a y t o i n n o c e n t e n j o y m e n t . O n the other h a n d , t h e y w e r e careful to o b s e r v e t h e festivals o f the C h u r c h w h i c h t h e e x t r e m e r C a l v i n i s t s , at least, i g n o r e d as r a g s o f p o p e r y . M o s t o f t h e differences between the t w o modes o f r e l i g i o u s t h o u g h t s p r a n g f r o m the u l t i m a t e contrast between those w h o l a i d e m p h a s i s o n the r e l a t i o n o f the i n d i v i d u a l s o u l to G o d a n d those w h o l a i d e m p h a s i s o n the c o n c e p t i o n o f a C h u r c h t h r o u g h w h i c h G o d c o m m u n i c a t e s H i s influence t o t h e i n d i vidual soul.
V I

A l t h o u g h the A n g l o - c a t h o l i c t e n d e n c y m i g h t i n one shape o r a n o t h e r be t r a c e d t h r o u g h o u t the E n g l i s h r e f o r m a t i o n , i t h a d n e v e r b e e n so m a n i f e s t o r p r o n o u n c e d as i n the t e a c h i n g o f the n e w s c h o o l , represented b y m e n l i k e N e i l e , L a u d , C o s i n , a n d Montagu. T o w a r d s the e n d o f the r e i g n o f J a m e s I. i t b e g a n t o e x c i t e a l a r m a m o n g those w h o i n c l i n e d to p u r i t a n ideas, that is, a m o n g the m a j o r i t y o f religious people. T h e A n g l o - c a t h o l i c s w e r e l e d b y a l l their habits o f t h o u g h t to j u d g e less severely t h a n m o s t E n g l i s h m e n the R o m a n C h u r c h , w h i c h , a l t h o u g h t h e y h e l d it c o r r u p t , a p p e a r e d to t h e m p a r t o f the C h u r c h o f C h r i s t . T h e y w e r e o u t o f s y m p a t h y w i t h the r e f o r m e d c o m m u n i o n s i n o t h e r lands, w h i c h , t r i e d b y t h e i r tests, were w a n t i n g i n s o m e o f the essential m a r k s o f a true C h u r c h . H e n c e the A n g l o - c a t h o l i c s were r e g a r d e d b y m a n y as t r a i t o r s t o the protestant cause, a n d m o r e d a n g e r o u s t h a n o p e n enemies. In spite o f a l l t h e i r l e a r n e d a r g u m e n t s a g a i n s t the C h u r c h o f R o m e , V O L . VII. 9

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C H A P , a great part o f t h e p u b l i c d e e m e d t h e m R o m a n i s t s i n disguise, a n d feared a n d h a t e d t h e m a c c o r d i n g l y . T h e d i s l i k e felt f o r t h e A n g l o - c a t h o l i c s w a s deepened b y their p o l i t i c a l o p i n i o n s . T h e y w e r e a m i n o r i t y w h o desired t o r e f o r m the C h u r c h o n t h e i r o w n p r i n c i p l e s , a n d s a w n o w a y so p r o m p t as t o g a i n the h e l p o f t h e c r o w n . T h e y l o o k e d t o t h e sovereign to c o m p e l a l i k e t h e R o m a n c a t h o l i c a n d t h e p u r i t a n i n t o their m i d d l e course. T o g a i n h i s f a v o u r some w e n t e v e n b e y o n d earlier d i v i n e s i n e x a l t i n g t h e p r e r o g a t i v e , w h i c h t h e y l o v e d to represent as a b s o l u t e a n d i n c a p a b l e o f l i m i t a t i o n . T h e y addressed t h e k i n g i n l a n g u a g e w h i c h , even w h e n w e a l l o w f o r t h e m a n n e r s o f t h a t age, is p a i n f u l l y servile. Thus they attracted t h e i l l - w i l l o f m a n y w h o , a l t h o u g h t h e y m i g h t not have c a r e d to t a k e p a r t i n t h e o l o g i c a l disputes, regarded t h e A n g l o - c a t h o l i c s as enemies t o t h e liberties o f E n g l a n d . T h e y gained, however, the f a v o u r o f K i n g J a m e s , a n d i n K i n g C h a r l e s t h e y h a d a c o n v i n c e d adherent. N o E n g l i s h sovereign since the b e g i n n i n g o f t h e r e f o r m a t i o n h a d so h i g h l y reverenced t h e priestly, a b o v e a l l t h e e p i s c o p a l office. I n t h e contest o f t h e A n g l o - c a t h o l i c s w i t h t h e p u r i t a n s , C h a r l e s w a s neither spectator n o r umpire, b u t a d e v o t e d a d h e r e n t o f o n e p a r t y . H e n c e i n h i s r e i g n the r e l i g i o u s c o n t r o v e r s y w a s i n e x t r i c a b l y b l e n d e d w i t h the political, a n d lent i t a n i n t e n s i t y w h i c h r e s u l t e d i n c i v i l w a r . P o l i t i c s b o t h at h o m e a n d a b r o a d w o r e a far less f a v o u r a b l e aspect t h a n w h e n J a m e s h a d ascended t h e t h r o n e . T h e foreign p o l i c y a d o p t e d b y C h a r l e s w h i l e y e t P r i n c e o f ^A/ales h a d cost m u c h , a n d w o u l d i n t h e f u t u r e cost f a r m o r e . T h e a g r e e m e n t to m a i n t a i n 6,000 E n g l i s h t r o o p s i n t h e service o f t h e StatesG e n e r a l i n v o l v e d a y e a r l y e x p e n s e o f 100,000. Mansfeld's e x p e d i t i o n , so u n h o p e f u l l y b e g u n , w o u l d cost 20,000 a m o n t h , or 240,000 a year. I n M a y , C h a r l e s b o u n d h i m s e l f to p a y the K i n g o f D e n m a r k 30,000 a m o n t h , o r 360,000 a year. W h i l e the k i n g w a s o v e r w h e l m e d w i t h projects a n d expenses, his allies were u n a b l e o r u n w i l l i n g t o g i v e h i m m u c h assistance.^ T h e D u t c h p r o m i s e d t o s e n d t w e n t y ships w i t h t h e E n g l i s h fleet w h e n i t s h o u l d p u t to sea, a n d a l l o w e d C h a r l e s to recall 2,000 E n g l i s h s o l d i e r s s e r v i n g i n t h e i r armies. B u t the F r e n c h k i n g c o u l d n o t be persuaded, e v e n b y B u c k i n g h a m as ambassador, t o j o i n i n a g r a n d a t t a c k o n t h e S p a n i s h N e t h e r lands i n the hope o f a n n e x i n g A r t o i s i f v i c t o r i o u s . W i t h t h e

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H u g u e n o t s i n a r m s , L o u i s was m o r e t h a n ever u n d e r catholic C H A P , influence. H e offered to subsidise the K i n g o f D e n m a r k , to c o n t i n u e b e a r i n g his p a r t o f M a n s f e l d ' s expenses, a n d to send M a n s f e l d a f e w F r e n c h horse ; b u t he w o u l d do n o m o r e . C h a r l e s was therefore c o n s t r a i n e d to h a v e recourse t o p a r l i a m e n t f o r u n p r e c e d e n t e d s u m s , a n d h e felt e n t i t l e d t o d o so, as o n e h o u s e o f c o m m o n s h a d d e c l a r e d its r e s o l u t i o n t o s p e n d life a n d f o r t u n e for the recovery o f the P a l a t i n a t e a n d a n o t h e r h a d a p p l a u d e d the b r e a c h w i t h S p a i n . B u t the n a t i o n h a d n o h e a r t f o r a c o n t i n e n t a l w a r , a n d , a l t h o u g h i t desired a n a v a l w a r w i t h S p a i n , w a s n o t w i l l i n g to m a k e h e a v y sacrifices. P a r l i a m e n t w o u l d b e m o r e concerned to define the r o y a l p r e r o g a t i v e t h a n t o v a n q u i s h t h e S p a n i a r d s , a n d i n p a r t i c u l a r w o u l d strive t o g a i n c o m p l e t e c o n t r o l over t a x a t i o n . R e l i g i o u s passions w e r e also l i k e l y t o e m b i t t e r politics. N o t h i n g b u t a n outburst o f protest a n t z e a l w o u l d n e r v e the n a t i o n to the effort w h i c h t h e k i n g expected it to make. Y e t Charles h a d just b o u n d himself b y t r e a t y w i t h F r a n c e t o a l l o w the c a t h o l i c s a full t o l e r a t i o n , a n d h a d p r o m i s e d to g i v e L o u i s a i d a g a i n s t the H u g u e n o t rebels, w h i c h , t r i f l i n g i n itself, was e n o u g h t o d r i v e a l l E n g l a n d m a d . I n these circumstances t h e d o m e s t i c q u a r r e l between p u r i t a n a n d A r m i n i a n m u s t b r e a k out w i t h r e d o u b l e d bitterness a n d m u s t f u r t h e r e m b a r r a s s the k i n g w h o t o o k one side so u n r e servedly. B u t C h a r l e s was too y o u n g a n d i n e x p e r i e n c e d to k n o w h i s o w n danger. O n M a y 1, 1625} C h a r l e s m a r r i e d H e n r i e t t a M a r i a b y p r o x y , a n d i n the f o l l o w i n g m o n t h she c a m e t o E n g l a n d . Barely fifteen y e a r s o l d a n d a stranger t o e v e r y t h i n g E n g l i s h , she h a d at f i r s t n o influence w i t h her h u s b a n d . A f t e r B u c k i n g h a m ' s d e a t h she b e g a n to g a i n power, a n d , as she m a t u r e d a n d h e r h u s b a n d ' s affection increased, she became one o f his m o s t t r u s t e d counsellors. E n d o w e d w i t h personal charms w h i c h i n a q u e e n m i g h t be t e r m e d beauty, a n d w i t h a l l the grace a n d g a i e t y o f h e r n a t i v e l a n d , she was w e l l fitted t o bear s w a y i n t h e m a g n i f i c e n t c o u r t o f C h a r l e s . B u t i t was h a r d for a F r e n c h p r i n c e s s to u n d e r s t a n d the E n g l i s h character o r E n g l i s h i n s t i tutions. S h e was not familiar w i t h any form of government save a b s o l u t e m o n a r c h y . P r o t e s t a n t i s m , a n d s t i l l m o r e p u r i t a n i s m , w a s to her o n l y a f o r m o f r e b e l l i o n against G o d w h i c h o f t e n l e d t o r e b e l l i o n against t h e k i n g . S h e h a d courage, de9 *

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c i s i o n , a n d a q u i c k , a l t h o u g h s h a l l o w intellect. S h e j u d g e d o f p u b l i c m e n as t h e y pleased h e r taste, a n d a d d e d her p e r s o n a l caprice to t h e k i n g ' s w a n t o f d i s c e r n m e n t i n the choice o f ministers. S h e b e c a m e a centre o f c a t h o l i c i n t r i g u e , g a v e h e r sons t h e first bias t o w a r d s h e r o w n C h u r c h , a n d p r o v e d i n m o r e w a y s t h a n o n e the e v i l genius o f the S t u a r t line. W i t h t h e d e a t h o f J a m e s the p a r l i a m e n t h a d e x p i r e d . C h a r l e s l o s t n o t i m e i n c a l l i n g another, w h i c h m e t o n J u n e 18. I n o p i n i o n s a n d t e m p e r the n e w house o f c o m m o n s c l o s e l y r e s e m b l e d its predecessors. A l l the m o s t d i s t i n g u i s h e d leaders o f the p o p u l a r p a r t y , C o k e , P h e l i p s , S a n d y s , D i g g e s , E l i o t , P y m , S e l d e n , W e n t w o r t h , f o u n d seats there, w h i l e the c r o w n h a d not a single spokesman who could compare witn tne least o f these. X o g a i n a n d to i n s p i r e the house C h a r l e s h a d t o r e l y o n S i r R i c h a r d W ' e s t o n , the c h a n c e l l o r o f the e x c h e q u e r , w h o was m o r e f a m i l i a r w i t h d i p l o m a c y t h a n w i t h p a r l i a m e n t a r y d e b a t e ; o n the s o l i c i t o r - g e n e r a l , S i r R o b e r t H e a t h , a respectable l a w y e r , a n d o n S i r H u m p h r e y M a y , a respectable official. T h e k i n g s o p e n i n g speech was l i t t l e m o r e t h a n a general request f o r s u p p l y , a n d the l o r d keeper d i d n o t a d d m u c h t o w h a t h i s master h a d said. E v e n w h e n the houses h a d g o t t o business, n o m i n i s t e r o r c o u n c i l l o r e x p l a i n e d p r e cisely w h a t the k i n g m e a n t to d o o r specified h o w m u c h t h e k i n g w o u l d need, a n d for w h a t objects. A l l the lessons o f t h e last p a r l i a m e n t appeared to h a v e been t h r o w n a w a y . L e f t thus t o t h e i r o w n guidance, the c o m m o n s resolved t o g o i n t o c o m m i t t e e o n r e l i g i o n a n d a g r e e d o n a p e t i t i o n to t h e k i n g for the s t r i c t e x e c u t i o n o f t h e l a w s a g a i n s t recusants a n d for measures to a d v a n c e the p r e a c h i n g o f the protestant f a i t h . W h e n t h e y h a d sent u p this p e t i t i o n to the lords t h e y w e n t i n t o c o m m i t t e e o f s u p p l y a n d r e s o l v e d to g r a n t t w o subsidies o r 140,000, S o s m a l l a g r a n t i m p l i e d t h a t the c o m m o n s e i t h e r w e r e n o t a c q u a i n t e d w i t h the k i n g ' s l a r g e designs o r were n o t p r e p a r e d t o s e c o n d t h e m . ^ A s the plague w a s r a g i n g i n L o n don, the k i n g d e c l a r e d h i m s e l f r e a d y to e n d the session as soon as possible, a n d m o s t o f the m e m b e r s r e t u r n e d h o m e . T h o s e w h o r e m a i n e d p r e s e n t l y t o o k i n t o consideration the w r i t ings o f R i c h a r d M o n t a g u , R e c t o r o f S t a n f o r d R i v e r s , a m e m b e r o f that n e w s c h o o l i n the C h u r c h w h i c h the p u r i t a n s esteemed little better t h a n R o m a n i s t . H i s statement o f the A r m i n i a n

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p o s i t i o n e n t i t l e d A New G&g for un Old Goose h a d c a l l e d forth C H A P . the d i s p l e a s u r e o f the last house o f c o m m o n s w h i c h b r o u g h t his case before A r c h b i s h o p A b b o t . A b b o t a d v i s e d M o n t a g u t o c o r r e c t h i s b o o k , b u t he g o t the a p p r o v a l o f J a m e s a n d def e n d e d h i s o p i n i o n s i n a n e w treatise, the Appello Ccesarem^ w h i c h h e d e d i c a t e d to C h a r l e s . M o n t a g u was c o m m i t t e d to the c u s t o d y o f the serjeant-at-arms, a n d a l m o s t i m m e d i a t e l y after w a s n a m e d his c h a p l a i n b y the k i n g . T h r e e w e e k s h a d n o t e l a p s e d since the m e e t i n g o f p a r l i a m e n t , a n d i t was a l r e a d y at issue w i t h the c r o w n . M o r e o v e r , the c o m m o n s , i n their resolve t o close the dispute a b o u t i m p o s i t i o n s o n c e f o r a l l , d e p a r t e d f r o m precedent i n their b i l l f o r t o n n a g e a n d p o u n d a g e , g r a n t i n g these t a x e s to the k i n g , n o t for h i s l i f e as h a d been usual, b u t for t h e t e r m o f one year. N e i t h e r C h a r l e s n o r B u c k i n g h a m c o u l d be content w i t h s u c h m e a g r e s u p p l y , a n d S i r J o h n C o k e , o n e o f the c o m m i s s i o n e r s for the n a v y , was i n s t r u c t e d , a l t h o u g h late, t o m a k e k n o w n h o w m u c h the k i n g wanted. H e t o l d the house w h a t s u m s w o u l d be r e q u i r e d f o r the fleet, for M a n s f e l d s a r m y , a n d f o r the D a n i s h k i n g . He a s k e d , n o t for a n i m m e d i a t e g r a n t , b u t f o r some assurance t h a t t h e h o u s e w o u l d g i v e at the p r o p e r t i m e . T h e r e was n o c o r d i a l response. T h e k i n g a d j o u r n e d t h e houses t o O x f o r d o n J u l y 11, p r o m i s i n g t h a t he w o u l d answer t h e i r petitions there a n d i n t h e m e a n t i m e w o u l d p u t i n e x e c u t i o n the l a w s against recusants. W^hen t h e p a r l i a m e n t re-assembled at O x f o r d o n A u g u s t 1, t h e c o m m o n s a t once r e t u r n e d t o t h e subject o f r e l i g i o n , c o m plained that a pardon h a d lately been granted to a Jesuit i n defiance o f the k i n g ' s p r o m i s e t h a t the p e n a l l a w s s h o u l d be e n f o r c e d , a n d t o o k u p a g a i n the case o f R i c h a r d M o n t a g u . H e a t h w a r n e d the house against m o l e s t i n g a servant o f the king. T h e o n l y result was t o c o m p l i c a t e a theological w i t h a c o n s t i t u t i o n a l dispute. C h a r l e s v a i n l y t r i e d b y a personal a p p e a l t o r e c a l l t h e house t o t h e c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f h i s wants. Some w e r e a l a r m e d at t h e k i n g ' s a d v e n t u r o u s f o r e i g n p o l i c y a n d others m u r m u r e d t h a t n o t h i n g h a d been achieved w i t h t h e m o n e y v o t e d i n the last p a r l i a m e n t . T h e suspicion a n d i l l h u m o u r o f t h e c o m m o n s b e g a n to gather r o u n d the m a n w h o was k n o w n to h a v e m o r e p o w e r t h a n a l l the other m i n i s t e r s o f t h e c r o w n p u t together. B u c k i n g h a m , the p o p u l a r i d o l o f 1624, i n 1625 was fast b e c o m i n g a n object o f o d i u m . T h e

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d u k e was n o t w i l l i n g to forego e i t h e r h i s p o p u l a r i t y o r h i s vast schemes o f foreign p o l i c y . H e m a d e h i s defence to the p a r l i a m e n t , d e n y i n g t h a t he h a d acted w i t h o u t a d v i c e a n d e n t r e a t i n g his hearers t o s u p p o r t t h e k i n g , at least i n the w a r against S p a i n b y sea. H e a s s u r e d the c o m m o n s that the k i n g h a d g r a n t e d a l l t h e i r petitions, i n c l u d i n g the d e m a n d for the strict e x e c u t i o n o f t h e laws against recusants. B u t w h e n the house met t w o d a y s later, B u c k i n g h a m ' s a p p e a l h a d left n o deep i m p r e s s i o n . O n e m e m b e r after another, P h e l i p s , S e y m o u r , W e n t w o r t h , rose t o express i n s l i g h t l y different t e r m s t h e i r d i s trust o f the k i n g s advisers, especially o f B u c k i n g h a m . The k i n g ' s patience w a s w o r n o u t H e r e s o l v e d t o d i s m i s s the p a r l i a m e n t , a n d a d h e r e d t o h i s r e s o l u t i o n i n spite o f a l l t h a t the l o r d keeper a n d even B u c k i n g h a m c o u l d say. T h e house, aware o f the a p p r o a c h i n g e n d , a d o p t e d a p r o t e s t a t i o n o f their l o y a l t y a n d readiness t o g r a n t a l l necessary s u p p l y to his majesty. O n the same day, A u g u s t 12, P a r l i a m e n t was d i s s o l v e d . T h e b i l l g r a n t i n g tonnage a n d poundage f o r one y e a r h a d n o t y e t been passed. A l t h o u g h c r i p p l e d for l a c k o f p a r l i a m e n t a r y s u p p l y , C h a r l e s was still h o p e f u l o f w h a t m i g h t be a c c o m p l i s h e d b y h i s n a v a l a r m a m e n t against S p a i n . A r i c h b o o t y m i g h t f i l l his e m p t y coffers, a n d a b r i l l i a n t success w o u l d i n a n y case a w a k e the o l d w a r l i k e s p i r i t o f the n a t i o n . T h e d e s i g n was to s t r i k e a great b l o w somewhere o n the S p a n i s h seaboard, r e c a l l i n g t h e capture o f C a d i z n e a r l y t h i r t y years before. B u c k i n g h a m , the l o r d - a d m i r a l , w o u l d h a v e been the n a t u r a l chief, b u t C h a r l e s i n t e n d e d that h e s h o u l d g o as ambassador t o the H a g u e for the negotiation w i t h C h r i s t i a n o f D e n m a r k a n d the N o r t h G e r m a n princes. T h e c o m m a n d o f the fleet as w e l l as the troops was therefore g i v e n to S i r E d w a r d C e c i l , n e w l y created V i s c o u n t W i m b l e d o n , w h o h a d p r o v e d h i s courage i n the N e t h e r l a n d wars, b u t was i g n o r a n t o f a l l that c o n c e r n e d the sea a n d ships. B y a false e c o n o m y w h i c h m i g h t allege E l i z a b e t h a n precedent the r o y a l n a v y h a d been s p a r e d as m u c h as possible, the fleet consisting o f b u t n i n e k i n g s ships together w i t h seventy-three m e r c h a n t m e n pressed i n t o tfc^e service. I t was to be r e i n f o r c e d w i t h t w e n t y D u t c h men-of-war, a n d was t o c a r r y 10,000 soldiers.
1
1

Compare w i t h Gardiner, c h . lv., D a l t o n , Life and Times of Edward of the Administration Charles I.

Cecil, of the

vol. i i . , ch. iv. a n d v . ; also Oppenheim, History Royal Navy from 1509 to 1660;

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O n p a p e r s u c h a n a r m a m e n t was m o r e than r e s p e c t a b l e ; b u t C H A P . m e n , ships, a n d stores w e r e a l l d e f e c t i v e ; s k i l l , d i s c i p l i n e a n d " d e v o t i o n w e r e w a n t i n g ; a n d t h e h i s t o r y o f the e x p e d i t i o n was a n u n b r o k e n tale o f s h a m e a n d loss. I t w a s n o t u n t i l O c t o b e r 8 that the fleet c l e a r e d P l y m o u t h Sound. C e c i l h a d sailed w i t h o u t a n y definite orders a n d u n d e r the i n j u n c t i o n t o act o n l y w i t h t h e consent o f a c o u n c i l o f w a r . A t a c o u n c i l c a l l e d off C a p e S t . V i n c e n t , it was finally r e s o l v e d t o m a k e f o r S t . M a r y P o r t near C a d i z , w h e r e t h e t r o o p s c o u l d be d i s e m b a r k e d to m a r c h against S a n L u c a r , the p o r t o f S e v i l l e . B u t t h e a t t a c k was, a l m o s t b y accident, t u r n e d against C a d i z . T h a t c i t y fills the b r o a d e x t r e m i t y o f a l o n g , slender p e n i n s u l a p r o j e c t i n g f r o m the I s l e o f L e o n , w h i c h is severed f r o m t h e m a i n l a n d b y a narrow a n d w i n d i n g channel. T h e channel was s p a n n e d b y the s i n g l e b r i d g e o f Z u a z o . T h e Isle of L e o n w i t h its l o n g p r o m o n t o r y f o r m s the outer side o f the B a y o f Cadiz. S o m e t w o m i l e s a b o v e C a d i z t h e b a y contracts t o a n a r r o w c h a n n e l , t h e n defended b y F o r t P u n t a l , a n d p r e s e n t l y w i d e n s a g a i n t o f o r m t h e inner h a r b o u r , c o m p l e t e l y sheltered b u t difficult o f access to ships o f d e e p draught. O n O c t o b e r 22 t h e E a r l o f E s s e x , t h e v i c e - a d m i r a l , l e d the v a n i n t o t h e b a y w i t h t h e i n t e n t i o n o f a n c h o r i n g off S t . IMary P o r t . B u t the s i g h t o f a S p a n i s h fleet h u d d l e d u n d e r t h e g u n s o f C a d i z a n d p e r h a p s t h e r e m e m b r a n c e o f h i s father's glories w e r e t o o m u c h f o r t h e e a r l s p o w e r o f obedience. T u r n i n g away from St. M a r y P o r t , h e fell u p o n the S p a n i s h vessels. C e c i l saw t h a t his second was rushing into danger and, p r o b a b l y w i t h a true i n s t i n c t , p u s h e d f o r w a r d to h i s a i d . T h e rest o f t h e k i n g ' s ships f o l l o w e d , b u t t h e m e r c h a n t m e n t h o u g h t o n l y o f k e e p i n g out o f fire. F o r t u n a t e l y the Spanish captains were panic-stricken at E s s e x ' s a p p r o a c j i a n d fled i n t o t h e i n n e r h a r b o u r , w h i l e the E n g l i s h fleet c a m e t o a n c h o r before C a d i z .
V I

T h e attack o n S a n L u c a r w a s t h e n a b a n d o n e d , a n d s o m e officers u r g e d a n i m m e d i a t e assault o n C a d i z , w h i c h p r o b a b l y w o u l d h a v e b e e n successful, for the t o w n was a l m o s t w i t h o u t defenders o r m u n i t i o n s o f w a r . B u t as i t l o o k e d s t r o n g , C e c i l p r e f e r r e d t o attack F o r t P u n t a l a n d get possession o f t h e i n n e r h a r b o u r w i t h t h e ships w h i c h it c o n t a i n e d . B e f o r e t h e fort c o u l d be t a k e n r e i n f o r c e m e n t s h a d been passed i n t o C a d i z raisi n g the g a r r i s o n to 4,000 m e n . O t h e r troops were o n t h e m a r c h

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C H A P , t h i t h e r a n d supplies w e r e r u n i n t o t h e t o w n b y swift g a l l e y s crossing f r o m St. M a r y Port. A l l hope o f w i n n i n g Cadiz b y a s u d d e n a t t a c k h a d d i s a p p e a r e d , b u t i t s t i l l seemed feasible to c u t off c o m m u n i c a t i o n w i t h t h e m a i n l a n d a n d to secure the s h i p s i n the i n n e r h a r b o u r . C e c i l , h a v i n g d i s e m b a r k e d a l l his t r o o p s , m a r c h e d o n O c t o b e r 24 t o w a r d s t h e b r i d g e o f Z u a z o , a n d left L o r d D e n b i g h t o p r o v i d e for t h e a t t a c k o n the S p a n i s h s h i p s . H e m e t n o e n e m y , b u t t o w a r d s e v e n i n g his m e n , w h o h a d tasted n o f o o d since t h e y l a n d e d , f o u n d a n a m p l e c e l l a r o f w i n e i n a n a b a n d o n e d house. P r e s e n t l y t h e y were a l m o s t a l l d r u n k , s h o o t i n g at e a c h o t h e r a n d t h r e a t e n i n g t h e i r officers, a n d the o n l y r e m e d y w a s to s t a v e i n t h e c a s k s as s o o n as possible. C e c i l a n d h i s officers d e c i d e d n e x t m o r n i n g to r e t u r n t o P u n t a l . H e t h e n l e a r n t t h a t t h e a t t a c k o n t h e ships h a d f a i l e d . T h e S p a n i a r d s h a d w a r p e d t h e m u p a n a r r o w creek at the f a r e n d o f the i n n e r h a r b o u r , a n d h a d s u n k f o u r m e r c h a n t m e n at the entrance, so as to leave a passage f o r o n l y one assailant a t a t i m e u n d e r a n o v e r w h e l m i n g fire. A s u r v e y o f the o u t w o r k s o f C a d i z satisfied C e c i l t h a t i t c o u l d n o t be t a k e n w i t h o u t a l o n g siege t o w h i c h h i s m e a n s were u t t e r l y u n e q u a l . I t w a s resolved, therefore, to r e - e m b a r k the t r o o p s a n d g o i n quest o f the P l a t e fleet. O n O c t o b e r 29 the E n g l i s h set s a i l f o r C a p e S t . V i n c e n t . T w o d a y s l a t e r t h e P l a t e fleet u n k n o w n to C e c i l entered the "Bay o f C a d i z . A w a r e o f t h e a p p r o a c h i n g w a r , its c o m m a n d e r s h a d steered f a r t o s o u t h w a r d a n d h a d h u g g e d the coast o f A f r i c a . C e c i l h a d r e s o l v e d u p o n a l o n g watch, b u t m a n y o f his ships w e r e u n s e a w o r t h y . W a t e r r a n short, a n d b a d beer a n d p r o v i s i o n s b r e d pestilence. O n N o v e m b e r 17 a c o u n c i l o f w a r d e c i d e d t h a t t h e y m u s t r e t u r n to E n g l a n d , as o t h e r w i s e the m e n w o u l d s o o n be t o o f e w t o wor.< t h e ships. T h e fleet was scattered b y s t o r m s , a n d e a c h c a p t a i n m a d e h i s w a y h o m e as best h e c o u l d . B y t h e t i m e t h a t Cecil's flagship, the Anne Royal^ r e a c h e d K I n s a l e 130 corpses h a d been t h r o w n o v e r b o a r d a n d 160 o f the s u r v i v o r s w e r e sick. S u c h was t h e p l i g h t o f o t h e r vessels w h i c h m a d e P l y m o u t h t h a t i n one d a y seven o f the m e n f e l l d o w n a n d d i e d i n t h e streets. T h i s g r e a t disaster w a s n o t q u i t e w i t h o u t precedent. I n the glorious d a y s o f E l i z a b e t h s h i p s h a d often been s t i n t e d o f stores, the rations h a d b e e n p o i s o n o u s , a n d t e n m e n h a d p e r i s h e d b y disease f o r o n e w h o p e r i s h e d ^ b y the e n e m y ' s fire. T h e n as

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u n d e r C h a r l e s there was n o effective m i l i t a r y s y s t e m , a n d t h e C H A P , a t t a c k o n L i s b o n i n 15 89 h a d f a i l e d as u t t e r l y as t h e a t t a c k o n C a d i z i n 1625. N o n e the less w h a t h a d h a p p e n e d was g r a v e i n d e e d f o r the k i n g . A f t e r l o n g p r e p a r a t i o n h i s fleet h a d d o n e n o t h i n g save d i m the o l d r e n o w n o f t h e E n g l i s h at sea a n d abate S p a n i s h fear o f E n g l i s h attack. T h e d i s c l o s u r e o f the w r e t c h e d state o f the n a v y w o u l d e n v e n o m the i l l - w i l l a l r e a d y felt t o w a r d s t h e l o r d - a d m i r a l , a n d C h a r l e s , d e t e r m i n e d as h e w a s t o u p h o l d his f r i e n d t o the u t t e r m o s t , w o u l d share i n B u c k i n g h a m ' s u n p o p u l a r i t y . H e w o u l d s o o n be forced t o c a l l a n o t h e r p a r l i a m e n t , a n d he w o u l d f i n d i t less t h a n ever d i s p o s e d to g i v e h i m the means of w a g i n g war. A t this v e r y t i m e t h e F r e n c h alliance w a s s e v e r e l y s t r a i n e d . T h e i l l - c o n s i d e r e d e n d e a v o u r t o t i g h t e n the b o n d s o f f r i e n d s h i p between a catholic a n d a protestant nation had o n l y bred enmity. I n o r d e r t o g a i n a F r e n c h princess C h a r l e s h a d p r o m i s e d w h a t h e w e l l k n e w he c o u l d n o t p e r f o r m \ t o g r a n t h i s c a t h o l i c subjects a f u l l t o l e r a t i o n . I n o r d e r to g a i n t h e s u p p o r t o f the h o u s e o f c o m m o n s for h i s f o r e i g n p o l i c y , he h a d p r o m i s e d t h e strict e x e c u t i o n o f the p e n a l l a w s . T h e F r e n c h a m b a s s a d o r s p r o t e s t e d , a n d C h a r l e s o r d e r e d p a r d o n s to be sealed *for t h e priests t h e n i n p r i s o n . H e n r i e t t a M a r i a was n o t too y o u n g t o be w i l f u l , a n d the w a y i n w h i c h she crossed t h e k i n g ' s wishes m a d e h i m suspect t h a t her F r e n c h a t t e n d a n t s w e r e - a b e t t i n g h e r disobedience, a n d resolve t o r i d h i m s e l f o f t h e i r m e d d l i n g . T h e p r o m i s e to l e n d L o u i s s h i p s for service a g a i n s t t h e H u g u e nots h a d led to m u c h bickering. N o t h i n g w o u l d induce E n g l i s h s e a m e n t o serve i n s u c h a cause, a n d t h e g o v e r n m e n t k n o w i n g h o w u n p o p u l a r the l o a n w o u l d b e m E n g l a n d , d i d n o t v e n t u r e t o force t h e m , n a y e n c o u r a g e d t h e i r resistance u n d e r h a n d , w h i l e affecting t h e u t m o s t zeal to fulfil its e n g a g e m e n t . A f t e r endless i g n o b l e s h u f f l i n g C h a r l e s w a s r e l i e v e d t o hear t h a t L o u i s h a d c o m e to t e r m s w i t h his protestant subjects. H e t h e n l e n t the vessels t o L o u i s for s o m e less o d i o u s e m p l o y m e n t . But hardly h a d t h e y b e e n d e l i v e r e d w h e n t h e H u g u e n o t s were a g a i n a t v a r i a n c e w i t h their k i n g .
1

W h e n B u c k i n g h a m reached t h e H a g u e the o n l y a m b a s s a d o r s w h o m h e f o u n d there were those of D e n m a r k , a n x i o u s

* See trie curious details i n Gardiner, ch* liii.

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a b o u t the E n g l i s h s u b s i d y w h i c h was a l r e a d y i n arrear. B y the t r e a t y o f the H a g u e , s i g n e d N o v e m b e r 29, B u c k i n g h a m b o u n d h i s master afresh t o p a y K i n g C h r i s t i a n 30,000 a m o n t h . B u t w h e n he p r e p a r e d to v i s i t P a r i s , ask for t h e restoration o f t h e ships, a n d m e d i a t e b e t w e e n K i n g L o u i s a n d the H u g u e n o t s , h e w a s t o l d t h a t h e m u s t n o t enter F r a n c e u n t i l the F r e n c h d e m a n d s h a d b e e n satisfied. L o u i s d e s i r e d n o v i s i t f r o m a m a n w h o h a d once v e n t u r e d to lift h i s eyes to the Q u e e n o f F r a n c e , a n d w a s n o t d i s p o s e d to w e l c o m e the m e d i a t i o n o f C h a r l e s i n f a v o u r o f the F r e n c h protestants at the v e r y t i m e w h e n C h a r l e s h a d b r o k e n h i s p r o m i s e to protect the E n g l i s h catholics. O n B u c k i n g h a m s r e t u r n , therefore, i t w a s resolved i n c o u n c i l to s e n d a fleet t o t h e r e l i e f o f R o c h e l l e a n d to r e c l a i m the E n g l i s h ships, i f necessary, b y force, i n other w o r d s , to challenge a w a r w i t h F r a n c e . A n u m b e r o f F r e n c h vessels h a d been seized o n the g r o u n d that t h e y w e r e c a r r y i n g g o o d s to the S p a n i s h N e t h e r l a n d s , a n d their cargoes h a d been sequestered p e n d i n g the j u d g m e n t o f the c o u r t o f a d m i r a l t y . A s the e x chequer was e m p t y , the c o u n c i l g a v e o r d e r s to sell p a r t o f these goods. T h e order, first retracted, t h e n renewed, l e d to F r e n c h reprisals. S t i l l a n x i o u s to restore f r i e n d s h i p between E n g l a n d a n d F r a n c e , R i c h e l i e u gave assurances t h a t his master d i d n o t m e a n to persecute the H u g u e n o t s , a l t h o u g h h e c o u l d suffer n o m e d i a t i o n between h i m s e l f a n d rebels, a n d c o u l d n o t r e t u r n the ships l e n t u n t i l the c i v i l w a r was over. C h a r l e s pressed his m e d i a t i o n , a n d even w h e n the H u g u e n o t s a g a i n m a d e peace w i t h their sovereign, took u p o n h i m s e l f t o declare the t e r m s unsatisfactory. B l i n d e d b y s e l f - w i l l , he c o u l d n o t u n d e r s t a n d that R i c h e l i e u was o f a l l m e n the m o s t a b l e a n d w i l l i n g to h e l p i n the r e c o v e r y o f the P a l a t i n a t e a n d the defence o f the G e r m a n protestants. W h i l e the k i n g thus raised u p n e w enemies a b r o a d , he w a s i n the direst p o v e r t y . H e h a d t r i e d i n v a i n t o relieve h i s w a n t s b y a forced l o a n . T h e p a y m e n t o f H e n r i e t t a M a r i a ' s p o r t i o n h a d g i v e n a b r i e f respite^ b u t he f o u n d before the e n d o f the year that he m u s t s u m m o n a n e w p a r l i a m e n t . H a v i n g d i s m i s s e d the l o r d keeper, W i l l i a m s , for o p p o s i t i o n to B u c k i n g h a m , he g a v e the seals to S i r T h o m a s C o v e n t r y , a far less a b l e p o l i t i c i a n b u t a staunch protestant, a n d h e o r d e r e d the e n f o r c e m e n t o f the l a w s against the c a t h o l i c s . C o k e , P h e l i p s , W e n t w o r t h , a n d

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other leaders of opposition i n the last parliament were made C H A P . sheriffs, so as t o d i s q u a l i f y t h e m for re-election. T h e new p a r l i a m e n t m e t o n F e b r u a r y 6, 1626. A s before, t h e k i n g m a d e n o clear s t a t e m e n t o f h i s affairs o r o f h i s i n t e n t i o n s . T h e commons, although ignorant o f much, k n e w that there h a d b e e n g r a v e m i s m a n a g e m e n t , r e s u l t i n g i n loss a n d d i s g r a c e . W h e n E l i o t w i t h impassioned rhetoric demanded an i n q u i r y i n t o t h e causes o f the recent disaster, he was s u r e o f g e n e r a l assent. T h e c o m m i t t e e o f grievances n e x t w e n t o n to i n q u i r e into the misunderstanding between F r a n c e and E n g l a n d . By w a y o f d i v e r s i o n the k i n g a s k e d the l o r d s to t a k e the state o f the r e a l m into consideration. T h e i r committee h a v i n g reported i n f a v o u r o f strenuous efforts b o t h at sea a n d o n t h e c o n t i n e n t , the l o r d s d e s i r e d a conference w i t h the c o m m o n s i n the h o p e o f b r i n g i n g t h e m to resolve l i k e w i s e . B u t the c o m m o n s w e r e t o o l i t t l e satisfied w i t h w h a t h a d b e e n done i n the p a s t t o m a k e a n y l a v i s h p r o m i s e s for the future, a n d w h e n the k i n g sent a m e s s a g e a s k i n g for a n i m m e d i a t e s u p p l y , a d i r e c t a t t a c k w a s opened upon Buckingham. D o u b l y i n c e n s e d at the a t t e m p t to c a l l h i s m i n i s t e r t o a c c o u n t , a n d at the aspersions t h r o w n o n a f r i e n d w h o m h e l o v e d w i t h u n r e a s o n i n g affection, t h e k i n g r e q u i r e d t h a t the m e m b e r s w h o h a d s p o k e n against B u c k i n g h a m s h o u l d b e p u n i s h e d . T h e house r e s p e c t f u l l y asserted its r i g h t t o i n q u i r e i n t o t h e causes o f t h e distress o f the c r o w n . T h e k i n g then s u m m o n e d the c o m m o n s to his presence, a n d w a r n e d t h e m n o t t o q u e s t i o n a n y o f h i s servants, m u c h less one so near t o h i m s e l f ; b u t h e c o u l d n o t t u r n t h e m f r o m t h e i r purpose. When a f r e s h d e m a n d for s u p p l y w a s made^ E l i o t i n s i s t e d o n t h e i r r i g h t to a r r a i g n the c o n d u c t o f favourites, q u o t e d precedents m o s t u n p l e a s i n g to a r o y a l ear, a n d a d v i s e d t h a t the house s h o u l d a d o p t a r e s o l u t i o n to s u p p l y the k i n g ' s w a n t s , b u t d e l a y t u r n i n g i t i n t o a b i l l u n t i l their grievances h a d been redressed. H i s m o t i o n was c a r r i e d . T h e y w e r e a g a i n s u m m o n e d t o a p p e a r before t h e k i n g , a n d w e r e s h a r p l y r e p r i m a n d e d b y the l o r d keeper. Charles added some ominous w o r d s ; Remember," h e s a i d , " t h a t p a r l i a m e n t s are a l t o g e t h e r i n m y p o w e r f o r t h e i r c a l l i n g , s i t t i n g a n d d i s s o l u t i o n ; therefore, as I f i n d the f r u i t s o f t h e m g o o d o r e v i l , t h e y are to c o n t i n u e o r n o t t o b e
u

PuvlicLfneutOtYy

History,

ii.,

56.

140 CHAP. ^*

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N e i t h e r the k i n g ' s r e b u k e n o r the e x p l a n a t i o n s tendered b y B u c k i n g h a m at a conference b e t w e e n the houses a v a i l e d to f r i g h t e n or appease the c o m m o n s . O n Eliot's motion they d r e w u p a r e m o n s t r a n c e w h i c h w a s p r e s e n t e d to the k i n g . T h e houses were t h e n a d j o u r n e d for E a s t e r , a n d w h e n t h e y re-assembled C h a r l e s , whose t e m p e r h a d s o m e w h a t c o o l e d , offered no h i n d r a n c e t o t h e i r p r o c e e d i n g s . T h e y accordingly began to f r a m e t h e i r charges against B u c k i n g h a m . A t this c r i t i c a l m o m e n t the k i n g e x a s p e r a t e d t h e peers. T h e E a r l of A r u n d e l h a d b e e n sent to the T o w e r because h i s eldest son h a d p r e s u m e d to m a r r y E l i z a b e t h S t u a r t , a y o u n g l a d y connected w i t h the r o y a l house, w h o m C h a r l e s h a d d e s t i n e d for L o r d L o m e . T h e l o r d s t r e a t e d h i s i m p r i s o n m e n t as a b r e a c h o f privilege, a n d d e m a n d e d h i s release. T h e E a r l of Bristol, u n w i l l i n g l y d i s g r a c e d b y J a m e s , was s t i l l r e s t r a i n e d b y r o y a l c o m m a n d to h i s c o u n t r y house. H e h a d been o r d e r e d n o t to appear at the first p a r l i a m e n t o f the r e i g n . W h e n t h e second p a r l i a m e n t met, B r i s t o l p e t i t i o n e d the l o r d s to intercede w i t h the k i n g , that he m i g h t either be b r o u g h t t o t r i a l o r receive his w r i t o f s u m m o n s . T h e w r i t w a s sent, b u t w i t h a n i n t i m a t i o n that he was n o t to act u p o n it. B r i s t o l , t r e a t i n g a s u m m o n s u n d e r the great seal as a c o m m a n d , t h e r e u p o n c a m e to L o n d o n a n d b e g g e d t h a t the l o r d s w o u l d hear h i m as to t h e w r o n g s w h i c h he h a d suffered a n d the charges w h i c h h e w i s h e d to b r i n g against B u c k i n g h a m . T h e k i n g s a w w i t h d i s m a y t h a t the w h o l e s t o r y o f the v i s i t to M a d r i d , a n d o f t h e faults a n d m i s t a k e s then c o m m i t t e d b y h i m s e l f a n d B u c k i n g h a m w o u l d be u n r o l l e d before p a r l i a m e n t , at the v e r y m o m e n t w h e n he c o u l d b a r e l y h o p e for a s u p p l y a n d w h e n the c o m m o n s w e r e p r e p a r i n g to i m p e a c h his f r i e n d . H e t r i e d to silence t h e accuser b y b r i n g i n g a charge o f treason against B r i s t o l , w h o m h e h a d a l r e a d y declared i n n o c e n t o f a n y c r i m e . T h e peers defeated his p u r p o s e b y h e a r i n g , first t h e attorney-general, H e a t h , against B r i s t o l , a n d afterwards B r i s t o l a g a i n s t B u c k i n g h a m . N e x t the k i n g t r i e d to stifle t h e m a t t e r b y a message to the l o r d s that he c o u l d h i m s e l f bear w i t n e s s to the u n t r u t h o f B r i s t o l ' s assertions. T h e l o r d s w o u l d not, however, d e n y B r i s t o l a h e a r i n g . T h e n the k i n g t r i e d t o d i s p u t e B r i s t o l s right to the assistance o f counsel, a n d a g a i n the l o r d s assured h i m t h a t h e w a s m i s -

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t a k e n . T h e y e v e n d i r e c t e d the a t t o r n e y - g e n e r a l to t a k e c h a r g e C H A P . o f B r i s t o l s accusation against B u c k i n g h a m . B r i s t o l p u t i n a n a n s w e r t o the charges a g a i n s t h i m s e l f , b u t B u c k i n g h a m p u t i n n o a n s w e r t o B r i s t o l . A l t h o u g h t h e p a r l i a m e n t was d i s s o l v e d before either cause c o u l d be h e a r d to the end, B r i s t o l h a d c l e a r e d h i m s e l f t o the p u b l i c a n d heaped f r e s h o d i u m u p o n h i s e n e m y . T h e k i n g h a d merited the reproach of t r y i n g to ruin a faithful a n d h o n o u r a b l e s e r v a n t i n o r d e r to g r a t i f y the r e s e n t m e n t o f a favourite. H e h a d also been f o r c e d to y i e l d w i t h r e g a r d t o A r u n d e l , w h o was set at l i b e r t y o n t h e u r g e n t d e m a n d o f the lords. T h e c o m m o n s were slow i n maturing their impeachment a g a i n s t B u c k i n g h a m . A s finally d r a w n the articles c h a r g e d the d u k e w i t h a c c u m u l a t i n g m a n y great offices, w i t h b u y i n g a n d s e l l i n g preferments, w i t h p r o c u r i n g titles a n d pensions f o r his k i n d r e d a n d l a v i s h g r a n t s f o r himself, w i t h e m b e z z l i n g the m o n e y s o f the c r o w n , a n d even w i t h a d m i n i s t e r i n g p o t i o n s t o K i n g J a m e s i n h i s last illness. T h e y c h a r g e d h i m w i t h g r o s s d e f a u l t i n t h e office o f a d m i r a l , w i t h n e g l e c t i n g to g u a r d the n a r r o w seas, w i t h f a i l i n g to release a F r e n c h s h i p w h e n h e s h o u l d h a v e d o n e so, w i t h l e n d i n g vessels t o t h e F r e n c h k i n g to be u s e d against t h e protestants o f R o c h e l l e . M a n y o f these charges were true, b u t m o s t o f t h e acts alleged w e r e either c o n f o r m a b l e to t h e b a d practice o f t h e t i m e o r h a d b e e n d o n e b y t h e d i r e c t o r d e r o f the k i n g , a n d c o u l d be c a l l e d i n q u e s t i o n o n l y o n the p r i n c i p l e t h a t the k i n g ' s c o m m a n d does n o t p r o t e c t h i s servant i n d o i n g w h a t is injurious to the p u b l i c . I n t h e i r i m p e a c h m e n t o f B u c k i n g h a m t h e c o m m o n s were a s s e r t i n g the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f ministers as it is n o w u n d e r s t o o d , a n d as i t h a d b e e n asserted once o r t w i c e i n the fourteenth a n d fifteenth centuries, b u t n o t u n d e r the house o f T u d o r or even u n d e r J a m e s . T h e entire confidence w h i c h the k i n g was k n o w n t o repose i n the d u k e m a d e t h e i r a c t i o n t r e b l y significant. O n M a y 8 the managers for the house o f c o m m o n s , a m o n g w h o m S i r D u d l e y D i g g e s a n d S i r J o h n E l i o t were the chief, c a r r i e d the articles o f i m p e a c h m e n t u p to the house o f l o r d s . I n the course o f a fiery d e n u n c i a t i o n E l i o t c o m p a r e d B u c k i n g h a m to Sejanus, a c o m p a r i s o n w h i c h C h a r l e s n e v e r forgave. D i g g e s w a s s a i d to h a v e u s e d s o m e w o r d s a b o u t the late k i n g ' s death w h i c h g a v e e q u a l offence. Eliot and Digges

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were p r o m p t l y sent t o t h e T o w e r , w h e r e u p o n t h e c o m m o n s refused, t o tra.nsa.ct a n y business u n t i l t h e y h a d been r i g h t e d i n their liberties. A m a j o r i t y o f t h e peers s i g n e d a protest t o the effect that D i g g e s h a d n o t s p o k e n t h e w o r d s a l l e g e d t o j u s t i f y his i m p r i s o n m e n t . T h e k i n g t h e r e u p o n released D i g g e s , but, u n w i l l i n g t o release E l i o t , d e c l a r e d that h e was u n d e r arrest for offences c o m m i t t e d outside t h e house. A s he c o u l d adduce n o p r o o f o f s u c h offences, h e was d r i v e n to set E l i o t at l i b e r t y . T h e c o m m o n s d r e w u p a r e m o n s t r a n c e i n w h i c h t h e y d e c l a r e d that t o n n a g e a n d p o u n d a g e c o u l d n o t l a w f u l l y b e raised w i t h o u t t h e i r consent, a n d refused s u p p l y u n t i l B u c k i n g h a m s h o u l d b e r e m o v e d f r o m t h e k i n g ' s counsels. C h a r l e s r e p l i e d b y d i s s o l v i n g p a r l i a m e n t o n J u n e 15. H e f o l l o w e d u p the b l o w b y o r d e r i n g a l l copies o f t h e r e m o n s t r a n c e of the commons to be destroyed a n d b y putting A r u n d e l a n d B r i s t o l u n d e r confinement. A f t e r v a i n l y requiring the managers o f the i m p e a c h m e n t t o b r i n g their cause before t h e S t a r C h a m ber, h e ordered t h e charges to be m a d e a n d answered there, a n d t h e court g a v e j u d g m e n t i n t h e d u k e s favour. A second p a r l i a m e n t h a d g i v e n C h a r l e s n o t h i n g , a n d h i s p o v e r t y was sharper t h a n ever. H e c o n t i n u e d to l e v y tonnage, poundage, a n d i m p o s i t i o n s w i t h o u t p a r l i a m e n t a r y sanction. A l o a n o f 100,000 was d e m a n d e d o f the c i t y o f L o n d o n , b u t w a s refused, a l t h o u g h t h e a l d e r m e n a g r e e d t o l e n d t h e k i n g 20,000 o n their o w n account. T h e c o u n c i l sent letters t o a l l justices o f the peace that t h e y s h o u l d e x h o r t t h e i r several counties to m a k e a free gift p r o p o r t i o n e d t o w h a t t h e y w o u l d have p a i d h a d t h e s u b s i d y b i l l passed. I n o r d e r t o ensure a favourable answer, several leaders o f t h e o p p o s i t i o n , i n c l u d i n g D i g g e s , E l i o t , a n d W e n t w o r t h , w e r e p u t o u t o f t h e c o m m i s s i o n o f t h e peace. B u t the n a t i o n w a s so l i t t l e i n t h e m o o d t o g i v e that t h e s u m r e ceived was c o n t e m p t i b l e . T h e m a r i t i m e counties w e r e n e x t r e q u i r e d to f u r n i s h ships, a n d w i t h better success. T h e king's plate w a s s o l d . A d e b a s e m e n t o f t h e c u r r e n c y w a s r e s o l v e d u p o n , b u t not c a r r i e d i n t o effect. F i n a l l y t h e k i n g d e t e r m i n e d o n a forced loan, e q u a l i n a m o u n t t o five subsidies, about 350,000. A s the judges w o u l d n o t a c k n o w l e d g e i t to be l a w f u l , h e sought to terrify t h e m b y d i s m i s s i n g t h e l o r d c h i e f justice, S i r R a n d a l Crewe. S t i l l t h e o t h e r j u d g e s w o u l d n o t g i v e w a y , a n d , fortified b y their o p i n i o n , a l a r g e n u m b e r o f persons i n a l l classes refused

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to l e n d . T h e n t h e k i n g h a d recourse t o p u n i s h m e n t . G e n t l e - C H A P , m e n w h o persevered i n t h e i r refusal were sent t o p r i s o n a n d c o m m o n m e n w e r e pressed for soldiers. A t l e n g t h a s u m o f 236,000 was r a i s e d b y means o f the l o a n , a m i d general a n d bitter discontent. S u c h devices w e r e u t t e r l y u n e q u a l to the needs o f that a m b i t i o u s f o r e i g n p o l i c y w h i c h C h a r l e s c o u l d n o t bear to a b a n d o n . A t t h e h e a d o f a n u m b e r o f N o r t h G e r m a n princes, his u n c l e C h r i s t i a n h a d t a k e n the field i n 1625. B u t the E n g l i s h s u b s i d y o n w h i c h he d e p e n d e d t o p a y his troops h a d s t o p p e d i n M a y o f t h a t y e a r a n d despite the t r e a t y o f t h e H a g u e h e h a d r e c e i v e d n o t h i n g since. I n A u g u s t , 1626, C h r i s t i a n was so severely beaten b y T i l l y at L u t t e r t h a t h e h a d to retreat i n t o h i s o w n territory. M e a n t i m e Charles was steadily m o v i n g towards a w a r w i t h F r a n c e . H e a s c r i b e d a l l t h e frowardness o f h i s y o u n g q u e e n to t h e suggestion o f t h e F r e n c h a m b a s s a d o r B l a i n v i l l e , w h o m h e a s k e d L o u i s to recall, a n d o f h e r F r e n c h ladies a n d s e r v a n t s w h o m h e at l e n g t h d i s m i s s e d . T h e d i s p u t e over F r e n c h s h i p s t a k e n b y the E n g l i s h s t i l l d r a g g e d on. R i c h e l i e u strove i n v a i n t o c o m p o s e t h e differences b e t w e e n the t w o c r o w n s , a n d L o u i s fell into the hands o f that powerful catholic p a r t y w h i c h d e s i r e d w a r against t h e H u g u e n o t s a n d f r i e n d s h i p w i t h S p a i n . A t l e n g t h the D u k e o f E p e r n o n , g o v e r n o r o f G u i e n n e , seized t h e w h o l e fleet o f E n g l i s h a n d S c o t c h vessels s a i l i n g w i t h wine from Bordeaux. A l t h o u g h B u c k i n g h a m still talked of g o i n g as a m b a s s a d o r t o F r a n c e , the c o u n c i l issued a n o r d e r t o seize a l l F r e n c h ships a n d g o o d s i n E n g l i s h waters. Louis d e m a n d e d the c o m p l e t e e x e c u t i o n o f the m a r r i a g e t r e a t y a n d t h e release o f the F r e n c h ships. W a r thus b e c a m e certain, a n d i n M a r c h , 1627, the E n g l i s h c o m m a n d e r s w e r e ordered to m a k e p r i z e o f F r e n c h vessels wherever t h e y c o u l d be f o u n d . C h a r l e s c o u n t e d p a r t l y o n h i s s u p e r i o r i t y at sea, p a r t l y o n t h e w o r k i n g s o f H u g u e n o t discontent, a n d p a r t l y o n the arist o c r a t i c o p p o s i t i o n to C a r d i n a l R i c h e l i e u . A s France h a d no n a v y w o r t h the n a m e , the E n g l i s h n a v y , n o t w i t h s t a n d i n g i t s w r e t c h e d c o n d i t i o n , s w e p t t h e c h a n n e l a n d took m a n y prizes, w h i c h b r o u g h t i n a large s u m o f m o n e y . A great expedition w a s p l a n n e d t o raise the protestants o f s o u t h e r n F r a n e e against the c r o w n . ^Vhat was left o f t h e t r o o p s sent to C a d i z w a s rei n f o r c e d w i t h n e w levies o f pressed m e n as undesirable as the

144

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FIRST

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PARLIAMENTS.

1627

2 H A P . f o r m e r a n d treated w i t h as l i t t l e care o r h u m a n i t y . Pay, c l o t h i n g , food, medicine, a n d a r m s w e r e a l i k e w a n t i n g a n d w e r e v e r y t a r d i l y supplied. B u c k i n g h a m t o o k the c o m m a n d , w i t h instructions first to offer the c i t i z e n s o f R o c h e l l e the h e l p w h i c h t h e y w o u l d need i f t h r e a t e n e d w i t h a t t a c k b y their k i n g , a n d t h e n t o m a k e g o o d t h e E n g l i s h m a s t e r y o f t h e sea a n d destroy F r e n c h and S p a n i s h commerce. O n J u n e 27 t h e l o r d a d m i r a l sailed f r o m S t o k e s B a y w i t h 100 ships, c a r r y i n g 6,000 soldiers, a n d o n J u l y 10 h e a p p e a r e d off the Isle o f Rh< near R o c h e l l e . T h e conquest o f the isle w o u l d h a v e g i v e n E n g l a n d a convenient base for n a v a l operations a n d p o l i t i c a l i n t r i g u e , a n d to this e n d , a l t h o u g h not specified i n his orders, B u c k i n g h a m d e v o t e d a l l h i s efforts.
V L

T h e Isle o f Rh6, a flat, n a r r o w s t r i p o f l a n d about eighteen miles i n l e n g t h , is separated f r o m the m a i n l a n d b y a strait l i t t l e m o r e t h a n t w o m i l e s wide. S o u t h w a r d s i t fronts the o p e n sea, b u t n o r t h w a r d s the waters e n c l o s e d between i t a n d the m a i n l a n d offer a sheltered anchorage. O n the n o r t h e r n shore stands S t M a r t i n , the chief town. T h e F r e n c h government had lately b u i l t a fortress there a n d a n o t h e r at L a Pr6e, t o w a r d s the eastern e n d o f the i s l a n d , to h e l p i n c o n t r o l l i n g the passage o f ships to a n d f r o m R o c h e l l e . S t M a r t i n w a s i n charge o f a g o v e r n o r n a m e d T o i r a s w i t h a g a r r i s o n o f 200 h o r s e a n d 1,200 f o o t W h e n B u c k i n g h a m b e g a n to d i s e m b a r k h i s soldiers, t h e y s h o w e d the same l a c k o f s p i r i t a n d d i s c i p l i n e as at C a d i z . Toiras c h a r g e d t h e m w i t h his h a n d f u l o f horse a n d a l l b u t d r o v e them into the s e a A t length he was repulsed and all the troops were l a n d e d . F o r the siege o f S t M a r t i n the h e l p o f the R o c h e l l e s e w o u l d h a v e been i n v a l u a b l e , b u t o n l y a few v o l u n teers j o i n e d B u c k i n g h a m . T h e s o i l b e i n g r o c k y , a m o n t h passed before the w o r k s o f i n v e s t m e n t w e r e c o m p l e t e d . T h e blockade p r o m i s e d to be tedious, the besiegers b e g a n to m e l t a w a y as troops o n active service w e r e w o n t to d o i n t h a t age o f i g n o r ance a n d neglect, a n d the R o c h e l l e s e , w h o w e r e r e q u i r e d b y t h e F r e n c h k i n g ' s officers to t a k e p a r t a g a i n s t the E n g l i s h , l o u d l y c a l l e d o n B u c k i n g h a m f o r succour. H e pressed for reinforcements a n d supplies, w h i c h w e r e d e l a y e d b y the w a n t o f m o n e y . W h e n at l e n g t h t h e y were ready, g a l e after gale d r o v e t h e ships back to p o r t F r e n c h troops w e r e p a s s i n g i n t o the Isle o f Rh6 a n d w o u l d soon be s t r o n g e n o u g h t o t a k e the offensive.

1627

THE

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KNIGHTS'

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145

O n O c t o b e r 27 B u c k i n g h a m t r i e d t o c a r r y S t M a r t i n b y C H A P , s t o r m , b u t the s c a l i n g ladders w e r e t o o s h o r t a n d the assault ^* failed. N o t h i n g r e m a i n e d b u t t o q u i t the i s l a n d as s o o n as possible. O n t h e 29th, as the E n g l i s h w e r e m a r c h i n g to the ships, the F r e n c h u n d e r M a r s h a l S c h o m b e r g fell u p o n t h e m a n d s l e w u p w a r d s o f 1,000. B u c k i n g h a m b r o u g h t b a c k s c a r c e l y 3,000 m e n t o E n g l a n d . A l t h o u g h h e h a d s h o w n p e r s o n a l c o u r age h e h a d done n o t h i n g save l o w e r the c r e d i t o f h i s c o u n t r y a n d d r a i n the last resources o f the c r o w n . L o u i s , i n p r o o f o f h i s pacific t e m p e r , sent b a c k the p r i s o n e r s t a k e n i n t h e Isle o f R h e u n r a n s o m e d , b u t C h a r l e s a n d B u c k i n g h a m w e r e resolute to c o n t i n u e t h e war. H a v i n g l e d t h e citizens o f R o c h e l l e i n t o revolt, t h e y felt b o u n d i n h o n o u r t o d o t h e i r u t m o s t f o r the r e l i e f o f the c i t y , w h i c h was c l o s e l y i n v e s t e d b y the r o y a l forces. T h e y d e t e r m i n e d t h a t n e x t s p r i n g L o r d D e n b i g h s h o u l d l e a d a n e w a r m a m e n t t o its relief. Sailors and s o l d i e r s therefore h a d to be k e p t i n p a y , o r a t least k e p t a l i v e , ships h a d to be refitted, a n d s u p p l i e s h a d to be passed Into R o c h e l l e before the besiegers s h o u l d close the m o u t h o f the h a r b o u r . W h i l e c o n t i n u i n g the F r e n c h w a r , C h a r l e s also t r i e d to h e l p h i s uncle, the K i n g o f D e n m a r k . H e c o u l d not, i n d e e d , p a y the p r o m i s e d subsidy, a n d h i s o n l y a v a i l a b l e force was the c o n t i n g e n t w h i c h , b y the t r e a t y o f 1624, E n g l a n d h a d agreed t o f u r n i s h t o the D u t c h armies. T h e t e r m o f t h e t r e a t y h a v i n g e x p i r e d , C h a r l e s sent o n these s o l d i e r s t o C h r i s t i a n . O r i g i n a l l y 6,000 s t r o n g , t h e y h a d d w i n d l e d to 2,500. M e n w e r e pressed i n E n g l a n d for the service, b u t sickness a n d d e s e r t i o n m a d e m o r e g a p s t h a n c o u l d be r e p a i r e d . I n the a u t u m n the c o n v e r g i n g a r m i e s o f t h e e m p e r o r d r o v e C h r i s t i a n t o t a k e refuge i n h i s islands, a n d l o c k e d u p the h a n d f u l of E n g l i s h m e n i n the fortress o f S t a d e o n t h e E l b e . T h u s the k i n g ' s w a r l i k e projects e v e r y w h e r e e n d e d i n defeat a n d loss. S o o n after B u c k i n g h a m r e t u r n e d f r o m the Isle o f Rh6 the m e a n s u s e d b y the k i n g to enforce c o n t r i b u t i o n to t h e loan w e r e c a l l e d In q u e s t i o n before a c o u r t o f justice. A m o n g the p e r s o n s i m p r i s o n e d for refusing, five g e n t l e m e n , S i r J o h n C o r b e t , S i r Thomas Darnel, Sir E d m u n d Hampden, Sir John Heveningh a m , a n d S i r W a l t e r E r i e , s u e d out t h e i r hab&us corpus i n the c o u r t o f k i n g ' s bench. T h e y w e r e b r o u g h t t o the b a r a n d t h e i r case w a s a r g u e d o n N o v e m b e r 22. T h e i r counsel m a i n t a i n e d
V O L . VII.

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CHAP, VI.

THE FIRST

AND

SECOND

PARLIAMENTS.

1627

that although the king and the privy council could commit to prison, the cause of committal must be expressed, so that, when the matter came before the king's bench, the judges could either admit to bail or remand to prison as they saw proper. X h e great charter and other venerable statutes were quoted in support of this doctrine. O n the side of the crown, reason of state was urged. In some cases persons known to be innocent must be kept i n custody for an indefinite time because they might be dangerous i f set at liberty. In other cases, where men were charged with grave crimes, it might be necessary to imprison them for a long time while the facts were scrutinised. A n opinion of the judges i n Queen Elizabeth's reign was quoted to the effect that the crown need not always show cause for committing a man to prison. After hearing the arguments, the judges refused to admit the prisoners to bail, but would not venture on the assertion that the crown might persist for an indefinite time in refusing to show caused The king's poverty became more and more alarming. T h e proceeds of the forced loan were spent faster than they came i n ; the revenue was anticipated; crown lands were mortgaged or sold, and 120,000 was borrowed from the city of L o n d o n on the security of the k i n g s rents. A n excise upon wine and beer was mooted i n the council, only to be abandoned. After releasing the persons imprisoned for refusing the forced loan, Charles ordered an issue of privy seals, the same expedient in another form, but hopeless in the actual temper of the public. Then he bethought him of extending the ancient impost of shipmoney to all the shires, and they were assessed at a rate which would have produced 173,000 from the whole of England, but the murmurs were so loud and general that the king drew back. Buckingham is said to have suggested the raising of an army which would enable the crown to extort as much as it wanted. Others pressed the king to call a parliament, and after a struggle he gave way. O n January 30,1628, he ordered the issue of writs for the election of a parliament which was to meet on March 17.
1

State Trials,

i i i . , 1.

CHAPTER

VII.

T H E T H I R D P A R L I A M E N T O F C H A R L E S I,

A s m a t t e r s t h e n stood, it was n a t u r a l that the elections o f 1628 C H A P , s h o u l d g o against the court a n d the n e w p a r l i a m e n t be less t r a c t a b l e t h a n the o l d . N o r h a d C h a r l e s m a d e a n y progress i n the arts o f p o p u l a r i t y . H i s failures., i n s t e a d o f l e a d i n g h i m to consider whether he h a d n o t m a d e mistakes, h a d e m b i t t e r e d h i m against p a r l i a m e n t s for r e f u s i n g h i m the means o f success. He forbade the E a r l s o f A r u n d e l a n d B r i s t o l as w e l l as t h e E a r l o f L i n c o l n , w h o h a d been active i n resisting the forced l o a n , to take t h e i r places i n the house o f l o r d s . T h e same p r o h i b i t i o n f e l l o n A r c h b i s h o p A b b o t , w h o h a d f a l l e n i n t o disgrace on account o f his a n t i p a t h y t o the n e w school o f divines, a n d o n B i s h o p W i l l i a m s w h o h a d lost the great seal b y resisting B u c k i n g h a m ' s folly. T h e k i n g w a r n e d the c o m m o n s that, i f they w o u l d n o t s u p p l y his w a n t s , he m u s t i n conscience use those other means w h i c h G o d h a d put i n t o his hands. " T a k e n o t this as a threat," he a d d e d , " for I scorn to threaten a n y b u t m y equals." Neither house was to be q u e l l e d i n this fashion. T h e l o r d s at once i n q u i r e d i n t o the reason w h y some o f their house were absent, a n d the m i s s i n g peers were p r e s e n t l y a l l o w e d to return. T h e ablest chiefs o f the c o m m o n s h a d m e t before the o p e n i n g o f p a r l i a m e n t a n d h a d agreed to d r o p the i m p e a c h m e n t o f B u c k i n g h a m , b u t to d e m a n d a l l the m o r e firmly the redress o f g r i e v ances. T h e s e grievances were clear. Unparliamentary taxation was the first. A t this t i m e the b u l k o f the king's revenue was raised b y the k i n g ' s sole w i l l a n d pleasure. Arbitrary imp r i s o n m e n t was another a n d a n e q u a l grievance. T h e t w o left no m o r e l i b e r t y i n a n y real sense o f t h a t t e r m . A lesser a n d p a r t i a l grievance was the b i l l e t i n g o f troops u p o n c o m m o n
147

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OF CHARLES

I.

1628

C H A P , householders, e s p e c i a l l y as those troops w e r e neither d i s c i p l i n e d nor p a i d . A f o u r t h was the e n f o r c e m e n t o f m a r t i a l l a w a t a t i m e w h e n there was peace w i t h i n the k i n g d o m , for m a r t i a l l a w was recognised as v a l i d o n l y i n t i m e o f w a r o r r e b e l l i o n . I n o r d e r to check the d i s o r d e r o f the troops, C h a r l e s h a d issued c o m m i s s i o n s for the enforcement o f m a r t i a l l a w , a n d n o t o n l y soldiers but c i v i l i a n s w h o h a d t a k e n p a r t i n their offences w e r e t r i e d b y v i r t u e o f these c o m m i s s i o n s . F i n a l l y , a l l the excesses o f p o w e r h a d b e e n justified a n d a l l the restraints o f l a w u p o n the c r o w n h a d b e e n d e n i e d i n the p u l p i t , a n d even i n the presence a n d w i t h t h e a p p r o v a l o f the sovereign, at a t i m e w h e n the state p u n i s h e d m o s t r i g o r o u s l y a l l utterances w h i c h were h e l d to b e u n s o u n d either i n politics o r i n r e l i g i o n . T h e c o m m o n s , f i n d i n g i n t h e p o l i t i c a l doctrines o f the A r m i n i a n c l e r g y a n e w p r o o f that t h e y were c o n s p i r i n g w i t h t h e R o m a n i s t s against the l i b e r t y o f E n g l a n d , w e r e s t i l l m o r e e x a s p e r a t e d against b o t h and s t i l l m o r e bent u p o n their repression. T h e house resolved that c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f grievances m u s t precede s u p p l y , a n d p u t before a l l o t h e r grievances the attack on the l i b e r t y o f the s u b j e c t I t agreed u p o n f o u r resolutions, the first c o n d e m n i n g t a x a t i o n w i t h o u t p a r l i a m e n t a r y grant, the other three g u a r d i n g against a r b i t r a r y i m p r i s o n m e n t I n order to testify its l o y a l t y , it resolved to v o t e the k i n g five subsidies, t a k i n g care that the v o t e s h o u l d n o t be r e p o r t e d , i n other w o r d s , that n o authentic r e c o r d o f the v o t e s h o u l d be made. Then came the q u e s t i o n h o w best to g i v e effect to the four resolutions, whether b y l a y i n g t h e m before the house o f lords, or b y p e t i t i o n to the k i n g , o r b y a b i l l . W e n t w o r t h was i n favour o f proceedi n g b y b i l l . O n c e it h a d been passed i n t o l a w , the person a n d the p r o p e r t y o f e v e r y E n g l i s h m a n w o u l d b e safe, a n d a l l o b scure o r i r r i t a t i n g dispute as to w h a t the l a w h a d been w o u l d be e x c l u d e d . B u t the m a j o r i t y preferred t o argue the case for the resolutions before t h e l o r d s . T h e b i l l e t i n g o f soldiers a n d the exercise o f m a r t i a l l a w were n e x t discussed. ^Vhen the representatives o f the c o m m o n s came to argue for the resolutions, most o f the peers,^ feeling that s o m e d i s c r e t i o n a r y p o w e r s o f t a x a t i o n a n d i m p r i s o n m e n t m u s t be left w i t h t h e k i n g for t h e p u b l i c safety, t r i e d t o f i n d f o r m u l a s w h i c h s h o u l d reconcile t h i s discretion w i t h t h e s u p r e m a c y o f the l a w . B u t t h e effort w a s hopeless, a n d the p r o p o s i t i o n s offered b y t h e l o r d s w e r e easily

O 2 o

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PETITION

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149

s h o w n to be so v a g u e that t h e y i m p o s e d n o r e a l restraint o n t h e C H A P , k i n g s power. W ' e n t w o r t h again urged that a b i l l should be drawn. The h o u s e agreed, a n d a s u b - c o m m i t t e e p r o d u c e d t h e d r a f t o f a b i l l f o r b i d d i n g arbitrary t a x a t i o n a n d imprisonment a n d the billeti n g o f soldiers. T h e k i n g ' s i m p a t i e n c e c o u l d n o l o n g e r b e c o n trolled. O n A p r i l 28 t h e c o m m o n s were o r d e r e d t o a p p e a r b e f o r e h i m i n t h e house o f l o r d s , a n d the l o r d k e e p e r d e c l a r e d b y h i s o r d e r that the k i n g h e l d the great charter a n d t h e o t h e r s t a t u t e s c i t e d t o b e i n force, a n d w o u l d m a i n t a i n h i s subjects i n t h e j u s t f r e e d o m o f t h e i r persons a n d safety o f t h e i r estates. T h e y were a s s u r e d t h a t t h e r o y a l w o r d was as s t r o n g a s e c u r i t y as a n y l a w t h a t t h e y c o u l d m a k e . L a t e r , w h e n the b i l l was i n t r o d u c e d , C h a r l e s sent w o r d t o the house t h a t h e w i s h e d the q u e s t i o n t o b e p u t , w h e t h e r t h e y w o u l d rest o n h i s r o y a l w o r d a n d p r o m i s e . H i s s p o k e s m e n i n t h e house h i n t e d t h a t n o l a w c o u l d take a w a y his discretionary power o f acting for the public safety. I n courteous y e t firm language, W e n t w o r t h d e c l a r e d t h a t t h e y t r u s t e d the k i n g s g o o d n e s s so f a r as t h e y w e r e c o n c e r n e d f o r themselves, b u t t h a t t h e p u b l i c v i o l a t i o n o f t h e l a w b y h i s m i n i s t e r s r e q u i r e d a p u b l i c a m e n d . T h e house r e s o l v e d t h a t a r e m o n s t r a n c e t o this effect s h o u l d be d r a w n up. T h e k i n g r e p l i e d t h a t h e w o u l d repeat h i s promise, b u t w o u l d n o t hear o f a n y e n c r o a c h m e n t o n his prerogative. T h e house insisted on p r e s e n t i n g the r e m o n s t r a n c e nevertheless. T h e k i n g virtually r e p e a t e d his first answer. T h e house was n o t to be m o v e d f r o m its p u r p o s e , b u t chose a different procedure, b y p e t i t i o n , n o t b y bill. T h e s u b - c o m m i t t e e w h i c h h a d p r e p a r e d t h e b i l l was i n s t r u c t e d to d r a w u p a p e t i t i o n o f r i g h t , a s s e r t i n g t h a t the l a w h a d b e e n b r o k e n i n several w a y s a n d d e m a n d i n g t h a t n o s u c h b r e a c h s h o u l d o c c u r a g a i n . B y M a y 8 the w o r k was d o n e a n d t h e l o r d s were i n v i t e d to a conference. A f t e r some d i s c u s s i o n t h e l o r d s a d o p t e d t h e p e t i t i o n w i t h a n e w clause to t h e effect t h a t i n p r e s e n t i n g i t the houses m e a n t to leave entire t h e sover e i g n p o w e r e n t r u s t e d t o the k i n g for the safety o f h i s people. T h e y i n t e n d e d this s a v i n g clause to affect o n l y the r e s t r a i n t o n t h e r o y a l p o w e r o f i m p r i s o n m e n t w i t h o u t cause s h o w n . B u t , as B u c k i n g h a m c o n s t r u e d i t t o e x t e n d t o the w h o l e p e t i t i o n , a n d t h e c o m m o n s w i t h o n e v o i c e refused i t altogether, t h e l o r d s at

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C H A P , length, consented to d r o p t h e a d d i t i o n a l clause. T h e lords t h e n i n v i t e d the c o m m o n s to j o i n w i t h t h e m i n c o m m i t t e e , to see i f t h e y c o u l d devise a n y declaration w h i c h w o u l d satisfy the k i n g that t h e y d i d n o t m e a n t o e n c r o a c h o n h i s prerogative. W^entw o r t h , w h o confessed that i n the o p i n i o n o f wise m e n the p e t i t i o n stretched v e r y far o n the k i n g ' s power, w i s h e d to accept t h e i n v i t a t i o n . B u t his influence h a d d e c l i n e d , a n d the c o m m o n s w o u l d n o t hear o f the j o i n t c o m m i t t e e . T h e lords, w i t h o u t pressing the p o i n t further, accepted t h e p e t i t i o n o n the 28th. T h e k i n g t h e n h a d to c o n s i d e r his answer. I n his eyes the house o f c o m m o n s , after d i s a b l i n g the state i n t i m e o f war, were t r y i n g to pare d o w n h i s prerogative, a n d , h a d he been able, he w o u l d h a v e silenced t h e m l o n g before. B u t everyw h e r e fortune was adverse to the k i n g . O n A p r i l 27 S t a d e h a d surrendered to T i l l y . E a r l y i n M a y D e n b i g h had found the obstructions o f the h a r b o u r o f R o c h e l l e t o o s t r o n g a n d ret u r n e d to E n g l a n d w i t h o u t s t r i k i n g a b l o w . The king had g i v e n orders t o r e n e w the a t t e m p t to relieve R o c h e l l e . But the ships, a l t h o u g h t h e y h a d seen so l i t t l e service, were b a d l y i n need o f r e p a i r ; p r o v i s i o n s a n d even w a t e r w e r e w a n t i n g ; a n d the crews w e r e f a l l i n g sick b y h u n d r e d s . A l t h o u g h C h a r l e s c o u l d n o t g i v e a b l u n t refusal, he w o u l d not, i f possible, g i v e a f r a n k acceptance. H e consulted the j u d g e s as t o w h e t h e r h e m i g h t i n n o case i m p r i s o n a subject w i t h o u t s h o w i n g cause, a n d t h e y a d m i t t e d t h a t i n some cases h e m i g h t , b u t t h a t the court h a d a discretion as to the l e n g t h o f s u c h i m p r i s o n m e n t . H e n e x t s u b m i t t e d to the p r i v y c o u n c i l the q u e s t i o n h o w the p e t i t i o n s h o u l d be answered, a n d t h e y agreed u p o n a f o r m o f w o r d s most i n g e n i o u s l y d e v o i d o f m e a n i n g . O n t h e f o l l o w i n g d a y the k i n g a p p e a r e d i n the house o f l o r d s , t h e c o m m o n s were s u m m o n e d to t h e b a r a n d the l o r d keeper r e a d the f o l l o w i n g answer to the p e t i t i o n : " T h e k i n g w i l l e t h t h a t right be d o n e a c c o r d i n g to the l a w s a n d c u s t o m s o f the r e a l m * a n d t h a t the statutes be put i n d u e e x e c u t i o n , t h a t h i s subjects m a y have n o cause to c o m p l a i n o f a n y w r o n g s o r oppressions c o n t r a r y to their j u s t rights a n d l i b e r t i e s to the preservation w h e r e o f h e h o l d s h i m s e l f i n conscience as w e l l o b l i g e d as o f h i s p r e r o g a t i v e " } W h e n the c o m m o n s re-assembled, E l i o t gave utterance t o
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t h e i r d i s c o n t e n t . A f t e r m o v i n g that t h e y s h o u l d p o s t p o n e c o n s i d e n n g the k i n g s answer u n t i l J u n e o, ne r e c o u n t e d a l l the faults a n d m i s f o r t u n e s of t h e g o v e r n m e n t d u r i n g t h e last three y e a r s , e n d i n g w i t h the p r o p o s a l that the h o u s e s h o u l d agree u p o n a r e m o n s t r a n c e to the k i n g . T h e house a c c e p t e d h i s m o t i o n . T h e k i n g t r i e d to stifle the remonstrance b y a message t h a t t h e session m u s t close i n a w e e k ' s t i m e a n d t h a t t h e y m u s t finish t h e i r business w i t h o u t e n t e r t a i n i n g n e w m a t t e r s . The h o u s e t o o k n o h e e d o f the message. T h e n a s e c o n d m e s s a g e f o r b a d e the house t o l a y a n y s c a n d a l o r aspersion o n the state or its ministers. A t the prospect of an immediate collision w i t h t h e c r o w n t h e m e m b e r s were so d e e p l y m o v e d t h a t m a n y s h e d tears. I t w a s even p r o p o s e d t h a t e v e r y m a n s h o u l d a s k h i s m a j e s t y ' s l e a v e t o g o h o m e , as t h e y c o u l d d o n o g o o d b y r e m a i n i n g together. B u t w h e n t h e first s h o c k o f d i s a p p o i n t m e n t h a d passed, the house w a s as u n y i e l d i n g as ever, a n d w h e n C o k e b o l d l y d e n o u n c e d B u c k i n g h a m b y n a m e as the cause o f a l l their m i s e r i e s , m e m b e r after m e m b e r j o i n e d i n a p p r o v a l , a n d the clauses o f t h e remonstrance were r a p i d l y voted. A s t h e l o r d s g a v e i t to be u n d e r s t o o d t h a t t h e y w e r e averse t o a d i s s o l u t i o n , t h e k i n g d i d n o t t h i n k fit t o use t h a t e x t r e m e measure. He therefore b e n t to necessity, a n d o n J u n e J g a v e h i s assent to t h e P e t i t i o n o f R i g h t i n t h e a c c u s t o m e d w o r d s , Sott droit fait comme est desire} T h e P e t i t i o n o f R i g h t has a l w a y s been a c c o u n t e d one o f the greatest o f E n g l i s h statutes a n d one o f the m a i n b u l w a r k s o f E n g l i s h l i b e r t y , n o r is this j u d g m e n t inaccurate, f o r i t r o b b e d a b s o l u t e p o w e r o f s o m e o f i t s m o s t d a n g e r o u s weapons. It r e s t r a i n e d t h e k i n g f r o m e x a c t i n g a n y gift, l o a n , benevolence, t a x , o r s u c h l i k e charge w i t h o u t c o m m o n consent b y act o f p a r l i a m e n t , " w o r d s o f w h i c h t h e precise i m p o r t w a s s o o n to be d i s p u t e d , b u t w h i c h c e r t a i n l y m a d e a l l direct t a x a t i o n at t h e r o y a l w i l l a n d pleasure i l l e g a l . I t forbade the i m p r i s o n m e n t o f a n y m a n w i t h o u t cause s h o w n , so that, w h e n a p r i s o n e r w a s b r o u g h t before the j u d g e s b y w r i t o f habeas corpus^ t h e y c o u l d d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r h e s h o u l d be released o n b a i l o r o t h e r w i s e o r r e c o m m i t t e d t o p r i s o n . I t is needless to d w e l l u p o n the s i g n i f i c a n c e o f these clauses. W e need m o r e c o n s i d e r a t i o n
2
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Lords* Journals,

i i i . , 842.

3 Car. I., c h . i .

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C H A P , to measure t h e f u l l i m p o r t o f t h o s e w h i c h f o r b a d e m a r t i a l l a w a n d the b i l l e t i n g o f soldiers. I f t h e k i n g c o u l d authorise the enforcement o f m a r t i a l l a w w h e n there was peace w i t h i n the k i n g d o m , he c o u l d n o t o n l y f o r m a n a r m y altogether subject to his w i l l , b u t he m i g h t e x t e n d t h i s s p e c i a l j u r i s d i c t i o n , as i t h a d a l r e a d y been e x t e n d e d , t o offenders w h o were not soldiers. T h e b i l l e t i n g o f s o l d i e r s u p o n t h e c i t i z e n , even w h e n t h e y are u n d e r strict d i s c i p l i n e , m a y easily be m a d e a most e x o r b i t a n t t a x a n d a m o s t severe p u n i s h m e n t . B u t i n the e a r l y p a r t o f the seventeenth c e n t u r y t h e b i l l e t i n g o f soldiers m e a n t s o m e t h i n g far worse. T h e soldier, t a k e n f r o m t h e l o w e s t class o f society a n d too often left b y t h e state w i t h o u t p a y , f o o d , o r c l o t h i n g , was n o t s e l d o m a lawless a n d b r u t a l ruffian. T h e householder w h o w a s f o r c e d t o e n t e r t a i n s u c h f e l l o w s m i g h t e x p e c t t o h a v e h i s g o o d s w a s t e d a n d s p o i l e d , t o be h i m self r e v i l e d , beaten, h a l f - m u r d e r e d , t o see h i s w o m e n i n s u l t e d , i f n o t f o u l l y o u t r a g e d . T h e soldiers c o l l e c t e d i n the s o u t h e r n counties for the F r e n c h a n d S p a n i s h w a r s h a d u n d e r l i k e t e m p t a tions b e g u n to act l i k e t h e soldiers o f M a n s f e l d o r T i l l y , a n d i n a few years w o u l d h a v e become e q u a l l y p r o f i c i e n t i n e v i l . It is true that states m u s t h a v e a r m i e s a n d t h a t a r m i e s m u s t be d i s c i p l i n e d , l o d g e d , a n d fed. B u t the m e a n s w h i c h h a d been t a k e n to a t t a i n these ends w e r e so p r e g n a n t w i t h e v i l t h a t o n l y a n i m m i n e n t n a t i o n a l d a n g e r s u c h as d i d n o t e x i s t i n 1628 c o u l d j u s t i f y their acceptance. W h i l e p r e s s i n g the P e t i t i o n o f R i g h t t h e c o m m o n s were careful to m a i n t a i n t h a t t h e y s t o o d u p o n t h e a n c i e n t l a w a n d des i g n e d n o e n c r o a c h m e n t o n t h e e s t a b l i s h e d p r e r o g a t i v e o f the c r o w n . I n p r o o f o f t h i s assertion t h e y q u o t e d a series o f statutes f r o m M a g n a C a r t a d o w n w a r d s . O n t h e o t h e r s i d e the k i n g m i g h t h a v e a p p e a l e d to a n u m b e r o f precedents f r o m the accession of the house o f T u d o r d o w n t o h i s o w n t i m e . I t was u n d e n i a b l e that previous sovereigns h a d t a x e d t h e subject at t h e i r o w n d i s cretion b y m e a n s o f benevolences a n d f o r c e d loans, a n d h a d often i m p r i s o n e d m e n f o r r e f u s i n g s u c h c o n t r i b u t i o n s , o r for s o m e other reason w h i c h c o u l d n o t be m a d e g o o d b y l e g a l a r g u m e n t Practice c o u l d t h u s be q u o t e d a g a i n s t t h e l e t t e r o f the l a w , a n d i n p o l i t i c a l controversies n o c a n d i d r e a s o n e r w i l l refuse w e i g h t to practice, f o r g o v e r n m e n t c a n n o t a l w a y s b e g u i d e d b y p u r e l y l e g a l considerations. T h e t r u e j u s t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e c o m m o n s l a y

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i n t h e i m p e r i o u s need for e n d i n g t h i s state o f d o u b t a n d u n - C H A P , c e r t a i n t y . T h e t i m e h a d c o m e w h e n E n g l a n d m u s t be e i t h e r a c o u n t r y of legal freedom or a country of absolute power. The S t u a r t s , t o use B u r k e ' s phrase, h a d m a d e the m e d i c i n e o f t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n its d a i l y f o o d . O u t o f a l l the a r b i t r a r y acts o f h i g h - h a n d e d rulers, often i n t i m e s o f r e a l stress a n d p e r i l , t h e y h a d made a practice of the constitution, a n d then, g o i n g b e y o n d the T u d o r s , t h e y h a d b a s e d t h i s practice o n a clear a n d r i g o r o u s theory o f monarchical power w h i c h recognised i n the l a w no force b u t t h e sovereign's pleasure a n d gave the subject n o t i t l e t o h i s l i b e r t y b u t the sovereign's forbearance. Parliament could n o t b u t j o i n issue w i t h s u c h k i n g s . A l t h o u g h the c o m m o n s w e r e m u c h gratified b y their success, t h e y d i d n o t therefore l a y aside t h e i r r e m o n s t r a n c e as t h e k i n g e x p e c t e d t h e y w o u l d do. T h e y w e n t o n t o the censure o f d i v i n e s w h o h a d e x a l t e d the prerogative o f the k i n g a n d h a d received m a r k s o f his favour. D r . R o b e r t S i b t h o r p e i n a n assize s e r m o n at N o r t h a m p t o n h a d d e c l a r e d t h e k i n g to possess l e g i s l a t i v e p o w e r a n d h a d d e n i e d a n y r i g h t o f resistance t o h i s w i l l i n a n y case. C h a r l e s h a d o r d e r e d A r c h b i s h o p A b b o t t o license the s e r m o n for t h e press, a n d , o n h i s refusal, h a d p l a c e d h i m i n h o n o u r a b l e c o n f i n e m e n t i n one o f h i s o w n houses, a n d e n t r u s t e d his j u r i s d i c t i o n to a c o m m i s s i o n . D r . Roger Manwaring in s e r m o n s p r e a c h e d before the k i n g h i m s e l f h a d d e n i e d t h a t the c o n s e n t o f p a r l i a m e n t w a s n e c e s s a r y to t a x a t i o n , a n d a g a i n the k i n g i n s i s t e d t h a t t h e s e r m o n s s h o u l d be l i c e n s e d . E v e n L a u d r a i s e d objections, b u t the k i n g w a s f i r m . S i b t h o r p e escaped p u n i s h m e n t b u t M a n w a r i n g w a s Impeached. T h e l o r d s sent e n c e d M a n w a r i n g to i m p r i s o n m e n t a n d fine, suspended h i m f r o m p r e a c h i n g at c o u r t for l i f e a n d elsewhere f o r three years, a n d d e c l a r e d h i m i n c a p a b l e o f a n y ecclesiastical d i g n i t y o r c i v i l office. T h e one concession w h i c h t h e c o m m o n s m a d e t o t h e k i n g was p u s h i n g f o r w a r d t h e b i l l f o r a g r a n t o f five subsidies. T h e r e m o n s t r a n c e w h e n c o m p l e t e i n c l u d e d the u s u a l d e m a n d f o r a severe e n f o r c e m e n t o f t h e l a w s against the catholics a n d the u s u a l d e n u n c i a t i o n o f t h e A r m i n i a n p a r t y i n the C h u r c h . B u t its c h i e f t h e m e was t h e e x c e s s i v e p o w e r o f t h e D u k e o f B u c k i n g h a m a n d his abuse o f t h a t power. C h a r g i n g u p o n the d u k e a l l t h a t h a d been d o n e a m i s s since the k i n g s accession, i t d e m a n d e d h i s r e m o v a l f r o m office a n d f r o m the court. Such

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a n i n d i c t m e n t w e n t far b e y o n d t h e t r u t h . B u c k i n g h a m was altogether unfit for the g r e a t place to w h i c h he h a d been raised b y r o y a l folly, b u t h e was n o t a t r a i t o r a n d h e h a d r a r e l y d o n e anything without the king's knowledge a n d approval. Charles saw i n B u c k i n g h a m a f a i t h f u l s e r v a n t persecuted for zeal a n d devotion j a n d h e rejected the r e m o n s t r a n c e c u r t l y . T h e c o m mons then w e n t i n t o c o m m i t t e e o n t h e b i l l f o r g r a n t i n g t o n n a g e and poundage. I n t e n d i n g t o m a k e c h a n g e s o f detail w h i c h w o u l d require l o n g discussion, t h e y d e s i r e d to pass a t e m p o r a r y b i l l , and, w h e n the k i n g w o u l d n o t hear o f t h i s , t h e y w a n t e d a n a d j o u r n m e n t instead o f a p r o r o g a t i o n . T h e k i n g r e f u s i n g this also, t h e y b e g a n a s e c o n d remonstrance, d e c l a r i n g t h a t n o i m p o s i t i o n ought to be l a i d u p o n g o o d s w i t h o u t c o m m o n consent b y act o f parliament, a n d t h a t the l e v y o f t o n n a g e , p o u n d a g e , a n d other impositions i n a n y o t h e r w a y was c o n t r a r y to the P e t i t i o n o f Right N o t to receive a second remonstrance, Charles, o n J u n e 26, p r o r o g u e d the p a r l i a m e n t i n a s h a r p speech. I n their last remonstrance the c o m m o n s h a d t a k e n d o u b t f u l g r o u n d . P o l i t i c a l l y , t h e y w e r e r i g h t i n t h i n k i n g t h a t the l e v y of tonnage, poundage, a n d i m p o s i t i o n s b y the sole a u t h o r i t y o f the c r o w n was dangerous. L e g a l l y , the j u d g m e n t o f the c o u r t of exchequer d e c l a r i n g the c r o w n e n t i t l e d t o l e v y i m p o s i t i o n s c o u l d not be set aside b y a m e r e r e s o l u t i o n o f the c o m m o n s o r o v e r r u l e d b y a n y t h i n g less t h a n a n act o f p a r l i a m e n t . T h e c o m m o n s i n d e e d a l l e g e d s u c h a s t a t u t o r y p r o h i b i t i o n i n the t e r m s o f the P e t i t i o n o f R i g h t . B u t i t is d o u b t f u l w h e t h e r t h e p e t i t i o n c a n be construed i n this w a y . It forbade, as w e h a v e seen, the t a k i n g o f a n y gift, l o a n , benevolence, t a x , o r s u c h l i k e charge '\ I n m o d e r n p a r l a n c e the w o r d t a x w o u l d cover duties on m e r c h a n d i s e as w e l l as e v e r y other p u b l i c e x a c t i o n . A t t h a t time, however, t h e w o r d t a x w a s often u s e d i n a n a r r o w e r sense to s i g n i f y d i r e c t t a x e s o n l y . M o r e o v e r i t is a r u l e o f l e g a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n t h a t the sense o f a general t e r m is restricted b y the p a r t i c u l a r t e r m s w i t h w h i c h it is c o u p l e d . L a s t l y , those w h o d r e w u p the P e t i t i o n o f R i g h t were w e l l aware t h a t the j u d g e s w o u l d construe^ e v e r y statute l i m i t i n g the p r e r o g a t i v e i n t h e narrowest p o s s i b l e s p i r i t a n d that n o t e r m s c o u l d be too p l a i n to defeat t h e i r s u b t l e t y . W e m a y c o n c l u d e that, i f t h e P e t i t i o n o f R i g h t h a d been m e a n t to r e s t r a i n the l e v y o f tonnage, poundage, a n d i m p o s i t i o n s , i t w o u l d have n a m e d t h e m e x p r e s s l y
tc

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as i t n a m e d gift, l o a n , or benevolence. W i t h so m u c h resistance C H A P , t o encounter, its framers m a y w e l l h a v e been c o n t e n t to d e a l V I I . w i t h d i r e c t t a x a t i o n o n l y , l e a v i n g i n d i r e c t t a x a t i o n t o be settled i n a separate b a r g a i n w i t h the k i n g . I n a l l t h a t related to the C h u r c h the k i n g s h o w e d his s t u b b o r n r e s o l u t i o n to i g n o r e the wishes o f the m a j o r i t y o f the house o f c o m m o n s . H a v i n g p r o m o t e d M o n t a i g n e , the u n p o p u l a r B i s h o p o f L o n d o n , to be A r c h b i s h o p o f Y o r k , h e t r a n s l a t e d t o L o n d o n L a u d , B i s h o p o f S t . D a v i d ' s , w h o m the c o m m o n s h a d e x p r e s s l y censured for A r m i n i a n doctrine. A b o u t the s a m e t i m e h e c o n f e r r e d the b i s h o p r i c o f C h i c h e s t e r o n M o n t a g u w h o s e b o o k s the c o m m o n s h a d c o n d e m n e d . H e pard o n e d M a n w a r i n g a n d g a v e h i m the r e c t o r y o f S t a n f o r d R i v e r s vacated b y Montagu. T h e effect o f these p r o m o t i o n s i n the C h u r c h far o u t w e i g h e d a l l that C h a r l e s c o u l d g a i n b y r e s t o r i n g t o f a v o u r the leaders o f the m i d d l e p a r t y i n the house o f l o r d s , s u c h as B r i s t o l a n d A r u n d e l . N o r d i d i t a v a i l that W^illiams w a s a l l o w e d t o m a k e his peace w i t h B u c k i n g h a m a n d once m o r e t o g i v e g o o d c o u n s e l w h i c h was n o t t a k e n . C h a r l e s h a d l a t e l y g a i n e d a n e w a d v i s e r w h o w a s m o r e c o n g e n i a l t h a n these m e n . S i r T h o m a s W e n t w o r t h , l o n g k n o w n as one o f the ablest leaders o f o p p o s i t i o n t o the court, m a d e h i s peace w i t h the k i n g a n d was created a b a r o n . B e f o r e the e n d o f the y e a r he h a d b e c o m e V i s c o u n t W^entworth a n d , o n t h e r e t i r e m e n t o f the E a r l o f S u n d e r l a n d , p r e s i d e n t o f the c o u n c i l o f the n o r t h . D o w n to this d a y m e n have debated the motives w h i c h l e d W^entworth to c h a n g e sides. M o t i v e s c a n n o t b e d i r e c t l y k n o w n , a n d i n s u c h cases are n o t l i k e l y t o be conjectured w i t h indifference. W e n t w o r t h w a s p r o b a b l y s w a y e d b y m a n y c o n siderations. M o s t m e m b e r s o f the p o p u l a r p a r t y o p p o s e d t h e c o u r t q u i t e as m u c h o n religious as o n p o l i t i c a l g r o u n d s . They w e r e p u r i t a n s , b u t W e n t w o r t h w a s not, a n d therefore l a c k e d t h e strongest b o n d o f s y m p a t h y w i t h h i s fellows. Wentworth w a s a passionate, i m p e r i o u s m a n , p r o u d o f h i s lineage, talents, a n d w e a l t h , a n d he m i g h t w e l l b e a n g e r e d at t h e w a y i n w h i c h the house o f c o m m o n s h a d slipped his control and given itself to E l i o t , a m a n o f so different a t e m p e r that he c o u l d n o t h a v e b e e n pleasing to W e n t w o r t h . W e n t w o r t h might honestly t h i n k that
1 r

* F o r a. fuller discussion of this point sec Gardiner, c h . lxiv.

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the c o m m o n s i n the debates w h i c h e n d e d t h e session h a d g o n e too far a n d t h a t t h e y threatened to m a k e g o v e r n m e n t i m p o s s i b l e . I t has been s a i d that he was i m p e l l e d t o o p p o s e t h e k i n g c h i e f l y b y mistrust o f B u c k i n g h a m a n d d i s l i k e o f h i s f o r e i g n p o l i c y , but it m u s t be r e m e m b e r e d t h a t he t o o k t h e decisive step w h i l e B u c k i n g h a m , s t i l l f u l l o f life a n d u n s h a k e n i n the k i n g ' s c o n f i dence, g o v e r n e d a l l affairs o f state. W h e n w e h a v e g i v e n d u e w e i g h t t o a l l that c a n be u r g e d i n W e n t w o r t h ' s favour, i t is h a r d to account for so s u d d e n a n d t o t a l a c o n v e r s i o n , a p a r t f r o m m o t i v e s o f self-interest. Self-interest, u n d o u b t e d l y , was i n f a v o u r o f s u c h a change. T h e r e h a v e been times a n d countries w h e r e the trade o f a d e m a g o g u e has been v e r y p r o f i t a b l e ; b u t i n E n g l a n d u n d e r the first S t u a r t s even sober a n d c o n s c i e n t i o u s resistance to the sovereign's w i l l b r o u g h t n o rewards a n d m a n y penalties. It gave neither f a m e n o r notoriety, for p o l i t i c a l a c t i o n was c o n f i n e d to parliament, a n d debates a n d d i v i s i o n s w e r e n o t p u b l i s h e d j i t closed e v e r y d o o r to p o w e r a n d p r o m o t i o n ; it m i g h t i n v o l v e l o n g terms o f i m p r i s o n m e n t , a n d i n a n y case m a r k e d a m a n f o r the u n r e m i t t i n g h o s t i l i t y o f the c r o w n a n d its servants. Much as the c r o w n h a d lost i n m o r a l w e i g h t s i n c e the d e a t h o f E l i z a beth, it was s t i l l the s u p r e m e a u t h o r i t y ; i t alone c o u l d g i v e w h a t a m b i t i o u s m e n p r i z e , w e a l t h , titles, office, a n d the o p p o r t u n i t y o f e x e r c i s i n g h i g h a d m i n i s t r a t i v e faculties s u c h as W e n t w o r t h possessed i n a n e m i n e n t degree. N o r was there a n y l i k e l i h o o d t h a t this state o f t h i n g s w o u l d be c h a n g e d soon, i f ever. W e , w h o k n o w the result o f t h e conflict, are p r o n e to t h i n k that the v i c t o r y o f the p a r l i a m e n t over the k i n g m u s t even then h a v e been e x p e c t e d ; but t o c o n t e m p o r a r i e s the reverse m i g h t w e l l seem m u c h m o r e p r o b a b l e . W h a t e v e r W e n t worth's motives, h i s c o n v e r s i o n was f u l l a n d final. H i t h e r t o he h a d b o l d l y asserted the s u p r e m a c y o f t h e l a w over p r e r o g a tive j h e n c e f o r t h w i t h equal boldness h e asserted the s u p r e m a c y o f prerogative o v e r the l a w . N o i n g e n u i t y c a n h a r m o n i s e the t w o halves o f h i s p u b l i c career, a l t h o u g h i n fairness it m u s t be r e m e m b e r e d that i n c o n s i s t e n c y b y i t s e l f does n o t p r o v e a statesman d i s h o n e s t .
1
1

See Gardiner, c h . lxiv. and subsequent chapters, for the most favourable

view that can be taken o f Wentworth's conversion.

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A s i n the f o r m e r recess, C h a r l e s a n d B u c k i n g h a m w e r e left C H A P , to c a r r y o n w a r w i t h o u t the n e e d f u l means. T h e y were beginn i n g t o desire peace w i t h S p a i n a n d w i t h F r a n c e i f t h e y c o u l d h a v e i t o n t h e i r o w n terms, but, as t h e y h a d w o n n o v i c t o r i e s , t h i s w a s i m p o s s i b l e , a n d t h e y felt b o u n d i n h o n o u r t o a t t e m p t the r e l i e f o f R o c h e l l e , t h e n e n d u r i n g the last a g o n y . I n A u g u s t the k i n g w e n t d o w n to P o r t s m o u t h to i n s p i r i t the p r e p a r a t i o n s w h i c h languished for w a n t b o t h o f m o n e y and of zeal. A few d a y s l a t e r t h e d u k e f o l l o w e d . O n the m o r n i n g o f A u g u s t 23, as h e w a s s p e a k i n g to one o f his officers i n the h a l l , a s t r a n g e r p l u n g e d a k n i f e i n t o h i s heart. H e expired almost instantly. T h e m u r d e r e r w h o d i d n o t a t t e m p t flight, was p r e s e n t l y s e i z e d a n d p r o v e d t o b e J o h n F e l t o n , a l i e u t e n a n t i n the a r m y , a m a n o f d e c e n t b i r t h a n d character. F e l t o n h a d been wrought u p to t h e b e l i e f t h a t i t w o u l d be a r i g h t e o u s deed t o k i l l t h e d u k e , p a r t l y b y h i s o w n grievances, the d e f a u l t o f p a y a n d r e f u s a l o f p r o m o t i o n , p a r t l y b y b r o o d i n g o v e r t h e r e m o n s t r a n c e o f the c o m m o n s a n d the b o o k o f a c e r t a i n D r . E g l e s h a m i n w h i c h B u c k i n g h a m w a s c h a r g e d w i t h a t r o c i o u s crimes, s u c h as t h e m u r d e r o f K i n g J a m e s . H e w a s b r o u g h t u p to L o n d o n a n d l o d g e d i n the T o w e r . T h e k i n g consulted the judges whether F e l t o n c o u l d be p u t to the r a c k i n t h e o r d i n a r y course o f l a w , a n d t h e j u d g e s w i t h one v o i c e r e p l i e d that h e c o u l d not. He was t r i e d o n N o v e m b e r 27, p l e a d e d g u i l t y , a n d e x p r e s s e d s o m e r e m o r s e f o r h i s c r i m e . A f t e r h i s e x e c u t i o n at T y b u r n , h i s b o d y w a s sent to P o r t s m o u t h to b e h u n g i n c h a i n s . T h e E a r l o f L i n d s e y t o o k c o m m a n d o f the fleet w h i c h B u c k i n g h a m h a d been p r e p a r i n g for the r e l i e f o f R o c h e l l e . It was m a d e u p almost equally of king's ships a n d merchantmen p r e s s e d irito t h e service. L i n d s e y p u t to sea o n S e p t e m b e r 7, b u t it w a s n o t u n t i l the 23rd that h e m a d e h i s first a t t e m p t to force h i s w a y i n t o the h a r b o u r . H e c a m e t o o late. T h e besiegers h a d p u s h e d o u t m o l e s f r o m e i t h e r side o f the h a r b o u r m o u t h , w h i c h left o n l y a n a r r o w i n t e r v a l , b a r r e d b y a palisade, w h i l e the a p p r o a c h w a s beset b y a n u m e r o u s flotilla, s u p p o r t e d b y batteries o n shore. T h e E n g l i s h fleet w a s i n n o c o n d i t i o n f o r a v i g o r o u s assault. T h e masters o f t h e m e r c h a n t m e n h a d o n l y one t h o u g h t , h o w t o suffer as l i t t l e h a r m as possible. T h e r o y a l s h i p s d r e w so m u c h w a t e r t h a t t h e y c o u l d n o t close w i t h t h e enemy. A n i d l e c a n n o n a d e was f o l l o w e d the n e x t d a y b y a n

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C H A P , e q u a l l y fruitless a t t e m p t to s e n d i n fireships. A d a r i n g mes^~* senger f r o m the t o w n reached the fleet w i t h t i d i n g s that t h e citizens c o u l d e n d u r e n o m o r e , a n d L i n d s e y , finding h i m s e l f helpless, r e s o l v e d to t r y n e g o t i a t i o n . H e sent W a l t e r M o n tagu to R i c h e l i e u , w h o t o o k the E n g l i s h m a n o v e r the w o r k s , s h o w e d h i m t h a t r e l i e f was i m p o s s i b l e , p r o m i s e d t h a t the H u g u e nots s h o u l d n o t b e persecuted, a n d i n s i s t e d o n one t h i n g o n l y , that R o c h e l l e m u s t s u b m i t to K i n g L o u i s . M o n t a g u was t h e n sent b a c k t o E n g l a n d t o t e l l the k i n g w h a t R i c h e l i e u h a d said a n d to a d d that the fleet was i n w a n t o f b a r e necessaries. I m p o t e n t as he was, C h a r l e s s t i l l r e q u i r e d t h a t L o u i s shotfld raise the siege a n d restore the H u g u e n o t s to a l l their f o r m e r privileges. A f e w d a y s later, o n O c t o b e r 18, R o c h e l l e surrendered.
J

A l t h o u g h C h a r l e s c o u l d n o t b r i n g h i m s e l f to m a k e peace, the w a r was v i r t u a l l y over. T h r o u g h o u t its course the c a r d i n a l h a d s h o w n h i m s e l f a w i s e a n d t e m p e r a t e statesman ; the citizens of Rochelle, however misguided, had given a glorious example o f constancy to the cause w h i c h t h e y h e l d d i v i n e ; a n d E n g l a n d a n d h e r k i n g h a d m a d e a v e r y s o r r y figure. C h a r l e s seems never to h a v e a s k e d h i m s e l f h o w the feeble interference o f a foreign g o v e r n m e n t m u s t affect the interests o f the H u g u e n o t s ; or h o w he c o u l d h e l p his sister a n d t h e protestant cause i n G e r m a n y w h i l e he distracted F r a n c e , the n a t u r a l e n e m y o f the house o f A u s t r i a , b y a w a r w i t h E n g l a n d ; o r h o w he c o u l d h i m s e l f c o n t e n d against the three m o s t p o t e n t m o n a r c h s i n E u r o p e w h i l e c a r r y i n g o n a n intestine s t r u g g l e w i t h h i s p a r l i a ment. C h a r l e s i m a g i n e d t h a t h i s desires, o r at best his h o n o u r a n d conscience, were to g i v e the l a w , n o t t o h i s subjects m e r e l y , b u t to f o r e i g n rulers a n d t o the instincts o f m a n k i n d . F a i l u r e o n l y strengthened his d e l u s i o n s , a n d , h o w e v e r hopeless the struggle, he w o u l d n e v e r treat u n t i l h e h a d lost a l l the a d v a n tages w h i c h m i g h t m o v e a n e n e m y to g i v e h i m g o o d terms. A t h o m e the aspect o f affairs was u n p r o m i s i n g . A s the house o f c o m m o n s h a d c o n d e m n e d the l e v y o f tonnage, p o u n d age, customs, a n d i m p o s i t i o n s b y the sole a u t h o r i t y o f the c r o w n , it was n a t u r a l t h a t m a n y m e r c h a n t s s h o u l d refuse to p a y these duties. S o m e o f t h e m w e r e i m p r i s o n e d . I n other cases the g o o d s were seized a n d t h e n the o w n e r s t r i e d to recover t h e m b y a c t i o n o f r e p l e v i n , t h e r e m e d y for u n l a w f u l d i s t r a i n t . The

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c o u r t o f e x c h e q u e r h e l d that t h e g o o d s m i g h t n o t b e t h u s re- C H A P , c o v e r e d o u t o f the Icing's possession, a n d that these differences m u s t be settled i n p a r l i a m e n t . A c e r t a i n R i c h a r d C h a m b e r s , w h e n c a l l e d before the c o u n c i l to a n s w e r f o r r e f u s i n g to p a y d u t y , d e c l a r e d t h a t " m e r c h a n t s w e r e i n n o p a r t o f the w o r l d so s c r e w e d a n d w r u n g as i n E n g l a n d . I n T u r k e y t h e y h a v e m o r e encouragement," H e was sent t o t h e M a r s h a l s e a a n d the attorney-general preferred an i n f o r m a t i o n against h i m i n the Star C h a m b e r . P a r l i a m e n t , w h i c h s h o u l d h a v e re-assembled i n O c t o ber, w a s p r o r o g u e d u n t i l J a n u a r y . A t the s a m e t i m e a n effort was m a d e to e n d the controversies i n r e l i g i o n . A r o y a l dec l a r a t i o n a n n o u n c e d t h a t a l l f u r t h e r c u r i o u s s e a r c h w a s to b e l a i d aside a n d t h a t none w e r e to d i s p u t e o n the articles o f r e l i g i o n . P a r d o n s were granted to several c l e r g y m e n w h o h a d incurred the d i s p l e a s u r e o f p a r l i a m e n t a n d a t the same t i m e M o n t a g u ' s Appello Ccasarem w a s c a l l e d i n b y p r o c l a m a t i o n . T h e e n d e a v o u r t o silence t h e o l o g i c a l c o n t r o v e r s y i n a n age w h e n i t w a s a n a b s o r b i n g p a s s i o n w o u l d h a r d l y h a v e been successful, a l t h o u g h m a d e b y the m o s t i m p a r t i a l s o v e r e i g n . B u t w h e r e the s o v e r e i g n was a partisan himself, it c o u l d o n l y mean that the puritans w o u l d b e p u n i s h e d f o r e x p r e s s i n g t h e i r o p i n i o n s , w h i l e the A r m i n i a n s w o u l d b e free to i n c u l c a t e a l l t h e i r d i s t i n c t i v e d o c t r i n e s i n the o r d i n a r y course o f s p i r i t u a l t e a c h i n g .
1

T h e houses met, therefore, o n J a n u a r y 20, 1629, i n a n i r r i t a b l e h u m o u r . T h e c o m m o n s n o t i c e d t h a t the P e t i t i o n o f R i g h t h a d b e e n p r i n t e d a n d c i r c u l a t e d w i t h the k i n g ' s first u n m e a n i n g a n s w e r a f f i x e d ; one o f those p e t t y acts o f d i s h o n e s t y b y w h i c h Charles convinced the w o r l d that he could never be h e l d t o a p r o m i s e . T h e n c o m p l a i n t w a s m a d e o f the seizure o f t h e g o o d s o f m e r c h a n t s f o r r e f u s i n g t o p a y duties n o t g r a n t e d b y p a r l i a m e n t . A f e w d a y s after the o p e n i n g o f the session C h a r l e s sent f o r the houses a n d e x p l a i n e d t h a t he h a d o n l y m e a n t t o assert the necessity o f t a k i n g c u s t o m s t i l l t h e y c o u l d be g r a n t e d i n t h e r e g u l a r w a y , n o t a c l a i m t o l e v y t h e m b y h i s o w n prerogative. H i s s p e e c h r a i s e d the h o p e o f a s e t t l e m e n t , for, t h e p r i n c i p l e once a c k n o w l e d g e d , i t is p r o b a b l e t h a t t h e d i s p u t e as to i m p o s i t i o n s m i g h t h a v e b e e n c o m p r o m i s e d . B u t the c o m m o n s s o o n p l u n g e d i n t o t h e m o r e a l l u r i n g d i s c u s s i o n o f the
* Rushworth, i . , 672.

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C H A P , differences i n the Church.. E l i o t seized u p o n the o b v i o u s a r g u m e n t against the k i n g s d e c l a r a t i o n , that, w h i l e e n j o i n i n g silence, i t r e a l l y a l l o w e d one side, a n d one o n l y , to set f o r t h their d o c t r i n e . N o r was the house m u c h w i s e r t h a n t h e k i n g , or m o r e d i s p o s e d to t o l e r a t i o n . M o n t a g u ' s b i s h o p r i c , the p a r d o n s g r a n t e d to h i m a n d other d i v i n e s , the a l l e g e d m i s d e e d s o f N e i l e , B i s h o p o f W i n c h e s t e r , t h e i n d u l g e n c e s h o w n to R o m a n c a t h o l i c priests, a l l served to chafe the a n g r y f e e l i n g o f the c o m m o n s u n t i l t h e y resolved t o prosecute s o m e o f the c l e r i c a l offenders before the house o f l o r d s . X h e n t h e y r e v e r t e d to the y e t o p e n question r e g a r d i n g t o n n a g e a n d p o u n d a g e . T h e seizure o f g o o d s a n d the p r o s e c u t i o n o f s o m e o f the o w n e r s i n the S t a r C h a m b e r w e r e s h a r p l y q u e s t i o n e d . T h e y sent a message o f r e m o n s t r a n c e to the b a r o n s o f the e x c h e q u e r . T h e y c a l l e d the custom-house officers to t h e i r bar. T h e y d e c l a r e d that a m e r c h a n t w h o was one o f their o w n m e m b e r s o u g h t to h a v e p r i v i l e g e for his g o o d s as w e l l as his person. T h e k i n g i n f o r m e d the house that the officers o f the customs h a d acted b y h i s c o m m a n d , a n d the house a d j o u r n e d i n o r d e r n o t to d e c i d e h a s t i l y o n this g r a v e information. M e a n t i m e a s u b - c o m m i t t e e h a d p r e p a r e d a series o f r e s o l u tions o n r e l i g i o n w h i c h d e c l a r e d t h a t p o p e r y a n d A r m i n i a n i s m were s p r e a d i n g , that o r t h o d o x d o c t r i n e w a s suppressed, a n d that its o p p o n e n t s h a d been p r e f e r r e d to b i s h o p r i c s a n d deaneries, h a d been t a k e n into s p e c i a l f a v o u r , a n d h a d o b t a i n e d , u n d e r the c r o w n , the c h i e f a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f ecclesiastical affairs. Among these last N e i l e a n d L a u d w e r e m e n t i o n e d b y name. T h e resolutions d e m a n d e d t h a t the assailants o f o r t h o d o x y s h o u l d be p u n i s h e d , t h a t their b o o k s s h o u l d n o l o n g e r be licensed, a n d t h a t p r e f e r m e n t s h o u l d be g i v e n o n l y t o g o d l y a n d pious m e n . T h e k i n g i n a l a r m o r d e r e d a f u r t h e r a d j o u r n m e n t for a w e e k a n d a n e a r l y d i s s o l u t i o n was e x p e c t e d . W l i e n t h e house rea s s e m b l e d o n M a r c h 2, t h e speaker, S i r J o h n F i n c h , d e c l a r e d the k i n g ' s p l e a s u r e t h a t i t s h o u l d be a d j o u r n e d u n t i l the 10th, a n d p u t the q u e s t i o n t o t h a t effect, f f e w a s m e t w i t h cries o f N o , a n d E l i o t seized t h e m o m e n t to speak. F i n c h a n n o u n c e d t h a t he h a d a n absolute c o m m a n d f r o m h i s m a j e s t y to leave the c h a i r i f a n y one s p o k e , a n d h e rose a c c o r d i n g l y . A t u m u l t f o l l o w e d a n d H o l i e s a n d V a l e n t i n e h e l d h i m d o w n i n the c h a i r b y m a i n force. E l i o t asserted the r i g h t o f the h o u s e t o a d j o u r n

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itself, a n d t e n d e r e d a p r o t e s t a t i o n w h i c h t h e s p e a k e r w o u l d n o t * * A P . p u t t o the vote. T h e h o u s e o r d e r e d the d o o r s t o be l o c k e d . E l i o t i n a v e h e m e n t speech e x p l a i n e d a n d justified his protestat i o n , b u t finding t h e s p e a k e r o b d u r a t e , t h r e w i t In the fire. T h e k i n g , g r o w i n g i m p a t i e n t , sent f o r the serjeant to b r i n g a w a y the mace. T h e house let h i m g o , b u t w i t h o u t it. - T h e u s h e r o f t h e b l a c k r o d was t h e n h e a r d k n o c k i n g at the d o o r w i t h a message f r o m t h e k i n g . C h a r l e s h a d sent f o r h i s g u a r d t o b r e a k i n , a n d i n a f e w m o m e n t s a l l w o u l d b e over. Holies d e l i v e r e d f r o m m e m o r y the contents o f E l i o t ' s p r o t e s t a t i o n 1 " W h o s o e v e r s h a l l b r i n g i n i n n o v a t i o n i n r e l i g i o n , or b y f a v o u r seek t o e x t e n d o r i n t r o d u c e p o p e r y o r A r m i n i a n i s m , o r other o p i h i o n s d i s a g r e e i n g f r o m the true a n d o r t h o d o x C h u r c h , s h a l l be r e p u t e d a c a p i t a l e n e m y to t h i s k i n g d o m a n d the c o m m o n wealth. W h o s o e v e r s h a l l c o u n s e l o r advise the t a k i n g a n d l e v y i n g o f t h e subsidies o f t o n n a g e a n d p o u n d a g e , n o t b e i n g g r a n t e d b y p a r l i a m e n t , o r s h a l l b e a n a c t o r o r a n i n s t r u m e n t therein, s h a l l b e l i k e w i s e r e p u t e d a n i n n o v a t o r i n the g o v e r n m e n t a n d a c a p i t a l e n e m y t o this k i n g d o m a n d c o m m o n w e a l t h . " I f a n y m e r c h a n t o r other p e r s o n whatsoever s h a l l v o l u n t a r i l y y i e l d o r p a y the s a i d subsidies o f t o n n a g e a n d p o u n d a g e , n o t b e i n g g r a n t e d b y p a r l i a m e n t , h e s h a l l l i k e w i s e be reputed a b e t r a y e r o f the l i b e r t y o f E n g l a n d a n d a n e n e m y to the same." A s the s p e a k e r r e m a i n e d i m p a s s i v e , H o l i e s p u t the r e s o l u tions to the vote a n d they were carried b y acclamation. T h e n the h o u s e v o t e d its o w n a d j o u r n m e n t a n d the m e m b e r s dispersed. T h e c o u n c i l was d i v i d e d i n o p i n i o n , b u t the k i n g was b e n t o n d i s s o l v i n g p a r l i a m e n t . H e p u t f o r t h a d e c l a r a t i o n i n defence o f h i s c o n d u c t , a l l e g i n g t h a t h i s predecessors h a d a l w a y s l e v i e d t o n n a g e a n d p o u n d a g e b y t h e i r o w n a u t h o r i t y u n t i l it c o u l d be g r a n t e d b y p a r l i a m e n t , a n d t h a t h i s d o i n g this h a d been m a d e a p r e t e x t b y t h e c o m m o n s f o r c a l l i n g h i s servants to account a n d i n t e r f e r i n g w i t h the course o f justice. H e complained that p a r l i a m e n t h a d first p e r s u a d e d h i m t o w a r a n d t h e n m a d e - h i s necessities a m e a n s o f e n f o r c i n g c o n d i t i o n s i n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h monarchy. H e p r o m i s e d t o observe the P e t i t i o n o f R i g h t , b u t
<c 1
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Paylicwtentary History, 11

ii., 49**

V O L . VII.

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C H A P , a n n o u n c e d t h a t he w o u l d a l l o w n o i n n o v a t i o n i n r e l i g i o n . N i n e m e m b e r s 01 trie nouse 01 c o m m o n s w e r e i m p r i s o n e d i o r t n e i r p a r t i n the l a t e proceedings. O n e or t w o made their submission a n d were a c c o r d i n g l y set at l i b e r t y . O t h e r s f i r m l y refused t o a n s w e r out o f p a r l i a m e n t f o r a n y t h i n g s a i d o r d o n e i n p a r l i a ment, a n d these the k i n g was d e t e r m i n e d to c r u s h b y the u t m o s t severity. C h a r l e s h a d so r e c e n t l y a c c e p t e d a statute against a r b i t r a r y I m p r i s o n m e n t t h a t e v e n he c o u l d n o t d i r e c t l y b r e a k it, a n d was f o r c e d to a p p l y to the j u d g e s f o r m e a n s to w r e a k his revenge. T h e a t t o r n e y - g e n e r a l was i n s t r u c t e d t o s u b m i t a series o f questions t o the t w o c h i e f justices a n d the c h i e f b a r o n . It was suggested that s o m e t h i n g s s a i d a n d d o n e i n the house a m o u n t e d to a c o n s p i r a c y a g a i n s t c e r t a i n p r i v y c o u n c i l l o r s . I t was also suggested that, w h e n the h o u s e r e c e i v e d the k i n g ' s c o m m a n d t o a d j o u r n , it was a d j o u r n e d i n l a w a n d its m e m b e r s were t h e n c e f o r w a r d a c r o w d o f p r i v a t e p e r s o n s w h o s e d i s o r d e r l y acts a m o u n t e d to a r i o t T h e j u d g e s w e r e i n a sore d i l e m m a , for the k i n g w o u l d p r o b a b l y d i s m i s s t h o s e w h o s h o u l d g i v e a n o p i n i o n at v a r i a n c e w i t h h i s wishes, a n d , w h e n e v e r a n e w p a r l i a m e n t s h o u l d meet, the c o m m o n s w o u l d p r o b a b l y t a k e s i g n a l v e n g e a n c e o n those w h o h a d f u r t h e r e d a n attack o n l i b e r t y o f speech. A c c o r d i n g l y t h e y g a v e the m o s t cautious r e p l y w h i c h t h e y c o u l d frame. T h e k i n g pressed for a n a n s w e r m o r e suitable t o his p u r p o s e , a n d the t h r e e chiefs a d v i s e d that h e s h o u l d t a k e the o p i n i o n o f a l l t w e l v e j u d g e s . T h e twelve were e q u a l l y w a r y , a d v i s i n g that the case s h o u l d be a r g u e d i n the S t a r C h a m b e r . M e a n t i m e t h e p r i s o n e r s a p p l i e d to the k i n g ' s b e n c h for a w r i t o f habeas corpits, thus f o r c i n g the g o v e r n m e n t , u n d e r the P e t i t i o n o f R i g h t , to state the cause o f t h e i r c o m m i t t a l . T h i s was a l l e g e d to be n o t a b l e c o n t e m p t a g a i n s t the k i n g a n d the s t i r r i n g u p o f s e d i t i o n i n the state. T h e j u d g e s h a d to decide whether the p r i s o n e r s were b a i l a b l e , a n d , f e e l i n g t h a t t h e y c o u l d n o t l a w f u l l y refuse b a i l , t h e y w e r e i n the most p a i n f u l straits. C h a r l e s w a s resolute t o b r e a k t h e l a w , b u t a f r a i d to say so. A f t e r s o m e hesitation, h e t o l d the j u d g e s that n o n e o f the prisoners s h o u l d be p r o d u c e d i n c o u r t u n t i l t h e y s h o u l d m a k e a better d e m o n s t r a t i o n o f t h e i r m o d e s t y a n d c i v i l i t y t h a n hitherto. T h e j u d g e s s u b m i t t e d i n silence. A t the e n d o f the l o n g v a c a t i o n , h o w e v e r , t h e k i n g a l l o w e d

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the p r i s o n e r s t o be p r o d u c e d i n court, a n d t h e y l e a r n t t h a t t h e y C H A P . m i g h t h a v e b a i l i f t h e y w o u l d g i v e s e c u r i t y for t h e i r g o o d beh a v i o u r . R e g a r d i n g their i m p r i s o n m e n t as i l l e g a l , t h e y d e c l i n e d t o be b a i l e d o n s u c h a c o n d i t i o n , a n d thus left the j u d g e s a g a i n t o m a k e the h a r d choice between respect for the l a w a n d fear o f the k i n g . C h a r l e s chose this m o m e n t t o g i v e the j u d g e s a lesson b y s u s p e n d i n g C h i e f B a r o n S i r J o h n W a l t e r , w h o appears n o t to h a v e been f o r w a r d e n o u g h a g a i n s t the i m p r i s o n e d m e m b e r s . T h e attorney-general then charged E l i o t , H o l i e s , a n d V a l e n t i n e w i t h a c o n s p i r a c y i n p a r l i a m e n t t o resist t h e k i n g ' s o r d e r s a n d t o e n c o u r a g e the p e o p l e to w i t h h o l d obedience. T h e prisoners a g a i n d e c l i n e d t o a n s w e r out o f p a r l i a m e n t f o r acts d o n e i n p a r l i a ment. T h e judges, r e f u s i n g to a d m i t this plea, c o n d e m n e d t h e m to fine a n d i m p r i s o n m e n t u n t i l t h e y s h o u l d a c k n o w l e d g e t h e i r f a u l t a n d g i v e security for g o o d b e h a v i o u r . Eliot and Valentine refused t o m a k e a n y s u b m i s s i o n , b u t H o l i e s y i e l d e d a n d was s o o n a f t e r w a r d s set at l i b e r t y . O f the r e m a i n i n g p r i s o n e r s w h o w e r e n o t b r o u g h t t o t r i a l a l l e x c e p t S t r o d e b o u g h t t h e i r freed o m b y submission. E l i o t remained i n prison until his death i n 16*31 > S t r o d e a n d V a l e n t i n e u n t i l their release before the e l e c t i o n o f a n e w p a r l i a m e n t i n 1640. T h e k i n g thus c a r r i e d his p o i n t a n d succeeded i n i m p r i s o n i n g m e n f o r w o r d s s p o k e n i n p a r l i a m e n t . N e i t h e r the P e t i t i o n o f R i g h t n o r a n y o t h e r statute, h o w e v e r stringent, w o u l d be o f a n y a v a i l so l o n g as the j u d g e s h e l d t h e i r places at the r o y a l d i s c r e t i o n .
1

C h a r l e s h a d a l r e a d y m a d e k n o w n that h e w o u l d n o t suffer a n y t o prescribe u n t o h i m the t i m e for c a l l i n g a n e w p a r l i a m e n t , w h i c h w a s a l w a y s i n h i s o w n power, a n d he r e s o l v e d never t o c a l l a n o t h e r u n t i l he felt certain t h a t i t w o u l d d o h i s pleasure.
^ State Trials, i i i , , 204*

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OF CHARLES I.

PERSONAL GOVERNMENT

C H A P . A F T E R t h e d i s s o l u t i o n o f 1629 e l e v e n y e a r s passed w i t h o u t a p a r l i a m e n t , t h e longest i n t e r v a l o f t h a t k i n d i n E n g l i s h h i s t o r y . A t first t h e r e w a s n o g e n e r a l o r g r a v e discontent. I n those d a y s the s o v e r e i g n was s t i l l the h e a d o f the g o v e r n m e n t , appointed a n d dismissed the ministers, presided i n council a n d despatched a l l the c u r r e n t business o f state. Parliaments were occasional assemblies to pass b i l l s a n d g r a n t m o n e y , a n d s i n c e the accession o f the house o f T u d o r t h e y h a d m e t at i r r e g u l a r intervals. U n d e r J a m e s I . t h e r e . h a d been n o p a r l i a m e n t for seven years, a n d i n t e n y e a r s n o t a s i n g l e statute h a d b e e n m a d e . W i s e men m i g h t lament that K i n g Charles h a d thrice quarrelled w i t h h i s p a r l i a m e n t , b u t t h e y d o u b t l e s s e x p e c t e d t h a t t i m e w o u l d appease his m a j e s t y s a n g e r a n d b r i n g s o m e c o n j u n c t u r e w h i c h w o u l d o b l i g e h i m to c a l l for s u b s i d i e s a n d therefore t o seek the counsel o f t h e three estates. T h e g e n e r a l i t y t o o k l i t t l e heed, for t h e y f o u n d n o c h a n g e i n the r o u t i n e o f their lives. W h a t e v e r m i g h t be d o n e w h e n p e r s o n a l g o v e r n m e n t s h o u l d h a v e been f i r m l y established, the k i n g a n d h i s advisers h a d for the p r e s e n t e v e r y m o t i v e t o bear l i g h t l y u p o n the mass o f t h e people.
V I I L

Nevertheless the separation between the k i n g and his subj e c t s w h i c h h a d been w i d e n i n g ever since J a m e s a s c e n d e d t h e throne was a l r e a d y e n o u g h to c r i p p l e t h e b e s t energies o f t h e state. I n t h e course o n w h i c h h e h a d r e s o l v e d C h a r l e s c o u l d e x p e c t f r o m t h e n a t i o n n o more t h a n acquiescence. W h i l e yet all was c a l m a n d p r o s p e r o u s t h e g o v e r n m e n t was weak, a n d u n d e r the first s h a r p s t r a i n i t b r o k e d o w n a l t o g e t h e r . Its m o s t apparent w e a k n e s s was its p o v e r t y . Charles continued to levy tonnage a n d p o u n d a g e , c u s t o m s a n d i m p o s i t i o n s , b y h i s o w n
164

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165 CHAP,

p r e r o g a t i v e , a n d w i t h t h e g r o w t h o f c o m m e r c e these b e c a m e more ana more iruintn. Jour tnese duties, t o g e t n e r w i t n tne T h e k i n g ' s tastes h e r e d i t a r y revenues, w e r e n o t e n o u g h t o d e f r a y t h e o r d i n a r y e x p e n s e s w i t h o u t the h e l p o f d i r e c t t a x a t i o n . w e r e m a g n i f i c e n t , h i s court one o f t h e m o s t s p l e n d i d i n E u r o p e , the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , i f n o t q u i t e so careless as u n d e r h i s father, far f r o m frugal. h a d recourse A l l t h e shifts a n d c o n t r i v a n c e s t o w h i c h h e A s no foreign fell s h o r t o f h i s r e q u i r e m e n t s .

p o w e r b e l i e v e d t h a t h e c o u l d w a g e effective war, he c o u l d e x e r t n o influence a b r o a d . T h e authority of E n g l a n d i n Europe, w h i c h h a d b e e n s i n k i n g t h r o u g h o u t the r e i g n o f J a m e s I . , v a n i s h e d a l t o g e t h e r a n d w a s n o t r e n e w e d u n t i l the t i m e o f the C o m monwealth. T h a t the g o v e r n m e n t k n e w n o t h i n g o f t h e m i n d Charles would o f a l l the of the governed was a more fatal weakness.

n o t a l l o w t h e n a t i o n t o e x p r e s s i t s feelings t h r o u g h i t s recogn i s e d o r g a n , t h e p a r l i a m e n t , a n d h e m a d e f u l l use press. Year m e a n s d e v i s e d b y the T u d o r s for c o n t r o l l i n g o r s i l e n c i n g t h e But, instead of watching public opinion like the T u d o r s , after y e a r h e p u r s u e d h i s s o l i t a r y course, u n a w a r e T h e r e is e v e r y reason t o t h i n k t h a t h e w a s that surh e s e e m s t o h a v e t h o u g h t t h a t i t d i d not, o r s h o u l d n o t e x i s t . save a p a r t o f t h e c l e r g y , s c a r c e l y an E n g l i s h m a n a p p r o v e d his policy. p r i s e d a n d b e w i l d e r e d w h e n t h e fierce r e a c t i o n c a m e . A f t e r B u c k i n g h a m s death Charles became his own p r i m e m i n i s t e r a n d m u s t be r e g a r d e d as t h e r e a l r u l e r o f E n g l a n d . I n t h e first y e a r s o f t h e c e s s a t i o n o f p a r l i a m e n t t h e w h o m h e t r u s t e d m o s t was surer, a f t e r w a r d s c r e a t e d E a r l o f P o r t l a n d . a p a t r o n i n B u c k i n g h a m a n d h a d been m a t i c a n d f i n a n c i a l business. care servant R i c h a r d L o r d VS^eston, t h e t r e a W^eston h a d f o u n d employed i n diploA s he d i d not H e was

H e was a c c u s e d o f a l e a n i n g t o

p o p e r y a n d was c e r t a i n l y a f r i e n d o f S p a i n . means

for t h e p r o t e s t a n t cause, a n d h a d t o find t h e w a y s a n d for w a r , h e w a s s t e a d i l y i n f a v o u r o f peace.

p c U ' s i m o n i o u s a n d w i t h s t o o d to t h e best o f h i s p o w e r t h o s e w h o s o u g h t t o e n r i c h t h e m s e l v e s o u t o f t h e treasury, b u t h e w a s n o t above enriching himself b y means w h i c h would n o w be h e l d C o t t i n g t o n , t h e o l d servant o f C h a r l e s w h o had dishonest.

followed h i m to M a d r i d , was chancellor of the exchequer, then a s u b o r d i n a t e post, a n d h e t o o was a c a t h o l i c a t h e a r t a n d a

166
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PERSONAL
m .

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1

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j c * T i %

I.

1629
1

CHAP, f r i e n d o f S p a i n .

T h e two secretaries o f state, V i s c o u n t D o r c.* T\ A\

cnester, f o r m e r l y oiv D u d l e y Carleton, a n d o i r J o l m C o k e , respectable i n p o i n t o f character, a b i l i t y , a n d official knowledge, were content to perform t h e i r d a i l y w o r k w i t h o u t a s p i r i n g to influence the k i n g s p o l i c y . W e n t w o r t h , f u l l y e m p l o y e d i n the council o f the n o r t h , took l i t t l e o r n o p a r t i n the g o v e r n m e n t of the k i n g d o m at large. I n ecclesiastical business Charles was directed b y L a u d , but L a u d , as y e t o n l y B i s h o p of L o n don, a n d o b l i g e d to defer i n some measure to A r c h b i s h o p A b b o t , c o u l d not g i v e effect to his p r i n c i p l e s so f u l l y as i n after years. . T h e k i n g at length perceived that he must w i t h d r a w f r o m his unfortunate undertakings abroad. I n A p r i l , 1629, he closed his war w i t h F r a n c e b y the peace o f Susa. Either party silently abandoned the c l a i m to protect a n y subjects o f the other. A s H e n r i e t t a IVIaria, h a v i n g g a i n e d the f u l l affection of her husband, was content w i t h her lot, n o question was raised about the articles o f the marriage treaty. N o territories h a d to be returned, for none had been conquered. A l t h o u g h peace was restored, friendship h a r d l y ensued. N e i t h e r sovereign was o f a n open or c o r d i a l temper, a n d the all-powerful R i c h e l i e u could not but t h i n k m e a n l y o f the K i n g o f E n g l a n d . G e r m a n y l a y at the feet o f the emperor, a n d C h r i s t i a n o f D e n m a r k , f u l l o f bitterness against the nephew w h o h a d failed h i m i n the h o u r of need, retired f r o m a hopeless struggle a n d saved his k i n g d o m b y the peace o f L i i b e c k . T h u s Charles was relieved o f a burdensome a l l y . It r e m a i n e d to m a k e peace w i t h P h i l i p . P h i l i p a n d his ministers, w e l l aware that S p a i n was p e r i s h i n g under the stress of so m a n y wars, were no less desirous t o come to terms. I n order to prepare the g r o u n d t h e y sent the illustrious R u b e n s o n a n i n f o r m a l m i s s i o n to E n g l a n d . H e reached W h i t e h a l l i n M a y , 1629, a n d stayed m a n y m o n t h s n e g o t i a t i n g w i t h a n d p a i n t i n g for the k i n g . A l t h o u g h he h a d n o p o w e r to promise that P h i l i p w o u l d surrender the fortresses i n the P a l a t i n a t e held b y S p a n i s h troops, he p r e v a i l e d on Charles to send C o t t i n g t o n as ambassador to M a d r i d a n d to proffer the D u t c h h i s m e d i a t i o n between t h e m a n d the S p a n i a r d s . I t was rejected b y the D u t c h , w h o were t h e n i n full career o f victory. T h e S p a n i s h government w o u l d not engage to effect t h e restoration o f the P a l a t i n a t e u n t i l

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C h a r l e s s t o o p e d t o propose a l e a g u e a g a i n s t t h e m . O n N o - C * * ^ P . v e m b e r 5, 1630, C o t t i n g t o n s i g n e d t h e t r e a t y o f peace between E n g l a n d a n d S p a i n , w h i c h r e p l a c e d t h e t w o k i n g d o m s i n their p o s i t i o n before the w a r . S o m e w h a t later h e c o n c l u d e d a t r e a t y for t h e c o n q u e s t a n d p a r t i t i o n o f t h e free N e t h e r l a n d s , thus b i n d i n g h i s m a s t e r t o attack a n d enslave a p r o t e s t a n t state, a f r i e n d l y state, a state whose i n d e p e n d e n c e w a s necessary t o t h e safety of B r i t a i n . C h a r l e s d i d n o t r a t i f y this e n g a g e m e n t o f C o t t i n g t o n , n o r h a d h e the m e a n s o f p e r f o r m a n c e . Before l o n g h e l e a r n t t h a t t h e S p a n i s h a m b a s s a d o r s at V i e n n a w o u l d n o t help his envoy S i r R o b e r t Anstruther, a n d that the emperor w o u l d give n o pledge regarding the Palatinate, whereupon he t u r n e d r o u n d t o negotiate w i t h t h e E m p e r o r ' s enemies. A t last t h e cause o f the G e r m a n protestants h a d f o u n d a w o r t h y chief. I n J u n e , 1630, G u s t a v u s A d o l p h u s , K i n g o f S w e d e n , c r o s s e d t h e B a l t i c , a n d i n J a n u a r y , 1631* he c o n c l u d e d w i t h F r a n c e the treaty of Barwalde. Charles m i g h t h a v e recovered t h e P a l a t i n a t e b y j o i n i n g at once the c o m b i n a t i o n a g a i n s t t h e e m p e r o r , b u t he h a d n e i t h e r r e s o l u t i o n t o a d o p t n o r m e a n s t o e x e c u t e so b o l d a p o l i c y , a n d c o n t e n t e d h i m s e l f w i t h a l l o w i n g t h e M a r q u i s o f H a m i l t o n t o enlist volunteers for t h e S w e d i s h service. I n September Gustavus w o n the victory of Breitenfeld, w h i c h m a d e h i m master o f N o r t h G e r m a n y . C h a r l e s , after h i s d i s a p p o i n t m e n t at V i e n n a , sent S i r H e n r y V a n e t o negotiate w i t h G u s t a v u s r e s p e c t i n g the P a l a t i n a t e 5 b u t G u s t a v u s h a d a m o s t i n t r i c a t e g a m e to p l a y w i t h protestant a n d c a t h o l i c rulers, a n d c o u l d n o t afford t o consider t h e r e s t i t u t i o n o f the P a l a t i n a t e t o F r e d e r i c k apart f r o m t h e g e n e r a l politics o f G e r m a n y . As t h e K i n g o f E n g l a n d w o u l d m a k e n o alliance w i t h h i m , G u s t a vus w o u l d enter into n o engagement w i t h the K i n g of E n g l a n d . C h a r l e s w a s a l r e a d y m e d i t a t i n g a n alliance w i t h t h e e m p e r o r a n d t h e K i n g o f S p a i n against G u s t a v u s a n d his friends. T h e n h e v e e r e d r o u n d a g a i n a n d t r i e d to w i n G u s t a v u s , b u t G u s t a v u s w o u l d n o t b e c a u g h t w h i l e C h a r l e s refused to b i n d himself. O n N o v e m b e r 6, 1632, t h e g r e a t S w e d e f e l l at L u t z e n , i n t h e h o u r o f v i c t o r y , a n d a few d a y s later t h e u n h a p p y F r e d e r i c k e x p i r e d . T h e k i n g c o n t i n u e d t o negotiate o n b e h a l f o f F r e d e r i c k ' s s o n a n d h e i r C h a r l e s L e w i s , a l w a y s refusing t o t a k e a d i r e c t p a r t i n the w a r , y e t a l w a y s h o p i n g t h a t o t h e r m o n a r c h s w o u l d m a k e sacrifices i n h i s nephew's interest, a n d t u r n i n g f r o m one

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C H A P , belligerent to another w i t h a c h i l d i s h p e r f i d y u n t i l a l l h a d learnt to despise a l i k e h i s f r i e n d s h i p a n d his i l l - w i l l . A l t h o u g h E n g l a n d was at peace, the debts incurred i n t i m e o f w a r r e m a i n e d , a n d t h e k i n g ' s revenue d i d not suffice for his ordinary expenditure. X o i m p o s e d i r e c t t a x e s c o n t r a r y to law, t o m a k e e v e r y E n g l i s h m a n feel t h a t h i s p r o p e r t y was at the discretion o f the c o u n c i l , was a course so dangerous that the g o v e r n m e n t w o u l d f a i n a v o i d i t as l o n g as possible. A means of raising m o n e y , n o t c l e a r l y i l l e g a l , a l t h o u g h a n n o y i n g , was found i n d i s t r a i n t o f k n i g h t h o o d . I n a different state o f society a n d for reasons o f w h i c h g a i n t o the revenue was o n l y one, E d w a r d I . h a d c a l l e d o n e v e r y freeholder h a v i n g l a n d w o r t h 20 a y e a r t o receive k n i g h t h o o d o r t o c o m p o u n d for his refusal. X h e precedent thus m a d e h a d occasionally been r e v i v e d i n later times for the profit o f t h e c r o w n . I n J a n u a r y , 1630, the k i n g s u m m o n e d a l l freeholders of 40 a y e a r o r u p w a r d s to t a k e u p their k n i g h t h o o d . C o n s i d e r i n g the fall i n the v a l u e of the precious metals a n d the rise i n the value o f l a n d , this summons w o u l d affect a v e r y large n u m b e r o f persons w h o h a d no desire for k n i g h t h o o d n o r e v e n a n y pretensions to gentility. X h e y put off c o m p o u n d i n g as l o n g as t h e y c o u l d , but w h e n the court of e x c h e q u e r declared the k i n g ' s d e m a n d lawful, t h e y h a d to submit. I n this w a y the g o v e r n m e n t received ;i 15,000 before M i c h a e l m a s , 1631 a n d considerable sums at later t i m e s .
1 }

D u r i n g the first years o f the suspension o f p a r l i a m e n t the tendencies o f personal rule w e r e d i s p l a y e d m o r e o p e n l y at Y o r k t h a n at W h i t e h a l l . W e n t w o r t h entered o n his duties as president o f the c o u n c i l o f the n o r t h i n D e c e m b e r , 1629. H e came w i t h the f i x e d p u r p o s e o f b e a t i n g d o w n a l l resistance, u n l a w f u l o r lawful. L o r d E u r e , after s u r r e n d e r i n g his estate to feoffees to be sold for the benefit o f his c r e d i t o r s , w i t h s t o o d the feoffees, a l t h o u g h a r m e d w i t h an o r d e r o f the court o f chancery, w h e n t h e y a t t e m p t e d to t a k e possession o f his castle at M a l t o n , a n d defied the sheriff o f Y o r k s h i r e w h o a t t e m p t e d to enforce e x e c u t i o n o f the order. W^entworth sent for c a n n o n f r o m S c a r b o r o u g h w h i c h opened a b r e a c h i n the castle walls a n d b r o u g h t L o r d E u r e to surrender at discretion. B u t w h e n the courts at W e s t m i n s t e r presumed t o c o n t r o l decisions g i v e n b y the c o u n c i l at Y o r k ,
* See the details i n Gardiner, c h . Ixx., lxxiv. and lxxx,

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W e n t w o r t h treated their p r o h i b i t i o n s w i t h s u p r e m e c o n t e m p t . T h e j u r i s d i c t i o n o f courts, h e s a i d , c o n c e r n e d t h e subject little a n d m i g h t be r e s t r a i n e d o r e n l a r g e d as s h o u l d seem best t o his majesty's w i s d o m . S i r D a v i d F o u l i s , a m e m b e r of the council o f t h e n o r t h , w h o m W^entworth h a d c o n s t r a i n e d t o d i s c h a r g e a debt due to the crown, sought his revenge i n speaking disrespectfully of the president a n d encouraging the Y o r k s h i r e g e n t r y to resist t h e d i s t r a i n t o f k n i g h t h o o d . W e n t w o r t h res o l v e d t o s i l e n c e w h a t he t e r m e d " t h e q u e s t i o n i n g a n y p r o f i t o f the c r o w n called u p o n b y his majesty's ministers, w h i c h m i g h t e n a b l e i t to subsist o f itself, w i t h o u t b e i n g necessitated t o accept o f s u c h c o n d i t i o n s as others m i g h t v a i n l y t h i n k t o i m p o s e u p o n i t / a n d for t h i s e n d to m a k e a n e x a m p l e o f F o u l i s . F o u l i s v a i n l y t r i e d t o m i t i g a t e t h e k i n g ' s displeasure. H e was tried i n t h e S t a r C h a m b e r , fined, a n d c o m m i t t e d to p r i s o n , w h e r e h e remained until the meeting of the l o n g parliament, an interval of s e v e n years. W e n t w o r t h was n a m e d lord deputy of Ireland i n J a n u a r y , 1632, a n d i n 1633 h e k f t Y o r k for D u b l i n , b u t he k e p t h i s office as p r e s i d e n t o f t h e c o u n c i l o f t h e n o r t h . T h e determination of Charles to call no more parliaments c h a n g e d t h e r e l a t i v e p o s i t i o n o f t h e t w o parties i n t h e C h u r c h . S o l o n g as p a r l i a m e n t s m e t , t h e C a l v i n i s t s , a l t h o u g h d e n i e d free u t t e r a n c e i n t h e press a n d t h e p u l p i t , h a d f o u n d protectors a n d s p o k e s m e n i n the m a j o r i t y o f t h e house o f c o m m o n s a n d c o u l d s o m e t i m e s t a k e t h e offensive a g a i n s t t h e i r enemies. Afterwards t h e y c o u l d find a v o i c e o n l y i n p a m p h l e t s a n d libels, p u b l i s h e d a t a fearful risk t o t h e a u t h o r s a n d p r i n t e r s . T h e A n g l o - c a t h o l i c s , u n d e r a k i n g w h o was t h o r o u g h l y o f t h e i r p e r s u a s i o n a n d n o l o n g e r r e s t r a i n e d b y p a r l i a m e n t s , m i g h t h o p e t o e x t i r p a t e the p u r i t a n s altogether. T h e b i s h o p s w e r e g e n e r a l l y o n t h e i r side. T h e m o s t active a n d l a b o r i o u s a n d t h e h i g h e s t i n t h e k i n g ' s c o n f i d e n c e was W i l l i a m L a u d , b i s h o p o f L o n d o n . L a u d w a s i n his fifty-second y e a r w h e n C h a r l e s a s c e n d e d t h e t h r o n e . T h r o u g h o u t t h e l a s t r e i g n he h a d a p p r o v e d h i m s e l f one o f t h e m o s t zealous adherents o f the A n g l o - c a t h o l i c school. B y his t e a c h i n g w h e n M a y lecturer i n d i v i n i t y a t O x f o r d h e h a d i n c u r r e d the i l l - w i l l o f A b b o t , t h e n m a s t e r o f U n i v e r s i t y College a n d vice-chancellor. B u t h e g a i n e d the g o o d - w i l l o f B i s h o p N e i l e , w h o i n t r o d u c e d h i m to t h e k i n g . J a m e s w a s m o v i n g , a l m o s t u n c o n s c i o u s l y , t o w a r d s t h e theo-

**AP.

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P

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? n e s o f t h e A n g l o - c a t h o l i c s , a n d their p o l i t i c a l p r i n c i p l e s were h i s o w n . L a u d f o u n d f a v o u r i n h i s eyes a n d b e c a m e successively a r o y a l c h a p l a i n , d e a n o f G l o u c e s t e r , a n d b i s h o p of St. David's. H e r e c o m m e n d e d h i m s e l f to B u c k i n g h a m b y t h e talent w h i c h h e d i s p l a y e d i n c o n t r o v e r s y w i t h F i s h e r , a J e s u i t w h o h a d s h a k e n the favourite's m o t h e r , t h e Countess ^ B u c k i n g h a m , i n her allegiance t o the C h u r c h of E n g l a n d . H e y l y n t e r m s L a u d t h e d u k e ' s a g e n t at c o u r t d u r i n g t h e e x p e d i t i o n to M a d r i d , a n d h e c e r t a i n l y succeeded t o t h e c o n fidence w h i c h W i l l i a m s h a d f o r f e i t e d . I n t h i s w a y b e g a n the l o n g e n m i t y b e t w e e n L a u d a n d W i l l i a m s . B u t so l o n g as J a m e s l i v e d , L a u d c o u l d n o t h o p e for c o m p l e t e success. J a m e s n e v e r quite emerged from his C a l v i n i s m j he was indolent and t i m i d , a n d s h r e w d e n o u g h to feel a c e r t a i n m i s t r u s t o f m e n g o v e r n e d b y o n e o v e r m a s t e r i n g purpose. W h e n h e d i e d , L a u d was r e c o m m e n d e d t o C h a r l e s at first b y h i s c o n n e x i o n w i t h t h e favourite a n d a f t e r w a r d s b y t h e e n t i r e a c c o r d , n o t o f o p i n i o n s o n l y , b u t o f character.
g l c a I d o c t r i 1

N e v e r p e r h a p s h a v e a prelate a n d a sovereign been so t h o r o u g h l y o f one m i n d . C h a r l e s d e s i r e d L a u d to p r e p a r e a list o f the most notable divines a n d to distinguish them b y t h e t w o letters O a n d P ( o r t h o d o x a n d p u r i t a n ) , a c o n t r a s t o f epithets e n o u g h t o s h o w w h i c h p a r t y w a s m a r k e d for p r o s c r i p t i o n a n d w h i c h for p r e f e r m e n t . W h e n t h e first p a r l i a m e n t o f t h e r e i g n a t t a c k e d M o n t a g u , L a u d w a s one o f three b i s h o p s w h o a d d r e s s e d a letter t o t h e a r c h b i s h o p i n h i s behalf. At the c o r o n a t i o n he filled t h e place o f d e a n o f W e s t m i n s t e r , t h a t p r e f e r m e n t b e i n g t h e n h e l d b y B i s h o p W i l l i a m s , w h o was s t i l l i n disgrace. I n the f o l l o w i n g y e a r h e e x c h a n g e d his p o o r a n d r e m o t e diocese for t h a t o f B a t h a n d W^ells, a n d soon afterwards was n a m e d d e a n o f t h e c h a p e l r o y a l , a p o s t w h i c h b r o u g h t h i m i n t o the k i n g ' s f a m i l i a r i t y . I n 1627 h e was s w o r n o f the p r i v y c o u n c i l . W h e n A b b o t fell u n d e r t h e k i n g ' s displeasure, L a u d was one o f t h e five b i s h o p s e n t r u s t e d w i t h his j u r i s d i c t i o n . F r o m t h a t t i m e h i s a c t i v i t y w a s felt t h r o u g h o u t the C h u r c h . I n 1628 t h e h o u s e o f c o m m o n s c e n s u r e d h i m b y n a m e a l o n g w i t h h i s f r i e n d N e i l e , a n d t h e k i n g p r o m o t e d h i m t o t h e see o f L o n d o n . A l t h o u g h A b b o t was s o o n afterwards a l l o w e d t o
2
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H e y l y n , Life

of Laud,

p. 113.

*Ibid ,
f

p. 133.

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r e s u m e h i s j u r i s d i c t i o n , L a u d w i t h t h e k i n g ' s favour r e m a i n e d C ^ ^ * far m o r e powerful i n the general administration of the C h u r c h than his superior, o l d , indolent a n d deeply discouraged. L a u d h a d t h e qualities o f a great a d m i n i s t r a t o r , i n d u s t r y , m e t h o d , perseverance, the i n s t i n c t o f o r d e r a n d t h e p a s s i o n for detail. I n t h e qualities o f a s t a t e s m a n h e w a s s i n g u l a r l y defective. A s the principle of intolerance was then generally accepted, w e m u s t n o t too severely b l a m e L a u d f o r a c c e p t i n g i t also. B u t e v e n m a p e r s e c u t i n g t i m e , s o m e m e n , w h e t h e r t h r o u g h laziness, o r a s c e p t i c i s m w i s e r t h a n t h e i r creed, or a n a t u r a l l y sweet d i s p o s i t i o n , are less i n t o l e r a n t t h a n t h e i r fellows. L a u d h a d n o n e o f these t e m p e r a m e n t s . H e was m o r e severe, i n d e e d , against o u t w a r d n o n c o n f o r m i t y t h a n against s p e c u l a t i v e error. H e c o u l d s h o w forbearance t o w a r d s the l e a r n e d recluse w h o s e d a r i n g t h o u g h t s w e r e n o t l i k e l y t o reach, s t i l l less t o m o v e t h e p u b l i c . B u t h e r e g a r d e d t h e endless controversies a b o u t f r e e - w i l l , grace, a n d p r e d e s t i n a t i o n as b a r r e n a n d m i s chievous, a n d he t r i e d t o suppress t h e m , forgetful t h a t , i f t h e y s e r v e d n o o t h e r e n d , t h e y a t least satisfied s o m e c r a v i n g i n the d i s p u t a n t s . E n f o r c i n g t h e letter o f t h e l a w as h e c o n s t r u e d it, h e r e q u i r e d e x a c t observance o f a ritual w h i c h offended m a n y persons as religious as h i m s e l f . O f w i d e s p r e a d usage m a n y y e a r s o l d he t o o k n o m o r e a c c o u n t t h a n o f i n d i v i d u a l caprice. A t the same time he denied the other p a r t y i n the C h u r c h e v e r y means o f e x p r e s s i n g o r j u s t i f y i n g t h e i r o p i n i o n s . Like t h e k i n g , h e was so d e v o i d o f i m a g i n a t i o n t h a t he d i d n o t k n o w w h e n he w a s d r i v i n g m e n t o f u r y . A s i t w o u l d n e e d t h e w h o l e p o w e r o f t h e s t a t e t o enforce t h i s d i s c i p l i n e i n t h e C h u r c h , L a u d , w h o r e g a r d e d p u b l i c affairs p u r e l y as a n ecclesiastic, t a u g h t t h e h i g h e s t d o c t r i n e o f p r e rogative a n d abetted Charles i n every encroachment on liberty a n d e v e r y defiance o f o p i n i o n . ^A/hatever i l l - w i l l m i g h t b e a r o u s e d b y h i s p o l i t i c a l a n d t h e o l o g i c a l p r i n c i p l e s he w a s n o t l i k e l y t o m i t i g a t e b y h i s p e r s o n a l character. F o r , w i t h m a n y of t h e v i r t u e s w h i c h a d o r n h i s profession, he was h a r d , a g g r e s sive, a n d i m p e r i o u s . E v e n t h e f r i e n d l y H y d e confesses t h a t h i s t e m p e r was hot, h i s m a n n e r s r o u g h a n d o v e r b e a r i n g . H e held t h e h i g h e s t v i e w s o f t h e d i g n i t y o f h i s o w n order, s a v e w h e n a n y o f t h e m v e n t u r e d t o w i t h s t a n d h i s measures, a n d t h e n n o man could be more blunt a n d peremptory. H a d he been con-

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secure C h u r c h p r o p e r t y a g a i n s t f r a u d a n d u s u r p a t i o n , to w a t c h o v e r t h e fabric o f t h e c h u r c h e s , t o w a r against m e r e s l o t h , irreverence, a n d dishonest n e g l e c t o f d u t y a n d b y t e a c h i n g a n d e x a m p l e t o further t h a t f o r m o f w o r s h i p w h i c h he deemed m o s t o r t h o d o x , h e m i g h t s t i l l h a v e m e t w i t h o p p o s i t i o n , b u t i t w o u l d h a r d l y h a v e been d a n g e r o u s . B y the course w h i c h he a c t u a l l y t o o k , he r u i n e d h i s cause for a t i m e a n d t h e o l d s y s t e m o f s p i r i t u a l c o e r c i o n for e v e r . L a u d ' s o w n diocese was f u l l o f w h a t h e m o s t a b h o r r e d , for t h e citizens o f L o n d o n w e r e g e n e r a l l y p u r i t a n . I n p u r s u i t o f u n i f o r m i t y h e at once a t t a c k e d t h e l e c t u r e r s , c l e r g y m e n w h o m i n d i v i d u a l s o r c o r p o r a t i o n s e n g a g e d s i m p l y t o preach. The lecturers w e r e often chosen f o r t h e i r p u r i t a n o p i n i o n s , a n d , as t h e y h a d n o cure o f souls a n d w e r e n o t l e g a l l y b o u n d t o r e a d the Prayer Book, they could not be forced t o c o n f o r m l i k e the parson o f a p a r i s h . T h e l a y m e n w h o e m p l o y e d t h e m m i g h t d i s m i s s t h e m at pleasure. O n b o t h g r o u n d s t h e lecturers were odious t o t h e b i s h o p , w h o p e r s u a d e d t h e k i n g t o issue instructions f o r b i d d i n g a n y lecturer t o b e a p p o i n t e d i n a corp o r a t e t o w n unless he w e r e r e a d y t o a c c e p t a l i v i n g w i t h cure o f souls, i n other w o r d s , t o use t h e P r a y e r B o o k . Afternoon sermons were to cease a n d the t i m e t h u s s a v e d w a s to be spent i n catechising. C o n t r o v e r s i a l topics w e r e o n c e m o r e p r o h i b i t e d . N o n e save n o b l e m e n a n d m e n q u a l i f i e d b y l a w w e r e to h a v e p r i v a t e c h a p l a i n s i n t h e i r houses. E v e n the admiring H e y l y n observes t h a t this last r e g u l a t i o n w a s c o n s t r u e d i n a w a y t h a t went b e y o n d the l a w .
e n t 1 2

A t the same t i m e severe e x a m p l e s w e r e m a d e o f those w h o assailed the g o v e r n m e n t o f t h e C h u r c h . T h e p u r i t a n s h a d a full share o f t h e unreason, t h e rancour, a n d t h e s a v a g e s c u r r i l i t y w h i c h were t h e n too frequent i n t h e o l o g i c a l debate, a n d t h e i r t e m p e r was not i m p r o v e d b y a r e p r e s s i o n w h i c h e v e r y d a y grew m o r e severe. A l e x a n d e r L e i g h t o n , a S c o t w i t h a l l t h e S c o t t i s h h a t r e d o f bishops, h a d c o m p o s e d i n 1628 a furious tirade e n t i t l e d An Appeal to Parliament) or Stones Plea against
1

T h e character and opinions of L a u d are most fully shown in his See also H e y l y n ' s Life of Laud

Works,

6 vols., Oxford, 1847, especially i n the Diary, the Sermons a n d the Conference with Fisher. Life, part i . H e y l y n , Life of Laud, pp. i98-202 a n d a passage in Clarendon's

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Prelacy. B e g u n as a p e t i t i o n , i t w a s e n l a r g e d i n t o a treatise a n d C H A P , p r i n t e d i n H o l l a n d for greater assurance. I t denounced t h e b i s h o p s i n g o o d set t e r m s o f w h i c h " t r u m p e r y o f A n t i c h r i s t " was a m o n g the g e n t l e s t ; a n d , m i x i n g p o l i t i c s w i t h r e l i g i o n , s t y l e d B u c k i n g h a m a great G o l i a t h , b l a m e d t h e k i n g s m a r r i a g e w i t h a papist, a n d c a l l e d o n p a r l i a m e n t to rid h i m o f b a d advisers a n d t h e k i n g d o m o f prelates. I t passed f r o m h a n d to h a n d for s o m e t i m e before i t b e c a m e k n o w n t o L a u d , but i n F e b r u a r y , 1630, L e i g h t o n was a r r e s t e d . H e was t r i e d i n t h e S t a r C h a m ber, w h e r e he h a d the less c h a n c e o f m e r c y as s o m e o f h i s j u d g e s h a d b e e n subjects o f h i s r a i l i n g . T h e court sentenced L e i g h t o n t o p a y a fine o f 10,000, t o b e p i l l o r i e d at W e s t m i n s t e r , a n d t h e n t o be w h i p p e d a n d h a v e a n ear cut off, a n d at some f u t u r e t i m e t o u n d e r g o the l i k e p u n i s h m e n t i n C h e a p s i d e , after w h i c h h e w a s t o be i m p r i s o n e d for life. L e i g h t o n e n d u r e d h i s p u n i s h ment at W e s t minster w i t h a fortitude w h i c h even n o w moves compassion. H e was s p a r e d t h e r e p e t i t i o n o f his sufferings at C h e a p s i d e , b u t was left i n j a i l u n t i l t h e a s s e m b l i n g o f t h e l o n g parliament. H e n r y Sherfield, recorder o f Salisbury, a puritan o f the o r d i n a r y t y p e , t o o k offence at a figure i n one o f t h e s t a i n e d w i n d o w s o f his p a r i s h c h u r c h w h i c h represented the F i r s t P e r s o n of the T r i n i t y . H e obtained an order from the vestry to remove t h e p i c t u r e a n d r e p l a c e i t w i t h w h i t e glass. T h e n t h e b i s h o p o f S a l i s b u r y i n t e r p o s e d a n d f o r b a d e the c h u r c h w a r d e n s to e x e c u t e t h i s o r d e r . S o m e t i m e a f t e r w a r d s S h e r f i e l d , whose a n g e r h a d b e e n a r o u s e d b y p a i n t e d w i n d o w s elsewhere, t o o k the l a w i n t o his o w n hands, entered the church w h e n i t was empty, l o c k e d t h e door, a n d s h a t t e r e d the i d o l a t r o u s w i n d o w w i t h a s t i c k . A t t h e present d a y s u c h a n offence w o u l d b e s u m m a r i l y c o r r e c t e d b y a p o l i c e magistrate. U n d e r Charles it furnished forth m a t t e r for a state t r i a l . N o y , w h o h a d l a t e l y left the p o p u l a r p a r t y f o r t h e k i n g , a n d h a d b e e n r e w a r d e d w i t h the office o f a t t o r n e y - g e n e r a l , p r o s e c u t e d S h e r f i e l d before t h e S t a r C h a m b e r . A f t e r s o m e debate t h e c o u r t s e n t e n c e d S h e r f i e l d t o p a y a fine o f ^"500 a n d t o m a k e a p u b l i c a c k n o w l e d g m e n t o f h i s fault. L a u d pressed the c h a r g e h o m e i n a r e m a r k a b l e speech. He d i d not t h i n k it lawful to m a k e the picture o f G o d the F a t h e r ,
1
1

L a u d , Works, v i

13 j H e y l y n , Life of Laud, p. 229*

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^ t h o u g h t i t w e l l t o p u n i s h w i t h t h e u t m o s t rigour a l l w h o d i s o b e y e d the i n j u n c t i o n o f a b i s h o p . T h e k i n g o r d e r e d t h a t t h e w i n d o w s h o u l d be r e p a i r e d w i t h w h i t e glass s u c h as the vestry h a d desired. I n the same y e a r L a u d assailed t h e feoffees for i m p r o p r i a tions. C e r t a i n citizens, l a w y e r s , a n d c l e r g y m e n o f L o n d o n h a d established a f u n d for the p u r p o s e o f b u y i n g u p i m p r o p r i a t e tithes, w h i c h were* t h e n u s e d t o a u g m e n t the stipends o f m i n isters, lecturers, a n d schoolmasters. T h e object m i g h t s e e m pious, b u t those w h o established the f u n d w e r e puritans a n d bestowed their bounty upon c l e r g y m e n w h o shared their opinions. T h e s e a d d i t i o n s to c l e r i c a l i n c o m e w e r e also r e v o cable. A n y t h i n g w h i c h gave l a y m e n c o n t r o l o v e r t h e c l e r g y a n d still more a n y t h i n g w h i c h encouraged puritan c l e r g y m e n was i n L a u d ' s s i g h t p e r n i c i o u s . H e caused the a t t o r n e y g e n e r a l N o y to e x h i b i t a n i n f o r m a t i o n i n the e x c h e q u e r c h a m b e r a g a i n s t the feoffees o n the g r o u n d t h a t w i t h o u t the k i n g ' s sanction t h e y h a d f o r m e d t h e m s e l v e s i n t o a b o d y for holding property. J u d g m e n t was g i v e n against t h e feoffees a n d t h e i r p a t r o n a g e was transferred t o t h e k i n g ,
1

I n S c o t l a n d C h a r l e s p u r s u e d t h e a i m s o f h i s father, t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of a n absolute m o n a r c h y a n d t h e r e d u c t i o n o f the K i r k to perfect c o n f o r m i t y w i t h t h e C h u r c h o f E n g l a n d . A s he h a d b e e n t a k e n a w a y w h e n o n l y three years o l d a n d h a d never r e v i s i t e d S c o t l a n d , h e l a c k e d a n y k n o w l e d g e o f t h e c o u n t r y o r s y m p a t h y w i t h the p e o p l e to t e m p e r h i s rashness. I n the first y e a r o f h i s r e i g n h e v e n t u r e d u p o n the f a m o u s a c t o f r e v o c a t i o n w h i c h m e r e l y b y the r o y a l a u t h o r i t y a n n u l l e d a l l g r a n t s b y the c r o w n a n d a l l a l i e n a t i o n s t o the p r e j u d i c e o f t h e c r o w n since Q u e e n M a r y ' s accession. A c t s of revocation had been issued i n t h e past, b u t t h e i r scope h a d u s u a l l y been l i m i t e d to a r o y a l m i n o r i t y . T h e act o f C h a r l e s r e v o k e d t r a n s a c t i o n s more than eighty years old, which, however questionable i n themselves, m i g h t h a v e been t h o u g h t v a l i d b y p r e s c r i p t i o n . T h e amount o f p r o p e r t y w h i c h had been acquired f r o m the c r o w n d u r i n g so l o n g a p e r i o d m a r k e d b y so m a n y d i s o r d e r s was enormous. T h e discontent a m o n g the n o b i l i t y was such that the k i n g t h o u g h t w e l l t o treat w i t h the h o l d e r s o f the
* H c y l y i i , Life of Laud, pp. 209-212,

1633

charles

in

scotland.

175 9^-?'

l a n d s i n q u e s t i o n a n d t o let t h e m c o m p o u n d for q u i e t e n j o y m e n t . W h a t t h e c r o w n g a i n e d b y the act o f r e v o c a t i o n w h e n t h i s settlement h a d b e e n effected was a c e r t a i n m o n e y revenue a n d t h e a c k n o w l e d g m e n t o f its f e u d a l r i g h t s o v e r l a n d s w h i c h h a d h i t h e r t o b e e n free because t h e y o r i g i n a l l y b e l o n g e d t o t h e Church, "What t h e c r o w n lost b y t h e act o f r e v o c a t i o n w a s t h e s u p p o r t f o r m e r l y l e n t to i t b y t h e n o b i l i t y against t h e m i n i s t e r s a n d t h e m i d d l e a n d l o w e r classes. Xhe nobility c h a n g e d sides, a n d w h e n C h a r l e s h a d c a r r i e d h i s ecclesiastical p o l i c y s o m e w h a t further, he m e t w i t h the resistance o f n e a r l y the w h o l e S c o t c h n a t i o n .
1

X h e k i n g ' s m a r r i a g e to a R o m a n c a t h o l i c a n d t h e e x t r a o r d i n a r y f a v o u r w h i c h he s h o w e d the prelates h a d a l r e a d y a l a r m e d t h e S c o t s f o r t h e i r r e l i g i o n w h e n h e c a m e i n the s u m m e r o f 1633 to receive h i s c r o w n a n d t o h o l d a p a r l i a ment. A t the c o r o n a t i o n w h i c h t o o k p l a c e o n J u n e 18 t h e v e s t m e n t s , t h e ornaments, a n d t h e ceremonies w e r e s u c h as t o r e d o u b l e t h e i r fears. T h e parliament w h i c h met two days afterwards a c c e p t e d , b u t n o t w i t h o u t m u r m u r s , a l l t h a t was l a i d before i t o n b e h a l f o f t h e k i n g . I t c o n f i r m e d t h e act o f r e v o c a t i o n , a n d a l l t h e acts o f J a m e s t o u c h i n g r e l i g i o n , especia l l y a n act o f 1609 w h i c h e n a b l e d t h e k i n g t o d e t e r m i n e t h e a p p a r e l o f t h e clergy. T h e k i n g h i m s e l f was present at the debates t o overawe opponents a n d n o t e the n a m e s o f those w h o v o t e d c o n t r a r y t o his wishes. T h o s e w h o h a d resisted h i s measures d r e w u p a p a p e r w h i c h , u n d e r t h e m o d e s t f o r m o f a s u p p l i c a t i o n , c o n d e m n e d a l l changes i n t h e C h u r c h m a d e w i t h o u t the a p p r o v a l o f a g e n e r a l a s s e m b l y , a n d d w e l t o n the hindrances to a n y real debate i n parliament. T h e supplication was n e v e r p r e s e n t e d , b u t a c o p y c a m e i n t o t h e h a n d s o f A r c h b i s h o p S p o t t i s w o o d e , w h o sent i t t o t h e k i n g . C h a r l e s i n h i s anger resolved to m a k e an example. O n e o f the opposition nobles, L o r d B a l m e r i n o , w h o h a d s h o w n a c o p y o f the s u p p l i c a t i o n t o h i s n o t a r y , was t r i e d f o r " l e a s i n g - m a k i n g t h a t i s , f o r s t i r r i n g u p e n m i t y b e t w e e n t h e k i n g a n d h i s people b y false reports. T h e j u r y c o n d e m n e d B a l m e r i n o b y a m a j o r i t y o f one, b u t even L a u d i n t e r c e d e d for h i m a n d h i s life was spared, although he was k e p t i n p r i s o n . N o n e presumed a n y longer

* See B u r t o n , History of Scotland, v i . , 355*368.

176
CHAP, VIII. j ,

PERSONAL

GOVERNMENT

OF CHARLES

I.

1633

t o remonstrate with, the k i n g , w h o t o o k his o w n w a y to his oes true tion, U n i f o r m i t y of p u b l i c w o r s h i p i n t h e C h u r c h of S c o t l a n d a n d the C h u r c h o f E n g l a n d h a d been a project o f h i s father. general assembly h e l d at A b e r d e e n i n 1616 The of h a d ordered the

c o m p i l a t i o n o f a n e w P r a y e r B o o k to replace K n o x ' s Book

ConiiHOfi

Of dev.

A s J a m e s soon afterwards p r o m i s e d the S c o t c h Dr.

p a r l i a m e n t that there s h o u l d be n o m o r e innovations i n religion, the draft was l a i d aside u n t i l Charles c a l l e d for i t i n 1629. i t before L a u d . M a x w e l l , w h o b r o u g h t it f r o m E d i n b u r g h , was ordered t o l a y L a u d d i s l i k e d it, as r e t a i n i n g too m u c h o f the a n d suggested that the a d o p t i o n of Book of Common Order, simplest course.

the E n g l i s h P r a y e r B o o k i n S c o t l a n d w o u l d be the best a n d M a x w e l l , who knew his countrymen, replied that t h e Scots w o u l d be l o a t h to have t h e E n g l i s h l i t u r g y p u t u p o n t h e m , b u t L a u d was not c o n v i n c e d , a n d Charles agreed with Laud. service. dicament. W h e n Charles v i s i t e d S c o t l a n d he brought L a u d i n his t r a i n , a n d b o t h were still resolved t o introduce the E n g l i s h T h e u n h a p p y S c o t t i s h bishops were i n a painful preT h e y could i l l w i t h s t a n d the k i n g , whose favour the

was the o n l y p r o p of t h e i r authority, a n d y e t they felt men.

danger of affronting at once the p r i d e a n d the religion of ScotsB y r a i s i n g objections of d e t a i l t h e y persuaded the k i n g the fatal h o u r was postponed a n d Charles of government to let t h e m d r a w up " a l i t u r g y as near that of E n g l a n d as might b e T h u s left S cotlan d .
1

F r o m t h i s t i m e o n w a r d the k i n g ' s system seemed to receive a n e w impulse. succeeded

I m m e d i a t e l y after his return A l m o s t at the " Something same dwells

to E n g l a n d A r c h b i s h o p A b b o t died, a n d o n A u g u s t 6 L a u d t o t h e chair o f Canterbury. m o m e n t a person u n k n o w n offered h i m a cardinal's hat i f he w o u l d acknowledge the papal a u t h o r i t y . u n t i l R o m e be other t h a n i t i s . "
2

w i t h i n me," s a i d L a u d , " w h i c h w i l l not suffer m e to accept t h a t T h e r e p l y was perfectly s i n A r m e d w i t h the a u t h o r i t y cere, but the offer shows h o w L a u d ' s p o l i c y was construed b y R o m a n i s t s as w e l l as b y puritans.
1

See L a u d ' s account of the matter, Works, i i i . , 427 ; and compare Claren?

don, History, i . 172-81.

Heyljn,

Life of'Lctud, pp. 252-53* > PP 252-53*

1634

LAUD

AND

WENTWORTH.

177

o f p r i m a t e a n d reinforced b y t h e w h o l e p o w e r o f t h e c r o w n , he C H A P . w a s a t l e n g t h free to r e f o r m t h e C h u r c h o n A n g l o - c a t h o l i c principles. H e s t o o d so h i g h i n the k i n g ' s favour, n o t m e r e l y as a C h u r c h m a n b u t as a c o u n c i l l o r i n secular business, t h a t ori t h e d e a t h o f V i s c o u n t D o r c h e s t e r , a y e a r before, h e h a d p r o c u r e d t h e a p p o i n t m e n t o f his f r i e n d S i r F r a n c i s W i n d e b a n k as secretary. A s h e l o v e d p o w e r a n d d i d n o t fear r e s p o n s i b i l i t y , h e m a d e f u l l use o f h i s influence i n c o u n c i l , a n d t h e p a r t w h i c h he took i n government must be weighed whether we w o u l d understand the hatred w h i c h he inspired or judge his real a b i l i t y a n d character. A few d a y s before L a u d b e c a m e a r c h b i s h o p t h e L o r d D e p u t y V ^ e n t w o r t h a r r i v e d i n D u b l i n to t a k e u p t h e d u t i e s o f h i s place a n d b e g i n a m e m o r a b l e c h a p t e r i n Irish history. T h e t w o men h a d l o n g been friends, a n d even n o w t h e y f o u n d t i m e f o r a c o r r e s p o n d e n c e w h i c h is the c h i e f source o f k n o w l e d g e r e g a r d i n g t h e i r p o l i t i c a l a i m s a n d m e t h o d s . T h e y w e r e i n perfect h a r m o n y w i t h e a c h other a n d t h e s y s t e m which t h e y justly n a m e d " T h o r o u g h " was c o m m o n to both. T h e y wished b y economy, b y administrative reform, b y the severe r e p r e s s i o n o f a l l c r i t i c i s m o r censure, h o w e v e r respectful, to r e n d e r t h e s o v e r e i g n i n d e p e n d e n t o f a l l c o n t r o l . They n e e d e d n o t t o persuade C h a r l e s o f t h e e x c e l l e n c e o f t h e i r system, but t h e y could not w i n d h i m u p to their o w n u n t i r i n g energy i n its e x e c u t i o n .
1

S o l o n g as the k i n g was i n w a n t o f m o n e y h e m i g h t a l w a y s be r e d u c e d t o c a l l a p a r l i a m e n t . F o r t h e c o n t i n u a n c e o f pers o n a l g o v e r n m e n t it w a s v i t a l t o increase t h e revenue, a n d i n 1634 t h e state o f f o r e i g n affairs s u g g e s t e d t o C h a r l e s t h e m o s t f a m o u s a n d disastrous o f a l l h i s f i n a n c i a l e x p e r i m e n t s . The D u t c h h a d b e e n so s t e a d i l y victorious t h a t t h e y a p p e a r e d l i k e l y t o e x p e l t h e S p a n i a r d s f r o m t h e N e t h e r l a n d s altogether, a n d R i c h e l i e u w a s s e e k i n g t o c o n c l u d e a t r e a t y w i t h t h e m for t h e c o n q u e s t a n d p a r t i t i o n o f the S p a n i s h provinces. A s the D u t c h w e r e t h e f i r s t n a v a l p o w e r i n E u r o p e a n d t h e F r e n c h w e r e beg i n n i n g t o f o r m a n a v y , the fate o f these provinces was a m a t t e r o f c o n c e r n t o E n g l a n d . I t m i g h t w e l l be t h o u g h t our interest t h a t t h e y s h o u l d be k e p t b y a distant a n d e m b a r r a s s e d r u l e r l i k e t h e K i n g o f S p a i n r a t h e r t h a n be transferred to o u r n e i g h 1

See Strafford Letters, passim*

V O L . VII.

12

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PERSONAL

GOVERNMENT

OF CHARLES

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1634

C H A P , p e c u l i a r l y active, v e r d i c t s w e r e o b t a i n e d f o r the c r o w n . Sevent e e n v i l l a g e s were a d d e d t o t h e F o r e s t o f D e a n ; R o c k i n g h a m Forest, w h i c h h a d been six miles i n compass, was enlarged to s i x t y j W a l t h a m F o r e s t was m a d e t o c o v e r a l l E s s e x s o u t h o f t h e r o a d f r o m C o l c h e s t e r to B i s h o p S t o r t f o r d , o r m o r e t h a n h a l f the c o u n t y . T h e s e results w e r e t u r n e d to profit i n t w o w a y s . T h o s e w h o were f o u n d to h a v e e n c r o a c h e d o n t h e forests w e r e h e a v i l y f i n e d , a n d those w h o w e r e n e w l y b r o u g h t u n d e r the forest j u r i s d i c t i o n w e r e a l l o w e d t o c o m p o u n d for the d i s f o r e s t i n g o f t h e i r l a n d s . A s the fines w e r e i n great p a r t r e m i t t e d , the k i n g ' s gains were p e t t y after a l l . I n t w o y e a r s a n d a h a l f t h e n e w pera m b u l a t i o n o f t h e forests b r o u g h t i n t o t h e e x c h e q u e r 23,000} F o r t h i s m i s e r a b l e s u m the k i n g h a d d i s q u i e t e d a c r o w d o f l a n d o w n e r s a n d h a d d i s c r e d i t e d h i s o w n j u s t i c e a n d honesty. T h e L o r d Treasurer P o r t l a n d h a d enemies i n the council, e s p e c i a l l y t h e a r c h b i s h o p a n d the l o r d keeper, w h o s t r o v e t o l a y bare h i s c o n t r i v a n c e s f o r e n r i c h i n g h i m s e l f a n d h i s f r i e n d s at h i s master's charge. Before t h e y c o u l d d i s l o d g e h i m f r o m t h e k i n g ' s favour, P o r t l a n d fell g r i e v o u s l y s i c k a n d i n M a r c h , 1635, he d i e d . O n h i s d e a t h b e d he a c k n o w l e d g e d h i m s e l f a m e m b e r o f the C h u r c h o f R o m e . T h e t r e a s u r y w a s t h e n p u t i n t o c o m m i s s i o n a n d a m o n g the c o m m i s s i o n e r s w a s A r c h b i s h o p L a u d . T h e k i n g embraced every opportunity of showing his g o o d w i l l to the c l e r g y , w h i l e t h e i n d e f a t i g a b l e a r c h b i s h o p was r e a d y t o accept a n y office w h i c h w o u l d e n a b l e h i m to serve the k i n g a n d raise the c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f h i s o w n o r d e r . H e was above fear or c o r r u p t i o n , e n t i r e l y honest a n d s t r i c t l y f r u g a l , qualities t h e n r a r e i n p u b l i c life. B u t here his p r a i s e as a m i n i s t e r m u s t e n d . H e k n e w n o t h i n g o f finance, a n d i n h i s eagerness to r e n d e r t h e k i n g i n d e p e n d e n t o f a house o f c o m m o n s , h e g r a s p e d at e v e r y means o f f i l l i n g t h e t r e a s u r y w h i c h h e d i d n o t d e e m s i n f u l , however dubious i n point of l a w or however vexatious to the subject. N e x t to h i m the most powerful of the commissioners was the c h a n c e l l o r o f t h e e x c h e q u e r , C o t t i n g t o n , a v e r y different person, a n e x p e r i e n c e d official a n d a n a d r o i t m a n o f t h e w o r l d , w h o was g u i d e d b y a n i n s t i n c t o f p r u d e n c e t h a t w o u l d r a t h e r m a k e friends t h a n enemies.^
Gardiner gives this figure as the result of his examination of the records. History, c h . lxxxiv. Autobiography of Sir jfohn Bramston ( C a m d e n Society), p. 66.
1 3

1635

THE

MONOPOLY

OF SOAP.

igi

L a u d a n d C o t t i n g t o n were p r e s e n t l y at v a r i a n c e o n a d i s - C H A P . p u t e a r i s i n g out o f the m o n o p o l y o f soap. T h e act o f 1624 * f o r b i d d i n g the creation o f m o n o p o l i e s h a d been e v a d e d o n the p r e t e x t that i t a p p l i e d o n l y t o m o n o p o l i e s created i n f a v o u r o f i n d i v i d u a l s , a n d monopolies h a d been freely g r a n t e d to c o r p o r a t i o n s , a l w a y s o n the a l l e g e d g r o u n d o f t h e p u b l i c g o o d a n d w i t h m o r e or less o f substantial profit to t h e treasury. I n the r e i g n o f J a m e s a patent h a d been g r a n t e d to c e r t a i n persons w h o m a d e soap b y a n e w process. I n 1632 Charles created a c o m p a n y to b u y u p the p a t e n t a n d g a v e i t p o w e r t o test the soap m a d e b y a n y o t h e r m a n u f a c t u r e r s ; the c o m p a n y i n t u r n b i n d i n g i t s e l f to m a k e 5,000 tons o f soap e v e r y y e a r a n d to p a y i n t o the e x c h e q u e r 4 for e v e r y t o n s o l d . Q u a r r e l s ensued, t h e o t h e r m a k e r s p r o t e s t i n g t h a t t h e i r soap e x c e l l e d the c o m p a n y ' s , a n d , t o e n d the h i g h debate, t w o parcels o f d i r t y clothes w e r e w a s h e d w i t h the soap o f the c o m p a n y a n d t h e soap o f the i n d e p e n d e n t m a k e r s respectively, i n presence o f t h e l o r d m a y o r o f L o n d o n , the lieutenant o f the T o w e r , a n d o t h e r w o r s h i p f u l persons, w h o p r o n o u n c e d the c o m p a n y s soap m o r e effective. The p r i v y c o u n c i l wrote to t h e justices o f the peace t h r o u g h o u t the k i n g d o m r e c o m m e n d i n g the p r i v i l e g e d soap. T h e n the i n d e p e n d e n t m a k e r s offered to p a y 8 for e v e r y t o n s o l d if t h e y m i g h t be i n c o r p o r a t e d a n d t a k e t h e c o m p a n y ' s place. T h e a r c h b i s h o p h e l d that t h e i r offer s h o u l d be a c c e p t e d . Cottington held the k i n g b o u n d i n honour t o the existing company. The c o m p a n y at l e n g t h p r o m i s e d to increase its p a y m e n t s a n d ret a i n e d its p r i v i l e g e . A c o m m o d i t y never used i n excess was thus m a d e m o r e c o s t l y to the p u b l i c .
V I 1 1

A second w r i t o f s h i p - m o n e y was issued o n A u g u s t 4, 1635. E n g l a n d was s t i l l at peace, y e t the t a x was e x t e n d e d to t h e w h o l e k i n g d o m a n d the s u m d e m a n d e d was ^208,000, t w i c e as g r e a t as i n t h e p r e v i o u s y e a r . I n each c o u n t y t h e sheriffs a n d justices were to assess the t a x o n p e r s o n a l as w e l l as real p r o p e r t y , a task m o s t u n p o p u l a r a n d h a r d t o be p e r f o r m e d at such s h o r t notice. I n s o m e places t h e i r subordinates refused to c a r r y out the assessments. T h e public murmurs b e c a m e so a u d i b l e t h a t C h a r l e s c o m m a n d e d F i n c h t o t a k e t h e o p i n i o n o f the j u d g e s r e s p e c t i n g h i s r i g h t t o s h i p - m o n e y . T e n o f t h e t w e l v e g a v e a w r i t t e n a n s w e r t h a t w h e r e the k i n g d o m w a s i n danger, w h e r e o f h i s m a j e s t y was t h e o n l y j u d g e , t h e

182
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e

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1

1635

vm'

? k o u g h t to be b o r n e b y t h e k i n g d o m i n g e n e r a l . One judge, C r o k e , expressed h i m s e l f m o r e g u a r d e d l y a n d another, H u t t o n , d i d n o t s i g n the o p i n i o n . A s e v e r y b o d y k n e w t h a t the k i n g d o m was n o t i n danger, this d e c l a r a t i o n c a r r i e d l i t t l e w e i g h t . R i c h a r d C h a m b e r s , the m e r c h a n t w h o h a d b r a v e d the k i n g ' s displeasure i n 1 6 2 8 b y r e f u s i n g to p a y d u t i e s n o t authorised b y p a r l i a m e n t , t r i e d t o get a d e c i s i o n o f t h e k i n g ' s b e n c h as to whether h e must p a y s h i p - m o n e y , b u t the j u d g e s w o u l d n o t a l l o w the q u e s t i o n to b e a r g u e d . M o s t o f t h e m o n e y was collected b y M a r c h , 1636, a n d i n A p r i l a g r e a t fleet p u t t o sea u n d e r the E a r l o f N o r t h u m b e r l a n d as a d m i r a l . A l t h o u g h h e sailed u p a n d d o w n the n a r r o w seas a l l the s u m m e r , he h a d t o be content w i t h f o r c i n g the k i n g ' s l i c e n c e t o fish u p o n the D u t c h h e r r i n g boats, a b r a v a d o h i g h l y resented b y the D u t c h government. T h e s o v e r e i g n t y o f the seas h a v i n g been thus v i n d i c a t e d , h e returned to p o r t a n d s t r u c k his flag i n A u g u s t .
a r

W h i l e the treasury r e m a i n e d i n c o m m i s s i o n , C o t t i n g t o n h a d hopes o f that great office. B u t his e n e m y L a u d , w h o was s u p p o r t e d b y W e n t w o r t h , h a d g a i n e d fresh influence over t h e k i n g b y e n f o r c i n g a t h o r o u g h e x a m i n a t i o n o f the finances a n d s h a r p measures for r e m e d y i n g t h e deficit. N e w m o n o p o lies o f articles i n c o m m o n use w e r e created, a n d t h e i m p o s i t i o n s were a u g m e n t e d to the a m o u n t o f ^"70,000 a year. Charles w h o c o u l d not l o o k b e y o n d the present g a i n t o the future p e r i l , was c o n f i r m e d i n h i s l i k i n g for c l e r i c a l m i n i s t e r s a n d t o o k for treasurer L a u d ' s f r i e n d W i l l i a m J u x o n , b i s h o p o f L o n d o n . J u x o n was a n honest a n d a m i a b l e m a n , w h o k e p t an e x c e l l e n t p a c k o f h o u n d s , but he h a d n e i t h e r foresight n o r energy s u m cient to s t a y the k i n g o n his dangerous p a t h . L a u d was d e e p l y gratified at h i s friend's p r o m o t i o n . " N o w , " h e wrote, " i f the C h u r c h w i l l n o t h o l d u p themselves u n d e r G o d , I can d o n o more." ffe d i d n o t pause t o t h i n k h o w d i s l i k e for the c l e r g y w o u l d be s h a r p e n e d b y c o m p e t i t i o n f o r great secular offices w h i c h l a y m e n h a d learnt to r e g a r d as t h e i r o w n .
2

I n O c t o b e r , 1636, a t h i r d w r i t o f s h i p - m o n e y appeared. E v e n the dullest t h e n s a w that a p e r m a n e n t a n d g e n e r a l t a x h a d been i m p o s e d b y the w i l l o f the s o v e r e i g n . A l t h o u g h the

1

Autobiography

of Sir John Bramston,

p. 66.

L a u d , Dtary, M a r c h 6,1635*

1637

THE

SHIP-MONEY

CASE.

183
CHAP. VIII.

p r o c e e d s w e r e s t i l l spent o n the n a v y , there c o u l d be n o assurance t h a t t h i s w o u l d a l w a y s b e so, o r t h a t s h i p - m o n e y w o u l d not become what Clarendon terms " a spring a n d magazine t h a t s h o u l d h a v e n o b o t t o m , a n d a n e v e r l a s t i n g s u p p l y for a l l occasions "} T h e p r e t e x t o f a d a n g e r too i m m e d i a t e t o a l l o w o f a p p l i c a t i o n t o p a r l i a m e n t was so t r a n s p a r e n t as t o be i n s u l t ing. T h e m u r m u r o f resistance g r e w d e e p a n d f o r m i d a b l e . A m o n g t h e nobles w h o s u r r o u n d e d t h e k i n g m a n y c a l l e d f o r a new parliament. A p r o t e s t a t i o n t o t h a t effect was a c t u a l l y d r a w n u p , b u t n o t p r e s e n t e d , a n d t h e k i n g , t h o u g h s t i l l res o l v e d n o t t o s u m m o n p a r l i a m e n t , t r i e d to silence c o m p l a i n t b y l a y i n g a case before t h e j u d g e s , a n d t a k i n g t h e i r o p i n i o n a n e w . T h e a n s w e r w h i c h h e w a n t e d was g i v e n t h i s t i m e b y a l l t h e judges, but C r o k e a n d H u t t o n signed it only o n the principle t h a t t h e y w e r e b o u n d t o f o l l o w t h e m a j o r i t y . I t was s o l e m n l y r e a d o u t b y t h e l o r d k e e p e r i n t h e S t a r C h a m b e r a n d b y the j u d g e s o n t h e i r c i r c u i t s , w i t h c o n s i d e r a b l e effect. T h e c o l l e c t i o n o f s h i p - m o n e y w e n t o n b r i s k l y . I n J u n e , 1637, N o r t h u m b e r l a n d a g a i n p u t to sea, b u t a c h i e v e d e v e n less t h a n before, f o r t h e m a i n D u t c h fishing fleet w a s g u a r d e d b y t h e i r o w n a d m i r a l , w h o w o u l d n o t a l l o w N o r t h u m b e r l a n d ' s messenger t o h a i l t h e fisherm e n . A s m a l l s q u a d r o n sent a g a i n s t t h e corsairs o f S a l l e e d i d s o m e r e a l w o r k , a n d b r o u g h t about t h e d e l i v e r a n c e o f n e a r l y three h u n d r e d captives.
2

T w o p r i v a t e m e n u n d e r t o o k t o m a k e t h e o n l y possible p r o t e s t a g a i n s t s h i p - m o n e y b y r e f u s i n g at a l l h a z a r d s t o p a y , a n d t h u s c o m p e l l i n g t h e case t o b e a r g u e d i n a c o u r t o f l a w . Lord S a y e , t h e stoutest p u r i t a n a m o n g t h e peers, w a s one, a n d t h e o t h e r was a w e a l t h y s q u i r e o f B u c k i n g h a m s h i r e , J o h n H a m p den. H a m p d e n h a d b e e n assessed at 20s. o n l y , b u t his case w a s c h o s e n as t h e test, a n d was a r g u e d before t h e t w e l v e j u d g e s i n t h e e x c h e q u e r c h a m b e r . H i s counsel, H o l b o r n e a n d S t . J o h n , discharged their perilous task w i t h great skill. St. J o h n d i d n o t press t h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n m a r i t i m e a n d i n l a n d counties o r d e n y t h a t t h e k i n g was to j u d g e o f t h e p u b l i c danger, but maintained that o n l y i n parliament could h e impose
1

Clarendon, History, i . , 148. 14Rushworth, i i . , 355 J Awto-

State Papers, Domestic, c cccxlvi., 11, biography of Sir jfohn Bramston, p. 68.
2

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1638

CHAP, a t a x to meet i t . H o l b o r n e denied that the k i n g was j u d g e ^*** e v e n o f t h e d a n g e r , unless i t w e r e so i n s t a n t t h a t h e c o u l d n o t c a l l p a r l i a m e n t . T h e a t t o r n e y - g e n e r a l , B a n k e s , asserted t h a t t h e k i n g h a d t h e absolute a n d i n h e r e n t r i g h t o f d e c i d i n g as t o t h e degree o f danger. T h e j u d g e s , after h e a r i n g t h e a r g u m e n t s , gave their decision two b y t w o a n d at considerable intervals o f t i m e . T h e y differed m o r e t h a n c o u l d h a v e been e x p e c t e d f r o m men who h a d twice given a nearly unanimous opinion on the p o i n t i n issue. S o m e s p o k e t h e l a n g u a g e o f t h e purest absolutism. C r a w l e y declared that the king's prerogative enabled h i m t o i m p o s e t a x e s w i t h o u t t h e consent o f p a r l i a m e n t . F i n c h ass e r t e d t h a t acts o f p a r l i a m e n t t o t a k e a w a y t h e k i n g ' s p o w e r i n defence o f h i s k i n g d o m w e r e v o i d : " N o a c t o f p a r l i a m e n t m a k e s a n y difference." B e r k e l e y c a m e t o m u c h t h e s a m e c o n c l u s i o n : T h e l a w i s o f i t s e l f a n o l d a n d t r u s t y servant o f t h e k i n g ' s ; i t is h i s i n s t r u m e n t o r m e a n s w h i c h h e u s e t h t o g o v e r n h i s people b y . I n e v e r r e a d n o r h e a r d t h a t lex w a s Tex ; b u t i t is c o m m o n a n d m o s t true t h a t rex i s lex f o r h e is lex loquens, a living, a speaking, an acting law." B u t the judges w h o h a d hesitated before n o w s p o k e out u n f a l t e r i n g l y . C r o k e s a i d t h a t it was c o n t r a r y t o l a w t o l a y a n y c h a r g e o n t h e subject save i n p a r l i a m e n t ; as t h e k i n g c o u l d press e v e r y s h i p a n d e v e r y m a n i n defence o f t h e r e a l m , i t w a s i d l e t o c l a i m f u r t h e r p o w e r s of meeting an emergency. D e n h a m a n d H u t t o n agreed w i t h C r o k e o n t h e q u e s t i o n o f p r i n c i p l e , a n d t w o other j u d g e s d e c i d e d for H a m p d e n o n t e c h n i c a l g r o u n d s . In a body of men whose interests a n d p r e j u d i c e s w e r e a l l o n t h e side o f p r e r o g a t i v e , t h e s m a l l e s t p o s s i b l e m a j o r i t y , s e v e n t o five, w e r e f o r t h e c r o w n . Y e t t h e k i n g a c t e d as t h o u g h h e h a d b e e n a l t o g e t h e r successful, a n d p r e s s e d t h e c o l l e c t i o n o f s h i p - m o n e y as t h o u g h i t s l e g a l i t y c o u l d n o l o n g e r b e d o u b t e d .
C6 y 1

State Trials^ i i i . , 825*

CHAPTER
THE

IX.
(Continued).

P E R S O N A L G O V E R N M E N T O F C H A R L E S I.

B E F O R E a l l t h e j u d g e s h a d g i v e n t h e i r decisions i n H a m p - C H A P . den's case t h e r e v o l u t i o n w h i c h was t o o v e r t h r o w p e r s o n a l ^* g o v e r n m e n t h a d b e g u n i n S c o t l a n d . B u t t h e effect o f t h e S c o t c h outbreak u p o n E n g l i s h o p i n i o n was l a r g e l y d u e t o t h e course w h i c h h a d b e e n t a k e n i n t h e affairs o f t h e C h u r c h since L a u d became primate. F r o m t h e first h e a c t e d w i t h t h e utmost energy. H e o b t a i n e d a r o y a l letter r e q u i r i n g the b i s h o p s t o observe t h e c a n o n w h i c h b a d e t h e m o r d a i n o n l y s u c h persons as c o u l d s h o w t h a t t h e y w e r e about to u n d e r t a k e t h e cure o f souls. I n t h i s w a y h e h o p e d t o cut off t h e s u p p l y of lecturers a n d c h a p l a i n s at t h e source. H e bestirred himself t o enforce t h e use o f the P r a y e r B o o k i n the l i t t l e colonies o f E n g l i s h m e r c h a n t s a b r o a d , a n d e v e n i n the E n g l i s h r e g i m e n t s e m p l o y e d a n d p a i d b y the States-General. H e restored t h e p a i n t e d w i n d o w s i n t h e c h a p e l at L a m b e t h , a n d r e m o v e d t h e c o m m u n i o n - t a b l e t o the east e n d . A l i k e c h a n g e i n t h e c h u r c h of S t . G r e g o r y i n t h e c i t y o f L o n d o n h a d i n d u c e d five o f the p a r i s h i o n e r s t o a p p e a l to t h e c o u r t o f arches. A s S i r H e n r y M a r t i n , t h e d e a n o f arches, w a s k n o w n t o f a v o u r t h e i r appeal, t h e k i n g i n t e r f e r e d a n d s u m m o n e d h i m a n d t h e petitioners and the dean a n d chapter of St. Paul's, who had ordered t h e c h a n g e , t o a r g u e t h e q u e s t i o n before h i m i n c o u n c i l . T h e k i n g d e c i d e d i n f a v o u r o f t h e d e a n a n d chapter. T h u s t h e p o i n t m o s t b i t t e r l y contested b e t w e e n t h e A n g l o - c a t h o l i c s a n d t h e puritans, because the difference o f f o r m s y m b o l i s e d a differe n c e o f d o c t r i n e , w a s d e c i d e d b y the h e a d o f t h e C h u r c h i n L a u d ' s sense, a n d L a u d w a s c e r t a i n t o m a k e f u l l use o f s u c h a victory. T h e p u r i t a n s o f S o m e r s e t a n d c e r t a i n o t h e r w e s t e r n counties
185

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GOVERNMENT

OF CHARLES

1632

t o o k offence at t h e p o p u l a r feasts k n o w n as w a k e s , p a r t l y because t h e y w e r e h e l d o n S u n d a y s , p a r t l y because t h e y s o m e t i m e s e n d e d i n excess a n d riot. C h i e f J u s t i c e R i c h a r d s o n , w h e n g o i n g c i r c u i t there, repeated a n o l d p r o h i b i t i o n o f t h e w a k e s a n d o r d e r e d t h e c l e r g y to p u b l i s h i t i n the churches. T h e a r c h b i s h o p resented this o r d e r as a u s u r p a t i o n , a n d t h e k i n g c o m m a n d e d t h e c h i e f justice t o r e v o k e i t . Richardson was so s l o w t o o b e y t h a t h e was s u m m o n e d before t h e c o u n c i l , w h e r e L a u d r e p r i m a n d e d h i m w i t h a roughness w h i c h caused R i c h a r d s o n to say, o n c o m i n g out, t h a t h e h a d b e e n c h o k e d w i t h a p a i r o f l a w n sleeves. H e w a s f o r b i d d e n t h e w e s t e r n c i r c u i t for t h e future.* T h i s i n c i d e n t l e d t h e k i n g to o r d e r t h a t h i s father's D e c l a r a t i o n o f S p o r t s s h o u l d b e r e p u b l i s h e d a n d r e a d f r o m e v e r y p u l p i t i n the k i n g d o m . A n u m b e r o f p u r i t a n c l e r g y m e n refused to o b e y a n d w e r e s u s p e n d e d o r deprived. U p o n the question of principle Charles and L a u d m a y h a v e b e e n w i s e r t h a n the p u r i t a n s , b u t t h e i r p r o c e d u r e e v e n here w a s h a r s h a n d d e s p o t i c .
c<

L i k e m a n y o t h e r ascetic C h r i s t i a n s , t h e p u r i t a n s felt a n a b h o r r e n c e f o r t h e theatre. I t is p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e p u r i t a n m o v e m e n t b y w i t h d r a w i n g serious p e o p l e f r o m t h e theatre c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e s p r e a d o f t h a t grossness w h i c h disfigures so m a n y of the dramas written under J a m e s a n d Charles. The lewdness o f t h e stage i n t u r n e m b i t t e r e d p u r i t a n censure, w h i c h at l e n g t h b r o k e out i n P r y n n e ' s famous, b u t u n r e a d treatise, Histriomastix: A Scourge of Stage Players. William Prynne, a barrister of L i n c o l n ' s Inn, a m a n o f immense reading, narrow notions, a n d a m o s t p o l e m i c a l t e m p e r , h a d a l r e a d y d i s t i n g u i s h e d h i m s e l f b y a series o f fierce p a m p h l e t s against the A n g l o catholics. W i t h e q u a l e r u d i t i o n a n d s t i l l m o r e furious i n v e c t i v e h e assailed the theatre. P l a y s were mere incentives to s i n , actors a n d actresses (then for t h e first t i m e i n t r o d u c e d f r o m F r a n c e ) w e r e i n f a m o u s agents o f c o r r u p t i o n , a n d e v e n the spectators w e r e h i g h l y c u l p a b l e . F r a n t i c as t h i s l a n g u a g e n o w sounds, i t w a s n o t m o r e v i o l e n t t h a n t h e l a n g u a g e o f celebrated w r i t e r s i n the p r i m i t i v e C h u r c h , a n d t h e Histriotnastix was l i c e n s e d w i t h o u t d e m u r b y A b b o t ' s c h a p l a i n i n 1632. B u t c e r t a i n e x p r e s s i o n s i n i t w e r e a l l e g e d to reflect
* See H e y l y n , Life of Laud, pp. 256-57 J La,ud s Works, iv., 133*

t6$4

THE

METROPOLITICAL

VISITATION.

187 CHAP,

u p o n t h e q u e e n , w h o s o m e t i m e s t o o k p a r t i n court theatricals, a n d o n t h e k i n g w h o was a frequent spectator o f the p l a y . a u t h o r w a s p r o s e c u t e d i n the S t a r C h a m b e r . The T h e archbishop

1

m a d e a s p e e c h a g g r a v a t i n g t h e offence a n d d e c l a r e d t h a t he h e l d h i m g u i l t y o f h i g h treason u n d e r a statute o f E d w a r d I I I . P r y n n e was sentenced to be i m p r i s o n e d for life, t o p a y a fine o f ,5,000, t o b e e x p e l l e d f r o m L i n c o l n ' s I n n a n d t o be d i s b a r r e d , t o be d e p r i v e d o f h i s a c a d e m i c degree, to be set i n t h e p i l l o r y a n d t o h a v e b o t h his ears cut off. T h e sentence w a s c a r r i e d Prynne, with unfortunately out, a l t h o u g h the m u t i l a t i o n was so far imperfect t h a t the l i k e t o r t u r e w a s i n f l i c t e d u p o n h i m at a later p e r i o d . H e w a s n o t c r u s h e d b y his i n h u m a n sentence; forgiveness. I n order to reform all that h e considered amiss i n the prov i n c e o f C a n t e r b u r y , t h e a r c h b i s h o p r e v i v e d a n a n c i e n t usage a n d instituted a metropolitical visitation. Claims to exemption m a d e b y various parties, s u c h as t h e b i s h o p o f L i n c o l n a n d t h e u n i v e r s i t y o f C a m b r i d g e , w e r e o v e r r u l e d a n d the v i s i t a t i o n w a s carried into every corner of the province. t o 1637* to have been comprehensive.
2

m a n y f a u l t s , w a s a m a n o f c o n v i c t i o n a n d o f dauntless courage. w h e n t h e t i m e o f r e t r i b u t i o n c a m e , h i s v i r t u e was n o t e q u a l t o

It lasted from

1634

T h e articles d r a w n u p to g u i d e its e x e c u t i o n p r o v e i t Careful i n q u i r y was made into the

t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f ecclesiastical p r o p e r t y , the state of furniture.

f a b r i c s o f t h e churches, a n d t h e p r o v i s i o n o f c h u r c h p l a t e a n d T h e character a n d t h e o r t h o d o x y o f t h e c l e r g y , t h e m a n n e r i n w h i c h t h e y c e l e b r a t e d d i v i n e w o r s h i p a n d t h e perf o r m a n c e o f m o r a l a n d r e l i g i o u s duties b y t h e parishioners were a l l passed i n review. ence, w h e t h e r It was to be noted whether the communionwere t a b l e w a s i n its p r o p e r p l a c e a n d t r e a t e d w i t h b e c o m i n g reverthe forms of prayer i n the P r a y e r B o o k e x a c t l y f o l l o w e d i n t h e services, w h e t h e r t h e s i g n o f t h e cross was used i n baptism, a n d whether a n y of the parishioners denied t h e k i n g ' s s u p r e m a c y , o r q u e s t i o n e d the lawfulness o f e p i s c o p a l g o v e r n m e n t , o r i m p u g n e d t h e ceremonies o f t h e C h u r c h o r freq u e n t e d p r i v a t e conventicles.
1

T h e visitation prepared the way

L a u d ' s Works, v i , , 234* Ibid., v o l . v . ; see also the correspondence between h i m a n d W i l l i a m s ,

vol. v i .

188 CHAP,

PERSONAL

GOVERNMENT

OF CHARLES enforcement of

I.

1634

for a stricter a n d m o r e g e n e r a l

conformity. everywhere were

O r d e r was g i v e n t h a t the c o m m u n i o n - t a b l e s h o u l d be r e m o v e d t o the east e n d a n d r a i l e d i n . enforced. their way.

T h e wearing of the resisted

s u r p l i c e a n d t h e o b s e r v a n c e o f t h e d i s p u t e d ceremonies H e r e a n d there m i n i s t e r s o r c o n g r e g a t i o n s

for a w h i l e , b u t i n t h e e n d t h e a r c h b i s h o p a n d h i s b r e t h r e n h a d E v e n t h e m e m b e r s o f t h e f o r e i g n churches establ i s h e d b y F r e n c h a n d D u t c h refugees i n t h e age o f E l i z a b e t h , w h o h i t h e r t o h a d b e e n a l l o w e d to w o r s h i p i n t h e i r o w n t o n g u e a n d i n t h e i r o w n fashion, were c o m p e l l e d , i f b o r n i n E n g l a n d , to attend t h e p a r o c h i a l services.

1

D r i v e n to despair, the m o r e r i g i d p u r i t a n s b e g a n t o e m i g r a t e . W h a t e v e r t h e i r beliefs, t h e m e n w h o w i l l sacrifice h o m e a n d c o u n t r y for conscience' sake are t h e salt o f the e a r t h . m i d d l e a n d a r t i s a n classes were Puritanthe after, i s m was m o s t general i n those p a r t s o f E n g l a n d w h e r e a n d a r c h b i s h o p , l i k e o t h e r i l l - a d v i s e d rulers before a n d

most vigorous, a n d the k i n g

were e x p e l l i n g a c r o w d o f those t h o u g h t f u l , l a b o r i o u s citizens w h o are t h e o n l y sure s u p p o r t o f n a t i o n a l g r e a t n e s s a n d p r o sperity. 1634 T h e c o u n c i l t r i e d a l l r e m e d i e s s a v e the effectual o n e ; In its o n a c o m m i s s i o n , w i t h L a u d as forbade e m i g r a t i o n , t h e n a l l o w e d i t a n d forbade i t a g a i n . the k i n g bestowed chief, v a s t a n d i l l - d e f i n e d p o w e r in England.

o v e r t h e colonies, e s p e c i a l l y

p o w e r to establish t h e r e t h e s a m e ecclesiastical c o n s t i t u t i o n as B u t t h e i m m e n s e d i s t a n c e a n d t h e resolute beari n g o f the p e o p l e o f M a s s a c h u s e t t s h i n d e r e d t h e c o m m i s s i o n f r o m a c h i e v i n g a n y result, a n d t h e f l o w o f e m i g r a n t s f r o m E n g land continued. N o r could the most rigorous repression stay the flow at h o m e . of p a m p h l e t s a n d l i b e l s d i r e c t e d against t h e rulers o f t h e C h u r c h P r y n n e , w h o h a d a l r e a d y suffered so m u c h , c o n t i n u e d H e n r y Burton, a i n his p r i s o n t o w r i t e against t h e bishops. he e n t i t l e d For God and the King.

c l e r g y m a n , p u b l i s h e d t w o sermons a g a i n s t t h e c e r e m o n i e s w h i c h John Bastwick, a physician, A l l three to stand w r o t e against t h e b i s h o p s p a m p h l e t s e a c h fiercer t h a n t h e last t i l l t h e y c u l m i n a t e d i n The Litcmy of John Bastwick. 1637*
1

writers w e r e t r i e d f o r l i b e l before t h e S t a r C h a m b e r i n J u n e , E a c h w a s s e n t e n c e d t o p a y a fine o f $,ooo

>

F o r L a u d ' s views on this subject, see a paper, Works, v i . , 22.

1637

THE

STAR

CHAMBER

AND

THE

PRESS.

189

i n t h e p i l l o r y , to lose his ears, a n d t h e n t o be i m p r i s o n e d for C H A P , IX. life i n t h e r e m o t e castles o f C a r n a r v o n , L a n c a s t e r , a n d L a u n ceston. O n F i n c h ' s m o t i o n P r y n n e was further sentenced to be b r a n d e d o n the cheeks w i t h t h e letters S. L . W h e n the sentence was p u t i n e x e c u t i o n , the c r o w d o p e n l y testified its sympathy. P r y n n e o n his w a y to L a n c a s t e r received m a n y t e s t i m o n i e s o f kindness. A l t h o u g h debarred from pen and i n k t h e t h r e e p r i s o n e r s f o u n d means to c o m m u n i c a t e w i t h t h e i r f r i e n d s a n d w e r e therefore sent to prisons m o r e d i s t a n t s t i l l , P r y n n e to M o n t O r g u e i l i n J e r s e y , B u r t o n to C o r n e t C a s t l e i n G u e r n s e y , a n d B a s t w i c k to a fort o n one o f the S c i l l y Isles. S t i l l m o r e c r u e l was t h e p u n i s h m e n t a w a r d e d to J o h n L i l b u r n e , w h o s e y o u t h , for h e was o n l y t w e n t y years of age, m i g h t h a v e p l e a d e d i n his favour. H e was accused before the S t a r Chamber of having printed puritan books i n H o l l a n d . When r e q u i r e d , as was t h e p r a c t i c e i n that court, t o swear t h a t h e w o u l d a n s w e r a l l questions t r u l y , he d e c l i n e d , a l l e g i n g t h a t h e w a s n o t b o u n d to a n s w e r a n y q u e s t i o n o f w h i c h h e d i d n o t k n o w the import. F o r t h i s c o n t e m p t h e was flogged a n d p i l l o r i e d , a n d t h e n p l a c e d i n m o s t r i g o r o u s d u r a n c e i n the F l e e t p r i s o n , w h e r e he w o u l d h a v e d i e d o f h u n g e r h a d n o t h i s fellow-prisoners g i v e n h i m o f t h e i r s c a n t y food. T o cut o f f t h e e v i l at the source, the S t a r C h a m b e r ordinances regulati n g t h e press w e r e m a d e s t i l l m o r e severe. T h e n u m b e r o f p r i n t e r s i n L o n d o n was r e d u c e d to t w e n t y , a n d a n y other p e r s o n p r i n t i n g a book was to be p i l l o r i e d a n d w h i p p e d .
1

I t is difficult for those w h o l i v e i n a n age o f f r e e d o m t o m e a s u r e t h e i r r i t a t i o n caused b y an ecclesiastical p o l i c y such as w e h a v e d e s c r i b e d . I n the first h a l f o f the seventeenth c e n t u r y t h e t h e o l o g i c a l passions s t i r r e d b y the r e f o r m a t i o n were s t i l l f u l l o f life. A l t h o u g h a f e w h i g h l y c u l t i v a t e d m e n h a d entered i n t o possession o f the larger i n t e l l e c t u a l w o r l d d i s c o v e r e d at t h e r e v i v a l o f letters, t h e b u l k o f the n a t i o n h a d n o interest outside t h e i r o w n p e t t y p e r s o n a l concerns e x c e p t that o f r e l i g i o n , n o l i t e r a t u r e other t h a n t h e B i b l e a n d religious b o o k s , n o chance o f h e a r i n g m o r a l o r p h i l o s o p h i c a l discussion save i n s e r m o n s . T h u s t h e w h o l e e n e r g y o f earnest m i n d s was c o n c e n t r a t e d o n theological problems. A t t h e s a m e t i m e the p u b l i c h a d n o
^ Seditious Libeller.

igo
CHAP,

PERSONAL

GOVERNMENT

OF CHARLES

I.

1635

choice h o w t h e y w o u l d w o r s h i p , o r w h a t d o c t r i n e t h e y w o u l d hear. I f the r e c e i v e d ceremonies satisfied t h e i r r e l i g i o u s e m o t i o n , i f t h e s e r m o n agreed w i t h t h e i r r e l i g i o u s belief, i t was w e l l j b u t i f not, t h e y c o u l d d e c l i n e n e i t h e r . N o t h i n g could be more e x a s p e r a t i n g t h a n S u n d a y after S u n d a y t o b e h o l d against t h e i r w i l l rites w h i c h t h e y d e e m e d i d o l a t r o u s , a n d l i s t e n t o d o c t r i n e s w h i c h t h e y d e e m e d foolish o r b l a s p h e m o u s . T h e minute and rigorous enforcement o f t h e L a u d i a n s y s t e m w r o u g h t u p t h e whole puritan population to a sullen rage which, o n the first favourable occasion, m u s t b r e a k out w i t h t e r r i b l e consequences. T h a t L a u d s h o u l d h a v e d i v i n e d n o t h i n g o f t h i s resentment, b u t s h o u l d h a v e t h o u g h t t h a t m e n w e r e c o n v i n c e d because i t w a s t o o dangerous to protest, is a r e m a r k a b l e p r o o f o f his w a n t o f imagination. A s i f to c r o w n t h e success o f t h e a r c h b i s h o p , h i s o l d a d v e r s a r y the b i s h o p o f L i n c o l n at this t i m e was f i n a l l y d i s g r a c e d . I n late years W i l l i a m s h a d g i v e n fresh proofs o f his s t a t e s m a n l i k e temper. R e m o t e as h e was i n character a n d o p i n i o n s f r o m the puritans, he w a s l o t h to press t h e m h a r d a n d a d v i s e d a m i d d l e course i n the c h i e f c o n t r o v e r s y o f the d a y , as to t h e position o f the c o m m u n i o n - t a b l e . F o r a l o n g t i m e h e h a d l a i n u n d e r a charge o f r e v e a l i n g s o m e secrets o f t h e p r i v y c o u n c i l . B y his efforts t o clear t h e c h a r a c t e r o f one o f t h e witnesses o n his b e h a l f w h i c h h a d been i m p u g n e d , h e e x p o s e d h i m s e l f t o another charge o f subornation o f p e r j u r y . T h e k i n g hesitated w h e t h e r to c o m p o u n d w i t h W i l l i a m s f o r m o n e y o r to l e a v e h i m to the rigour o f t h e l a w . A t last W i l l i a m s was c o n d e m n e d b y t h e S t a r C h a m b e r t o suspension, fine, a n d i m p r i s o n m e n t d u r i n g the k i n g ' s pleasure. H e h a d a g g r a v a t e d h i s offence b y a p a m p h l e t e n t i t l e d The Holy Table, Name and Things r e c o m m e n d i n g t h e c o m p r o m i s e o f the dispute, a n d h e was left i n p r i s o n for a c o n s i d e r a b l e t i m e . T h e r e l a t i o n s o f the k i n g w i t h t h e R o m a n c a t h o l i c s d u r i n g these years w e r e o f m o m e n t , n o t i n themselves, b u t because o f t h e i r effect o n p u b l i c o p i n i o n . C h a r l e s , w h o w a s f u l l y satisfied
2
1

L a u d ' s A n n u a l A c c o u n t s of His Province presented to the K i n g , Works,

v.,

show how little he understood the state of public o p i n i o n . ^ T h e relations of Charles a n d his queen w i t h R o m e were for the first time accurately traced b y Gardiner. H i s chief authorities were the despatches o f P a n z a n i a n d C o n n i n the R e c o r d Office transcripts from, the V a t i c a n papers a n d i n the A d d i t i o n a l M S S . i n the British M u s e u m .

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191
>

w i t h h i s o w n religious beliefs, a n d set t h e u t m o s t store b y h i s ^*^* " a u t h o r i t y as h e a d o f the C h u r c h o f E n g l a n d , h a d n o t h o u g h t of j o i n i n g t h e C h u r c h o f R o m e . B u t h e felt n o v e r y b i t t e r h a t r e d of R o m a n i s m \ he was the f o n d h u s b a n d o f a c a t h o l i c w i f e , a n d he w a s p e r v e r s e l y a d d i c t e d t o s h o w i n g h i s c o n t e m p t for t h e a n t i p a t h y w i t h w h i c h the v u l g a r r e g a r d e d e v e r y t h i n g R o m a n . P o p e U r b a n V I I I . t o o k a d v a n t a g e o f these c i r c u m s t a n c e s t o o b t a i n a measure o f t o l e r a t i o n for t h e E n g l i s h c a t h o l i c s . C a t h o l i c l a n d o w n e r s w e r e m u l c t e d n o longer i n t w o - t h i r d s b u t o n l y i n o n e - t h i r d o f t h e i r a n n u a l revenue, p o o r catholics g a i n e d r e l i e f f r o m t h e r e c u s a n c y fines, a n d priests m i g h t celebrate m a s s i n p r i v a t e w i t h o u t r u n n i n g a n y serious danger. T h e p o p e m a y h a v e h o p e d for m o r e , for t h e c o n v e r s i o n o f m a n y E n g lishmen, even of the k i n g a n d archbishop. B u t the catholics w e r e a g i t a t e d b y t h e i n v e t e r a t e f e u d between t h e r e g u l a r a n d s e c u l a r clergy. B e f o r e t h e d e a t h o f K i n g J a m e s t h e seculars h a d i n d u c e d the p o p e t o a p p o i n t a b i s h o p o v e r t h e E n g l i s h c a t h o l i c s . T h e J e s u i t s i m m e d i a t e l y b e g a n a c a m p a i g n against h i s a u t h o r i t y , a n d at l e n g t h p r o c u r e d h i s w i t h d r a w a l . I n o r d e r t o c o m p o s e these disputes t h e p o p e sent o v e r a n O r a t o r i a n n a m e d G r e g o r i o P a n z a n i at t h e e n d o f 1634* H e WB.S a l s o d i r e c t e d t o w o r k w i t h t h e q u e e n s h e l p for s t i l l b e t t e r usage o f t h e E n g l i s h catholics, a n d l e a r n t t h a t t h e k i n g w o u l d c o m municate w i t h h i m through Secretary Windebank. P a n z a n i f o u n d t h a t various g r e a t m e n w e r e c a t h o l i c s at h e a r t , a n d t h a t others, i n c l u d i n g t h e secretary, w e r e possessed w i t h t h e f a n c y o f a r e u n i o n o f t h e C h u r c h e s t o b e effected at l i t t l e o r n o cost t o t h e A n g l i c a n s , H e was careful t o p l a y u p o n t h e i r i l l u s i o n s , a n d was h i m s e l f so far d e c e i v e d as t o t h i n k t h a t E n g l a n d m i g h t be b r o u g h t t o a r e c o n c i l i a t i o n w i t h R o m e o n t h e R o m a n terms. H e h a d n o p o w e r to y i e l d a j o t . The k i n g h o p e d t h a t R o m e m i g h t a l l o w t h e E n g l i s h catholics t o t a k e a n o a t h o f allegiance m o d i f i e d t o suit t h e i r r e l i g i o u s scruples, b u t o n t h i s p o i n t R o m e w o u l d m a k e n o advances. T h e queen g a v e P a n z a n i h e l p a n d encouragement. H e r chapel a t S o m e r s e t H o u s e , w h i c h s t o o d o p e n t o a l l catholics, w a s c r o w d e d w i t h persons o f q u a l i t y , a n d she a c t u a l l y p r e s u m e d t o t a k e h e r s o n to t h e mass. It was resolved that the queen s h o u l d be represented b y a n a g e n t at the court o f R o m e , a n d that the pope should be represented b y an agent w i t h the

192 C H A P , queen.

PERSONAL

GOVERNMENT

OF CHARLES

1635 office.

U r b a n selected a S c o t n a m e d

C o n n for t h i s

T h e k i n g p l a y e d w i t h the n o t i o n o f r e u n i o n , d r e a m i n g t h a t h e m i g h t interest t h e p o p e i n t h e r e c o v e r y o f t h e P a l a t i n a t e for his nephew, but g r e w c o l d as s o o n as the p r e s u m p t i o n o f the queen a n d the catholics a w a k e n e d h i s displeasure. I n 1 6 3 6 C o n n t o o k u p his residence at the E n g l i s h court. U n d e r his i m p u l s e t h e queen b e c a m e m o r e a n d more zealous i n f o r w a r d i n g the great w o r k o f c o n v e r s i o n a n d s h i e l d i n g t h e converts f r o m her husband's anger. plained to L a u d ;
1

A t length L o r d Newport,

displeased t o find t h a t his wife h a d become a catholic, c o m a n d L a u d , w h o felt h i s o w n p o s i t i o n t h r e a t ened, s p o k e so s t r o n g l y at the c o u n c i l b o a r d t h a t the k i n g seemed about t o take measures against s u c h events i n future. The queen put f o r t h a l l her influence w i t h the k i n g , u n t i l Charles, f e e l i n g the n a t u r a l despair o f a h u s b a n d a n d a l a y m a n , desired t h e a r c h b i s h o p t o confer w i t h her majesty, a n d a d d e d that he w o u l d find her reasonable. s h o u l d be closed t o E n g l i s h subjects. the f r e e d o m o f her o w n chapel. to s p i r i t h e r u p i n o p p o s i t i o n . T h e archbishop proposed ambassadors good T h e queen m a d e i n c o u n c i l that t h e chapels o f t h e queen a n d the

T h e k i n g begged Conn not C o n n a b e t t e d h e r a l l the m o r e ,

a n d , a l t h o u g h a p r o c l a m a t i o n against t h e catholics a p p e a r e d i n D e c e m b e r , 1637? ft was so m i l d t h a t C o n n h i m s e l f t e r m e d i t a p a t e r n a l a d m o n i t i o n r a t h e r t h a n a menace. T o show h o w Encourl i g h t she h e l d i t , t h e queen m u s t e r e d a l l t h e fashionable c o n v e r t s to receive the c o m m u n i o n o n C h r i s t m a s d a y . a g e d b y h e r e x a m p l e , t h e ambassadors k e p t their chapels o p e n , a n d the catholics w e r e less careful t h a n ever t o h i d e t h e i r rel i g i o u s rites. A n d thus m a t t e r s s t o o d w h e n C o n n r e t u r n e d t o R o m e i n t h e a u t u m n o f 1638. W h a t C h a r l e s d i d for the catholics was d o n e i n the w a y m o s t fitted to a l a r m the m e n o f t h a t age. T h e y saw the rulers o f the C h u r c h o f E n g l a n d l a y i n g stress u p o n e v e r y t h i n g i n d o c t r i n e , discipline, a n d w o r s h i p w h i c h w a s m o s t a k i n to the d o c t r i n e , discipline, a n d w o r s h i p o f the C h u r c h o f R o m e . T h e y saw t h e p e c u l i a r l y protestant e l e m e n t i n the C h u r c h harassed and,^ as far as possible, suppressed, w h i l e the laws against the R o m a n i s t s were w e l l - n i g h suspended.
1

T h e y s a w at c o u r t a c a t h o l i c q u e e n
October 22, 1637.

See L a u d ' s Diary,

1626

ST. JOHN

AND

FALKLAND

IN

IRELAND.

193

z e a l o u s f o r l i e r o w n faith, a n d p o w e r f u l w i t h h e r h u s b a n d . C H A P . X h e y w o u l d l e a r n before l o n g that the p o p e h a d a n agent at ^* h e r ear. T h e y k n e w or suspected that some o f t h e k i n g ' s c h i e f m i n i s t e r s a n d advisers, t h e late l o r d treasurer, t h e secretary W i n d e b a n k , and Cottington, the chancellor of the exchequer, w e r e e i t h e r catholics o r at least w a v e r i n g protestants. They h e a r d e v e r y n o w a n d t h e n of p e r s o n s h i g h i n r a n k a n d i n r o y a l f a v o u r g o i n g over t o R o m e . A t s u c h a t i m e o f e x a s p e r a t i o n a l l these t h i n g s w e r e e n o u g h t o e x c i t e r e a l a l a r m lest E n g l a n d s h o u l d be b r o u g h t back t o C a t h o l i c i s m a n d a serious b e l i e f t h a t t h e k i n g ' s aovisers, c i v i l a n d ecclesiastical, were w o r k i n g u n d e r h a n d for t h a t purpose. T h e a r c h b i s h o p saw the d a n g e r t o h i s cause a n d w o u l d w i l l i n g l y h a v e persecuted the catholics as a p l e d g e o f g o o d f a i t h i n p e r s e c u t i n g the p u r i t a n s ; b u t t h e queen w o u l d n o t a l l o w h i m to d o t h e one n o r w o u l d h i s conscience a l l o w h i m t o cease f r o m d o i n g the other. H e m u s t g o o n to t h e e n d , a n d b e r e g a r d e d b y a n ever-increasing m u l t i t u d e as a traitor, worse than any avowed enemy. I n E n g l a n d a ruler determined to govern arbitrarily h a d a g a i n s t h i m t h e f e e l i n g o f a u n i t e d people a n d s t r o n g l e g a l t r a d i t i o n s . I n I r e l a n d neither o f these c h e c k s was to be feared, for t w o h o s t i l e peoples d w e l t side b y s i d e a n d the o n l y t r a d i t i o n s w e r e those o f w a r a n d violence. A f t e r C h i c h e s t e r h a d q u i t t e d I r e l a n d i n 1615> S i r O l i v e r St. J o h n h e l d the office o f d e p u t y for seven y e a r s . H e c o m p l e t e d those p l a n t a t i o n s w h i c h C h i c h e s t e r h a d left u n f i n i s h e d , a n d d e p r i v e d W a t e r f o r d o f i t s c h a r t e r because t h e citizens elected magistrates w h o refused to t a k e t h e o a t h o f supremacy. H i s t e r m o f p o w e r was n o t m a r k e d b y a n y g r e a t events. H e r e t i r e d i n M a y , 1622, w i t h t h e t i t l e of Viscount Grandison. T h e n e w d e p u t y was H e n r y C a r y , V i s c o u n t F a l k l a n d i n the S c o t c h peerage. H e entered o n office w i t h t h e h o p e o f c o n v e r t i n g t h e catholics a n d i s s u e d a p r o c l a m a t i o n for t h e b a n i s h m e n t o f t h e priests. ^ B u t t h e I r i s h g o v e r n m e n t w a s so p o o r that i t c o u l d n o t p a y its s m a l l a r m y , w h i c h b r o k e t h r o u g h a l l the b o n d s o f d i s c i p l i n e a n d b e c a m e a t e r r o r t o the subject. W h e n Charles went to war w i t h S p a i n , h e c o u l d n o t leave I r e l a n d o p e n to attack a n d h e c o u l d n o t reo r g a n i s e t h e I r i s h a r m y w i t h o u t I r i s h funds. F a l k l a n d t h e r e fore r e c e i v e d orders t o treat the catholics w i t h forbearance. He r e s t o r e d t h e c h a r t e r o f A/Vaterford a n d c a l l e d a n a s s e m b l y o f V O L . VII. 13

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I.

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C H A P , the n o b i l i t y to w h i c h he offered c e r t a i n favours i n r e t u r n for a regular c o n t r i b u t i o n f r o m every c o u n t y t o w a r d s the m a i n t e n ance o f the a r m y . X h e oath o f s u p r e m a c y as a c o n d i t i o n o f t a k i n g office was to b e replaced b y a n o a t h w h i c h c a t h o l i c s c o u l d take w i t h o u t scruple. X h e s h i l l i n g fine for n o t a t t e n d i n g at c h u r c h was n o l o n g e r to b e e x a c t e d . Defects o f t i t l e t o lands w e r e to be c u r e d b y s i x t y y e a r s possession, a b a r t o a n y f u r t h e r plantations. X h e s e concessions afterwards b e c a m e k n o w n as the " G r a c e s " . H a v i n g d e c l a r e d i t s e l f unable to m a k e a g r a n t o f m o n e y , the a s s e m b l y was p r o r o g u e d u n t i l A p r i l , 1627, i n order that i t m i g h t be s t r e n g t h e n e d b y representatives o f t h e counties. X h e e n l a r g e d a s s e m b l y p l e a d e d p o v e r t y a n d w o u l d g r a n t n o t h i n g , but agents afterwards chosen b y t h e I r i s h cities a n d counties t o l a y t h e i r grievances before the k i n g h i m s e l f p r o v e d m o r e c o m p l y ing. X h e y p r o m i s e d a p a y m e n t o f ^ 4 ^ 0 0 0 a y e a r for three years, a n d i n r e t u r n the k i n g a l l o w e d t h e c a t h o l i c s t o t a k e the new oath o f a l l e g i a n c e a n d p r o m i s e d t h e m secure e n j o y m e n t o f lands s i x t y y e a r s i n possession. X h e p a r l i a m e n t w h i c h s h o u l d h a v e ratified t h i s b a r g a i n was d e l a y e d f o r various reasons, a n d m e a n w h i l e F a l k l a n d , w h o h a d a l w a y s c h a f e d u n d e r the difficulties o f h i s p o s i t i o n , b e c a m e e m b r o i l e d w i t h p a r t o f h i s council. W i s h i n g to make a plantation i n W i c k l o w , he had e n c o u r a g e d a p r o s e c u t i o n against t h e B y r n e s w h o d w e l t there ; a p r o s e c u t i o n so scandalous t h a t C h a r l e s i n t e r p o s e d a n d n a m e d a c o m m i t t e e o f the I r i s h c o u n c i l to e x a m i n e the matter. Xhe c o m m i t t e e r e p o r t e d against F a l k l a n d , w h o was r e c a l l e d at the e n d o f 1629. F o r a t i m e I r e l a n d w a s r u l e d b y l o r d s justices. W e n t w o r t h was n a m e d l o r d d e p u t y i n 1632, a n d m a d e his h a n d felt i n I r i s h business e v e n before h e t o o k u p h i s residence i n Dublin.
1 2

X h e c o n t r i b u t i o n p r o m i s e d i n r e t u r n for the graces h a v i n g c o m e to a n e n d i n the y e a r o f W e n t w o r t h ' s a p p o i n t m e n t , h e o b t a i n e d b y a t r i c k its p a y m e n t for a n o t h e r year. H e made as t h o u g h h e w o u l d enforce t h e recusancy laws, w h i l e s e c r e t l y i n f o r m i n g t h e catholics t h a t h e w i s h e d t h e m w e l l , a n d t h a t t h e
1

See State Papers, Ireland ccxliii., 446, September 22, Letters,

1626.

^ T h e chief authorities for Wentworth's Irish administration are the State Papers, Ireland, ccliv.-cclvii., a n d the Sirajford

1634

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IN IRELAND.

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E a r l o f C o r k , one of t h e l o r d s justices, was t h e r e a l cause of C H A P . t r o u b l e . T h e y b e l i e v e d h i m a n d p a i d i n o r d e r to ensure h i s ^* goodwill. H e c a m e t o I r e l a n d i n J u l y , 1633, t o o k o v e r t h e g o v e r n m e n t , a n d p a r t l y b y threats, p a r t l y b y h o l d i n g o u t h o p e s o f a p a r l i a m e n t , secured y e t a n o t h e r year's c o n t r i b u t i o n . Thus h e g a i n e d t i m e to s u r v e y the c o n d i t i o n o f I r e l a n d a n d m a t u r e h i s plans. I n I r e l a n d , as i n E n g l a n d , his first a i m was t o r e n d e r the k i n g independent of every other authority. I r e l a n d h a d b e e n a weakness to the c r o w n , a frequent d r a i n o f m e n a n d m o n e y ; henceforwards it was to become a strength to the c r o w n , d e f r a y i n g t h e cost o f its o w n g o v e r n m e n t a n d o n occas i o n f u r n i s h i n g m e n a n d m o n e y f o r use elsewhere. H i s second a i m was t o s t r e n g t h e n the E n g l i s h c o l o n y , t h e p r i n c i p a l b o n d b e t w e e n t h e t w o k i n g d o m s . H i s t h i r d a i m , a n d at a l o n g d i s t a n c e b e h i n d the other t w o , was t h e welfare o f the o l d I r i s h p o p u l a t i o n . W e n t w o r t h was s t a t e s m a n e n o u g h t o k n o w t h a t t h e p o w e r o f the sovereign m u s t b e b u i l t u p o n the p r o s p e r i t y o f the subject, a n d he was a great a d m i n i s t r a t o r w h o l o v e d order, e c o n o m y , a n d effectiveness for t h e i r o w n sake. B u t w e s h o u l d d e c e i v e ourselves i f w e t o o k h i m f o r a p h i l a n t h r o p i s t o r i m a g i n e d t h a t h e was careful o f t r u t h or justice i n d e a l i n g w i t h the Irish. T h e first t h i n g needful was a n irresistible a r m y . I n order to f o r m a n d maintain that a r m y he required a steady and a b u n d a n t revenue. H e w o u l d therefore i n d u c e t h e c o m i n g parl i a m e n t t o m a k e s u c h a l i b e r a l g r a n t as w o u l d f i l l t h e t r e a s u r y f o r t h e n e x t few years. H e h o p e d to a c c o m p l i s h t h i s e n d b y p l a y i n g i r r e c o n c i l a b l e factions a g a i n s t each other, the protestants a g a i n s t the catholics, t h e E n g l i s h a n d S c o t t i s h settlers against the n a t i v e I r i s h . H e w a s resolved n o t to enter i n t o a n y b a r g a i n w i t h t h e p a r l i a m e n t w h i c h m i g h t raise i t i n its o w n esteem. I n the first session h e w o u l d o b t a i n a s u p p l y free f r o m a l l c o n d i t i o n s , a n d i n t h e s e c o n d h e w o u l d pass s u c h bills f o r the benefit o f t h e s u b j e c t as h e t h o u g h t p r o p e r . H e h a d orders to dissolve t h e p a r l i a m e n t i f it should prove intractable. W h e n it met o n J u l y 14, 1634, t h e protestants h a d a s l i g h t majority. W e n t w o r t h , i n h i s m o s t c o n f i d e n t tone, d e m a n d e d the means t o p a y t h e d e b t o f t h e c r o w n , 7$,000, a n d t o e x t i n g u i s h the a n n u a l deficit o f ^20,000. A Y o r k s h i r e f r i e n d a n d neighbour, C h r i s t o p h e r W a n -

13 *

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OF CHARLES

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desford, w h o m h e h a d b r o u g h t o v e r t o I r e l a n d a n d m a d e m a s t e r o f t h e rolls, m o v e d a g r a n t o f s i x subsidies o r ^270,000, a n d t h e y w e r e v o t e d w i t h o u t d e m u r . T h e n a l l parties d e m a n d e d a c o n firmation o f the graces, b u t were t o l d t h a t t h e y m u s t w a i t f o r another session, a n d t h e p a r l i a m e n t w a s p r o r o g u e d o n A u g u s t 2. S e l d o m h a s a u d a c i t y w o n so c o m p l e t e a p a r l i a m e n t a r y success. W h e n the p a r l i a m e n t r e a s s e m b l e d o n N o v e m b e r 4 t h e y l e a r n e d f r o m the d e p u t y t h a t the w h o l e o f t h e graces w o u l d n o t be confirmed. H e designed a new a n d extensive plantation i n C o n n a u g h t , a n d t h e e x a c t i o n o f a r e n t f r o m l a n d o w n e r s elsew h e r e i f a flaw c o u l d be f o u n d i n t h e i r t i t l e s . D i s c o n t e n t was l o u d , especially a m o n g the catholics, w h o h a d m o s t t o fear f r o m t h i s b r e a c h o f f a i t h ; b u t W e n t w o r t h succeeded i n g a i n i n g t h e protestants, c a r r i e d his measures, a n d a g a i n e n d e d the session v i c t o r i o u s l y o n D e c e m b e r 14. H a v i n g thus m a d e the c r o w n i r r e s i s t i b l e , t h e d e p u t y c o u l d e x e c u t e h i s p l a n for s t r e n g t h e n i n g the E n g l i s h c o l o n y i n Ireland. C o n n a u g h t was the o n l y province w h i c h h a d not y e t received a n y E n g l i s h settlers a n d i n C o n n a u g h t h e p r o ceeded to m a k e a p l a n t a t i o n . T h e r e w e r e i n d e e d s t r o n g a r g u m e n t s o f j u s t i c e a n d e v e n o f e x p e d i e n c y a g a i n s t such a measure. T h e titles o f the C o n n a u g h t l a n d o w n e r s h a d been r e c o g n i s e d as g o o d b y E l i z a b e t h a n d J a m e s , a l t h o u g h t h e patents t o t h a t effect h a d n o t b e e n e n r o l l e d a n d therefore w e r e t e c h n i c a l l y n o t binding. C h a r l e s for v a l u a b l e c o n s i d e r a t i o n h a d passed h i s w o r d that s i x t y years' possession s h o u l d b a r a l l c l a i m s o f t h e c r o w n to I r i s h l a n d , a n d t h e C o n n a u g h t l a n d o w n e r s h a d b e e n i n peaceable possession for m o r e t h a n t h a t t i m e . Connaught l i k e the rest o f I r e l a n d w a s t h e n s o cjuiet that no pretence of rebellion or conspiracy could be alleged. Nevertheless W e n t w o r t h persevered. I n J u l y , 1635, h e w e n t d o w n t o C o n n a u g h t a n d t o o k measures for t h e i m p a n e l l i n g o f j u r i e s t o g i v e a v e r d i c t o n the k i n g ' s c l a i m s . H e t o l d t h e j u r o r s that the k i n g m i g h t i n s t r i c t l a w h a v e seized the w h o l e p r o vince, a n d h e m a d e n o secret t h a t t h e y w o u l d be p u n i s h e d i f t h e y d i d n o t find a v e r d i c t f o r t h e c r o w n . H e thus p r e v a i l e d in Roscommon, SKgo, a n d M a y o , but i n G a l w a y the j u r y was m o r e staunch. W e n t w o r t h fined t h e sheriff ^ I J O O O f o r p a c k i n g the j u r y , o r d e r e d t h e j u r o r s to be c i t e d before t h e C a s t l e chamber, a n d a r r a n g e d t o h a v e t h e i r v e r d i c t set aside b y t h e

1634

THE

CONNAUGHT

PROPRIETORS.

19*]
C

court o f exchequer. T h e G a l w a y p r o p r i e t o r s w e r e t o be p u n i s h e d for t h i n k i n g t h a t t h e y h a d a title t o t h e i r o w n estates b y losing more than that fourth part w h i c h was to be taken from t h e s u b m i s s i v e proprietors i n o t h e r counties. T h e s e measures e n d e d a l l resistance, a l t h o u g h t h e p l a n t a t i o n was n e v e r c a r r i e d i n t o effect, as o t h e r cares d i s t r a c t e d W e n t w o r t h a n d f i n a l l y withdrew h i m from Ireland. I n the whole melancholy history o f t h e p l a n t a t i o n s there w a s n o m o r e s h a m e f u l i n c i d e n t t h a n the attack on the C o n n a u g h t proprietors. S h o r t l y before W^entworth's v i s i t to C o n n a u g h t the c i t i z e n s o f L o n d o n w e r e prosecuted i n t h e S t a r C h a m b e r for h a v i n g f a i l e d to fulfil t h e c o n d i t i o n s u p o n w h i c h t h e c o u n t y o f L o n d o n d e r r y h a d b e e n g r a n t e d to t h e m b y K i n g J a m e s a n d w e r e sentenced to f o r f e i t u r e a n d a fine o f ^70,000. A f t e r three y e a r s C h a r l e s r e m i t t e d t h e fine a l l b u t ; 12,000 w h i c h h e w a n t e d for a present to h i s queen. F o r this p a l t r y s u m a n d for a t r a c t i n I r e l a n d w h i c h h e w o u l d scarcely t u r n t o better a c c o u n t t h a n t h e L o n d o n e r s h a d done, h e earned t h e l a s t i n g i l l - w i l l o f t h a t g r e a t a n d rich c i t y whose aid an E n g l i s h sovereign could not but require at s o m e c r i s i s o f h i s r e i g n . T o v e x a n d a l a r m at once t h e Irish p r o p r i e t o r a n d t h e E n g l i s h u n d e r t a k e r was s u r e l y t h e h e i g h t o f unwisdom. I n matters of religion W e n t w o r t h proceeded more cautiously. H e h e l d t h a t w h i l e the I r i s h were c a t h o l i c s , t h e y w e r e less l i k e l y t o b e l o y a l subjects, a n d t h a t therefore i t w o u l d b e a g o o d w o r k to m a k e t h e m protestants. B u t he thought that it would be d a n g e r o u s t o t r y force u n t i l h e was stronger, a n d t h a t force itself w o u l d not avail until the protestant C h u r c h h a d been rend e r e d effective. H e therefore d r o p p e d the petty persecuting measures o f f o r m e r d e p u t i e s a n d d i d h i s best to reorganise t h e C h u r c h . H e s t r o v e e a r n e s t l y t o r e g a i n t h e estates o f the b i s h o p s f r o m l a y robbers, h e e n c o u r a g e d t h e b u i l d i n g a n d r e s t o r a t i o n o f c h u r c h e s , h e p r e f e r r e d c o m p e t e n t c l e r g y m e n , a n d enforced d i s cipline a n d decorum according to the L a u d i a n standard. Here h i s p r i n c i p l e s c l a s h e d w i t h those o f m a n y zealous m e n i n t h e C h u r c h . I n a c o u n t r y w h e r e protestant a n d c a t h o l i c w e r e e v e r at strife, A n g l o - c a t h o l i c p r i n c i p l e s c o u l d n o t b e acceptable. AA/entworth f o r c e d c o n v o c a t i o n t o r e p e a l t h e articles d r a w n u p i n 1 6 1 5 b y U s s h e r , w h o h a d s i n c e become p r i m a t e , a n d t o a d o p t t h e articles o f t h e C h u r c h of E n g l a n d . A t t h e s a m e t i m e h e

* * A P .

loS

PERSONAL

GOVERNMENT

OF CHARLES

I.

C H A P , encouraged t h e bishops i n a n attack o n t h e p r e s b y t e r i a n s o f U l s t e r . N o statesman e v e n o f t h a t a g e h e l d m o r e f i r m l y t h a n W e n t w o r t h t h e d o c t r i n e t h a t i t is a h i g h c o n t e m p t for a subject t o entertain a n y religious o p i n i o n s o t h e r t h a n those a p p r o v e d b y t h e s o v e r e i g n . H e f o r g o t t h a t i n I r e l a n d protestants c o u l d n o t afford to q u a r r e l . N o r was W e n t w o r t h less a r b i t r a r y i n h i s d e a l i n g s w i t h individuals. L o r d M o u n t n o r n s , a member of the council a n d vice-treasurer o f I r e l a n d , a l t h o u g h at first t h e d e p u t y ' s f r i e n d , h a d gone i n t o o p p o s i t i o n . L i k e most I r i s h officials o f t h a t t i m e , M o u n t n o r r i s was n o t free f r o m t h e s t a i n o f c o r r u p t i o n . W^entw o r t h d e t e r m i n e d t o r i d h i m s e l f o f M o u n t n o r r i s , a n d the t w o m e n b e c a m e p e r s o n a l enemies. I t h a p p e n e d t h a t a k i n s m a n o f M o u n t n o r r i s h a d d r o p p e d a stool o n W e n t w o r t h ' s g o u t y foot, a n d this b e c a m e m a t t e r o f c o n v e r s a t i o n at a d i n n e r w h e r e M o u n t n o r r i s was a guest. " P e r h a p s , " h e s a i d , " i t w a s d o n e i n revenge o f the p u b l i c affront w h i c h the l o r d d e p u t y h a d d o n e m e formerly. B u t I h a v e a b r o t h e r w h o w o u l d n o t t a k e s u c h a revenge." A s M o u n t n o r n s was a n officer i n t h e a r m y , ' W e n t w o r t h o b t a i n e d leave f r o m t h e k i n g to t r y h i m b y courtm a r t i a l for these words. F o u r m o n t h s after leave w a s g i v e n , a n d s i x m o n t h s after the w o r d s were s p o k e n , h e b r o u g h t M o u n t norris before the c o u n c i l s i t t i n g as a c o u r t - m a r t i a l o n t h e charge o f h a v i n g s p o k e n w o r d s t e n d i n g to m u t i n y . M o u n t n o r r i s was c o n d e m n e d to death, b u t W e n t w o r t h d i d n o t i n t e n d t o execute t h e sentence j h e o n l y w a n t e d to d r i v e M o u n t n o r r i s out o f office a n d saw n o objection to t h i s w a y o f d o i n g it. T h o s e w h o d e f e n d his c o n d u c t o n t h e g r o u n d t h a t M o u n t n o r r i s was a k n a v e b e t r a y their own ignorance of what law and justice mean. I n m a n y respects W e n t w o r t h ' s g o v e r n m e n t deserves h i g h praise. O n t a k i n g office h e i n d u c e d the k i n g to p r o m i s e that a l l business s h o u l d pass t h r o u g h h i s h a n d s a n d that a l l vacant offices s h o u l d be f i l l e d b y h i m . H e used these p o w e r s w i s e l y a n d b r a v e l y t o p u t d o w n the s h a m e f u l j o b b e r y w h i c h was the bane o f I r i s h a d m i n i s t r a t i o n before a n d after his t i m e . S o far as i n h i m l a y , n o m a n was preferred, n o suit was granted, unless i t were f o r the service o f t h e c r o w n . C o u r t i e r s , parasites, a n d place-hunters f o u n d at last a l o r d d e p u t y w h o c o u l d a n d w o u l d b a l k t h e i r appetites. T h e revenue w h i c h h e h a d so g r e a t l y increased he e x p e n d e d h o n e s t l y a n d f r u g a l l y .

THE

POLICY

OF

THOROUGH.

199

H e p a i d off the debts o f the c r o w n , h e set a p a r t a s u m o f C H A P . ^40,000 to release revenues w h i c h h a d b e e n m o r t g a g e d , a n d he a t l e n g t h b r o u g h t t h e i n c o m e t o balance the e x p e n d i t u r e . He a u g m e n t e d t h e a r m y w h i c h was w e l l p a i d , w e l l e q u i p p e d a n d w e l l d i s c i p l i n e d . H e suppressed the p i r a c y w h i c h h a d r e n d e r e d t h e seas so unsafe that s h i p s w e r e t a k e n i n s i g h t o f D u b l i n . H e e n c o u r a g e d the m a n u f a c t u r e o f l i n e n a n d t r i e d t o o p e n o u t n e w fields o f t r a d e . I t is t r u e t h a t h e w o u l d n o t t o l e r a t e t h e w o o l l e n i n d u s t r y a n d m a d e salt a m o n o p o l y o f t h e c r o w n i n o r d e r to k e e p I r e l a n d d e p e n d e n t u p o n E n g l a n d for necessaries. N e v e r t h e l e s s t h e k i n g d o m prospered u n d e r a r u l e r w h o k e p t the peace a n d allowed no t y r a n n y except his own. T h o s e w h o m h e h a d i n j u r e d m o s t d e e p l y w e r e a f r a i d to c o m p l a i n , a n d the I r i s h never seemed more content w i t h their lot than i n the y e a r s i m m e d i a t e l y before the t e r r i b l e i n s u r r e c t i o n o f 1641. E v e n w h e n o v e r t a s k e d w i t h I r i s h affairs, W e n t w o r t h f o l l o w e d e a g e r l y the course o f affairs i n E n g l a n d . I n h i s correspondence w i t h L a u d a n d the k i n g , h e r e c o m m e n d e d t h e m o s t v i g o r o u s p o l i c y . W i s h i n g to secure t h e k i n g f r o m the d a n g e r o f c o n t r o l b y p a r l i a m e n t o r b y the courts o f justice, h e l a i d the u t m o s t stress o n i n c r e a s i n g t h e r e v e n u e a n d d i m i n i s h i n g e x p e n d i t u r e . H e r e g a r d e d t h e o p i n i o n o f t h e j u d g e s o n the lawfulness o f s h i p - m o n e y as i n v a l u a b l e b o t h f o r i t s e l f a n d for the countenance i t g a v e to other t a x e s o f t h e same class. B u t e v e n t h a t j u d g m e n t w o u l d n o t a v a i l unless t h e k i n g s t o o d a l o o f f r o m the disputes o f f o r e i g n powers a n d m a i n t a i n e d peace so as t o ensure a surplus w i t h w h i c h he m i g h t f o r m a n a r m y and make himself i m p r e g n a b l e against a l l attack. H e might then call parliament o r n o t as h e t h o u g h t fit, a n d , i f he called it, m i g h t accept o r reject i t s counsels as h e pleased. H e w o u l d be so p o w e r f u l t h a t h e n e e d h a v e n o c o n c e r n save n o t to press too h a r d l y o n h i s subjects. I n t h e m e a n t i m e e v e r y a t t e m p t to w i t h s t a n d the g r o w t h of the r o y a l p r e r o g a t i v e m u s t be chastised w i t h t h e utmost severity. A passage often q u o t e d f r o m h i s correspondence leaves n o d o u b t as t o the p o l i c y w h i c h h e w i s h e d t h e k i n g t o f o l l o w : " I t is p l a i n , i n d e e d , t h a t t h e o p i n i o n d e l i v e r e d b y the j u d g e s d e c l a r i n g t h e lawfulness o f t h e a s s i g n m e n t for t h e s h i p p i n g is t h e greatest service t h a t profession h a t h done t h e C r o w n i n m y t i m e . B u t unless his M a j e s t y h a t h t h e l i k e p o w e r declared t o

2oo

PERSONAL

GOVERNMENT

OP CHARLES

/.

1637

C H A P , raise a l a n d a r m y u p o n the s a m e e x i g e n t o f State, the C r o w n IX, s e e m s t o m e t o stand b u t u p o n one l e g at h o m e , to be considera b l e b u t b y h a l v e s t o foreign P r i n c e s a b r o a d . Y e t sure t h i s , m e t h i n k s , c o n v i n c e s a p o w e r for t h e sovereign t o raise p a y m e n t s for l a n d forces, a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y s u b m i t s to his w i s d o m a n d o r d i n a n c e t h e t r a n s p o r t i n g o f t h e m o n e y or m e n i n t o f o r e i g n States, s o t o c a r r y b y w a y o f p r e v e n t i o n t h e fire f r o m ourselves i n t o t h e d w e l l i n g s o f o u r enemies (an a r t w h i c h i t seems E d w a r d I I I . a n d H e n r y V . f u l l w e l l understood), a n d i f b y degrees S c o t l a n d a n d I r e l a n d be d r a w n t o contribute their p r o p o r t i o n s t o t h e s e levies for the p u b l i c omne tulit punctum. S e e i n g t h e n t h a t t h i s piece w e l l fortified for ever vindicates t h e r o y a l t y at h o m e f r o m u n d e r the c o n d i t i o n s a n d restraints o f subjects, r e n d e r s us also a b r o a d even t o t h e greatest K i n g s t h e m o s t c o n s i d e r a b l e m o n a r c h y i n C h r i s t e n d o m ; seeing again t h i s is a b u s i n e s s t o be a t t e m p t e d a n d w o n f r o m the subject i n t i m e o f p e a c e o n l y , a n d t h e people first accustomed t o these levies, w h e n t h e y m a y be c a l l e d u p o n , as b y w a y o f p r e v e n t i o n for o u r f u t u r e safety. . . . I beseech y o u , what p i e t y to alliances is there that s h o u l d d i v e r t a great a n d wise k i n g f o r t h o f a p a t h w h i c h l e a d s so m a n i f e s t l y , so d i r e c t l y to t h e establishing his o w n t h r o n e , etc.
1

W h e n t h e k i n g h a d thus p l a c e d h i m s e l f b e y o n d the need o f p a r l i a m e n t a r y grants a n d a r m e d h i m s e l f w i t h m i l i t a r y power, h e w o u l d h a v e b e e n absolute t o a l l intents a n d purposes l i k e h i s brethren of F r a n c e and Spain. E v e n if he summoned parliam e n t s t h e y w o u l d h a v e m e t m e r e l y t o register his w i l l , a n d w o u l d n o m o r e h a v e l i m i t e d t h e prerogative t h a n d i d those i d l e a s s e m b l i e s o f estates w h i c h w e n t o n m e e t i n g i n some c o n t i n e n t a l c o u n t r i e s d o w n to t h e t i m e o f the F r e n c h revolution. S u c h b e i n g t h e n a t u r a l result o f t h e p o l i c y enforced b y W e n t w o r t h , c a n w e i m a g i n e t h a t W e n t w o r t h w i t h a l l his c o m m a n d i n g a b i l i t y , h i s l o n g e x p e r i e n c e o f m e n a n d affairs, h i s k n o w l e d g e o f w h a t h a d t a k e n p l a c e i n n e i g h b o u r i n g countries, d i d n o t foresee t h i s result? H e l o o k e d f o r w a r d , i t is true, t o a t i m e w h e n p a r l i a m e n t s s h o u l d m e e t a g a i n , a n d w a s p r e p a r e d i n certain c i r c u m stances t o a d v i s e that a p a r l i a m e n t s h o u l d be called, but, u n d e r t h e c o n d i t i o n s w h i c h h e h o p e d to establish, t h i s course w o u l d
1

Str&fford

Letters, i i . , 59*

T h e letter was written in 1637*

1637

CULMINATION

OF PERSONAL

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be n o m o r e t h a n a p o l i t i c h u m o u r i n g o f o l d prejudices. It C H A P , n a s oeen s a i u m a t w e n r w o r t n w i s n e a to restore tnat r e l a t i o n between c r o w n a n d parliament w h i c h had prevailed i n the time o f E l i z a b e t h . B u t E l i z a b e t h was so far f r o m b e i n g able to g o v e r n as she p l e a s e d t h a t e v e n i n t i m e o f peace she h a d to ask p a r l i a m e n t for subsidies. M o r e o v e r , E l i z a b e t h h a d n o a r m y a n d t h e u l t i m a t e s t r e n g t h w h i c h decides p o l i t i c a l disputes l a y n o t w i t h her, b u t w i t h h e r people. T h e monarch of Wentworth's a s p i r a t i o n s w i t h h i s full t r e a s u r y a n d his a r m e d force w o u l d be far m o r e p o w e r f u l t h a n a n y T u d o r . O n the other hand, t h e r e i s n o d i f f i c u l t y i n b e l i e v i n g that W e n t w o r t h i n t e n d e d the n e c e s s a r y consequences o f his advice. H e m a y w e l l h a v e seen t h a t a k i n g w h o w o u l d m a k e n o concession to t h e people c o u l d b e safe o n l y b y b e c o m i n g absolute. T h e p e r s o n a l g o v e r n m e n t o f C h a r l e s I. was to c o n t i n u e some t i m e l o n g e r , b u t b y 1637 its character h a d become patent. E v e r y b o d y k n e w t h a t the k i n g h a d resolved to c a l l n o m o r e p a r l i a m e n t s a n d t h a t h e w o u l d raise b y his o w n a u t h o r i t y w h a t e v e r m o n e y s h e m i g h t require. E v e r y b o d y k n e w that most o f the judges would pronounce any stretch of prerogat i v e l a w f u l a n d that s u c h o p i n i o n s w o u l d be t a k e n b y t h e k i n g as c o n c l u s i v e . E v e r y b o d y k n e w t h a t the k i n g a n d the a r c h b i s h o p w o u l d e x a c t the m o s t rigorous c o n f o r m i t y w i t h t h e i r standard of orthodoxy. T h e e x t r a o r d i n a r y courts b e q u e a t h e d b y t h e T u d o r s to t h e Stuarts, t h e h i g h c o m m i s s i o n , the star c h a m b e r , a n d the c o u n c i l o f t h e n o r t h , h a d n e v e r b e e n so a c t i v e o r severe. T h e restraint o n p o l i t i c a l a n d religious discussion w a s m o r e m i n u t e a n d effective t h a n ever. T h e a c t o f revocation i n S c o t l a n d , the p e r a m b u l a t i o n o f t h e forests i n E n g l a n d , t h e p r o j e c t e d C o n n a u g h t p l a n t a t i o n i n I r e l a n d , w e r e so m a n y proofs t h a t n e i t h e r l e n g t h o f possession, n o r unquestioned l o y a l t y , n o r t h e f a i t h o f t h e sovereign h i m s e l f c o u l d secure a n y m a n i n t h e p e a c e a b l e e n j o y m e n t o f h i s estate. T h e g o v e r n m e n t h a d bec o m e as a r b i t r a r y as a n y o f t h e c o n t i n e n t a l despotisms. This w a s t h e l o g i c a l consequence o f t h a t t h e o r y o f m o n a r c h y w h i c h C h a r l e s i n h e r i t e d f r o m h i s father. T h e k i n g , b e i n g necessarily a b o v e the l a w of w h i c h h e is t h e source, c o u l d n o m o r e b e b o u n d b y t h e l a w t h a n t h e h e a d o f a f a m i l y can be b o u n d b y t h o s e rules w h i c h he m a k e s for t h e guidance o f his c h i l d r e n a n d s e r v a n t s a n d modifies f r o m t i m e t o t i m e as he t h i n k s a d v i s a b l e .

202 CHAP.

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F o r t h e satisfaction o f the v u l g a r t h e k i n g m i g h t i n d e e d r e q u i r e trie j u d g e s t o p r o c l a i m tne l a w i u m e s s 0 1 nis acts a t tne risk; 0 1 d i s m i s s a l , s h o u l d t h e y refuse t o g i v e t h e a n s w e r t h a t t h e y o u g h t . U p o n h i s o w n p r i n c i p l e s C h a r l e s w a s a l r e a d y a n absolute k i n g a n d had n o need to m a k e h i m s e l f such, a circumstance w h i c h m a y explain his unfailing conviction of his o w n integrity a n d h i s singular neglect t o p r o v i d e a d e q u a t e m e a n s o f f o r c i n g his people to r e m a i n o b e d i e n t . I t m a y s e e m strange t h a t i n t h i s p o s t u r e o f affairs t h e E n g l i s h n a t i o n s h o u l d h a v e r e m a i n e d so t r a n q u i l . B u t m e n s e l d o m r e b e l unless t h e i r a c t u a l c o n d i t i o n is w r e t c h e d . E n g l a n d enj o y e d p r o f o u n d peace ; t a x a t i o n w a s n o t h e a v y ; justice w a s fairly a d m i n i s t e r e d as between m a n a n d m a n ; a n d the g o v e r n m e n t s h o w e d reasonable c o n s i d e r a t i o n for t h e w e l f a r e o f t h e c o m m o n people. X r a d e s t i l l flourished, large tracts o f the fens were r e c l a i m e d a n d the t o k e n s of w e a l t h a n d l u x u r y were seen o n e v e r y side. T h o s e w h o v a l u e d the p r i n c i p l e s o f a free c o n s t i t u t i o n m i g h t a b h o r t h e precedents w h i c h C h a r l e s a n d h i s ministers were m a k i n g a n d t r e m b l e t o reflect h o w e a s i l y a n d h o w swiftly a m i l d d e s p o t i s m c a n b e c o m e a remorseless t y r a n n y . B u t m e n w h o c a n grasp p o l i t i c a l p r i n c i p l e s are c o m p a r a t i v e l y few a n d m a y be i g n o r e d unless s o m e accident b r i n g s t h e m u l t i t u d e t o t h e i r side. T h e puritans m i g h t c o m p l a i n of a persecution e m b i t t e r e d b y t h e contrast o f t h e favour e x t e n d e d to R o m a n catholics. B u t t h e p u r i t a n s were a m i n o r i t y o f t h e nation and an unpopular m i n o r i t y . T h e average E n g l i s h m a n w h o b l a m e d t h e bishops for h a r r y i n g t h e p u r i t a n s w a s far f r o m a p u r i t a n h i m s e l f . T h e n u m b e r o f t h e d i s c o n t e n t e d was great, but t h e y w e r e as y e t i g n o r a n t o f t h e i r s t r e n g t h a n d t h e y were n o t g e n e r a l l y i n c e n s e d to t h a t p o i n t at w h i c h m e n forget p e r s o n a l safety i n the l o n g i n g for f r e e d o m a n d revenge.

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SCOTTISH NATIONAL COVENANT AND T H E SHORT PARLIAMENT.

I N t h e later years o f C h a r l e s I. the currents of E n g l i s h a n d C H A P . S c o t t i s h h i s t o r y , w h i c h h a d h i t h e r t o f l o w e d apart, save a t b r i e f moments, mingle inextricably. H e n c e i t b e c o m e s n e e d f u l to i n s i s t u p o n t h e peculiarities w h i c h a t t h a t t i m e d i s t i n g u i s h e d Scotland from England. S c o t l a n d differed f r o m E n g l a n d i n t h e faintness o f its p o l i t i c a l a n d t h e i n t e n s i t y o f i t s ecclesiastical life. P l a c e d at the v e r g e o f t h e O l d W o r l d , r e m o t e f r o m t h e m a i n lines o f traffic a n d t h e great centres o f i n d u s t r y , w i t h a b a r r e n soil a n d a n i n c l e m e n t s k y , w i t h its m i n e r a l w e a l t h b u t h a l f - k n o w n a n d l i t t l e used, S c o t l a n d , even a c c o r d i n g t o t h e h u m b l e s t a n d a r d o f t h a t day, was a v e r y poor country. T h e h i g h l a n d s , a f u l l h a l f of t h e k i n g d o m , w e r e still barbarous. E v e n i n t h e l o w l a n d s the m i d d l e class w a s w e a k i n n u m b e r s a n d resources. S o c i e t y was s t i l l f e u d a l everywhere, a n d i n t h e h i g h l a n d s p a t r i a r c h a l as w e l l . T h e n o b i l i t y r e t a i n e d those a m p l e j u r i s d i c t i o n s a n d t h a t c o m m a n d i n g influence over t h e i r d e p e n d a n t s w h i c h t h e nobles o f E n g l a n d h a d l o n g since lost. In Scotland the crown h a d u s u a l l y b e e n w e a k , its r e v e n u e s m a l l , its a r m e d force n e x t t o none, a n d t h e ablest k i n g s c o u l d i l l c o n t r o l a c o u n t r y so i m passable a n d a people so w a r l i k e . I n t h e h i g h l a n d s t h e chieftains exercised a l l the o r d i n a r y powers o f government. Far f r o m b e i n g able to oppress h i s subjects, the sovereign h a d r a r e l y been able t o protect them. T h e steady growth of the r o y a l authority i n the reign of James h a d favoured order a n d w e l l b e i n g , b u t w a s n o t less adverse t o vigorous p o l i t i c a l life t h a n t h e o l d f e u d a l confusion. A s regards political development, t h e S c o t s w e r e n e a r l y four centuries b e h i n d t h e E n g l i s h . ATVfiat t h e S c o t s l a c k e d i n zest for the affairs o f t h e S t a t e
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t h e y m o r e t h a n m a d e u p i n zest for t h e affairs o f the C h u r c h . T h e h i g h l a n d e r s , i n d e e d , w h o s t i l l r e t a i n e d m a n y p a g a n usages a n d superstitions, w e r e t o o p r i m i t i v e for t h e o l o g i c a l c o n t r o v e r s y . I n the m i d d l e r e g i o n o f t h e h i g h l a n d s , e x t e n d i n g f r o m M o r v e n a n d L o c h a b e r i n t o B a n f f a n d A b e r d e e n , m a n y clans k e p t the R o m a n c a t h o l i c faith. B u t i n t h e l o w l a n d s t h e m i d d l e class a n d most o f the h u m b l e r f o l k w e r e i n f l e x i b l y C a l v i n i s t . J a m e s h a d r e v i v e d t h e e p i s c o p a l office a n d the e p i s c o p a l o r d e r ; h e had established a court o f h i g h c o m m i s s i o n and tamed the g e n e r a l a s s e m b l y ; h e h a d even b e g u n t o b r i n g the doctrine a n d w o r s h i p o f t h e K i r k i n t o h a r m o n y w i t h the d o c t r i n e a n d w o r s h i p o f t h e C h u r c h o f E n g l a n d . Y e t a l l that h e h a d a c h i e v e d w a s h o l l o w a n d unreal. T h e parochial organisation a n d the C h u r c h courts r e m a i n e d p r e s b y t e r i a n ; t h e people s t i l l deemed t h e g e n e r a l a s s e m b l y t h e o n l y v a l i d ecclesiastical legislature, a n d the n a t i o n a l s p i r i t r e v o l t e d a g a i n s t a n y i n n o v a t i o n o n the s y s t e m o f K n o x a n d M e l v i l l e w h i c h c o u l d be construed as even a distant a p p r o a c h to R o m a n i s m . Charles a n d L a u d were n o t satisfied w i t h t h e half-measures w h i c h h a d been e n o u g h for t h e m o r e p r u d e n t James. Soon after his r e t u r n to E n g l a n d C h a r l e s sent orders t h a t the surplice m u s t be w o r n b y m i n i s t e r s . H e created a n e w b i s h o p r i c o f Edinburgh. H e bestowed t h e office o f c h a n c e l l o r o n A r c h bishop Spottiswoode. I n O c t o b e r , 1634, h e e s t a b l i s h e d a n e w c o u r t o f h i g h c o m m i s s i o n for S c o t l a n d , w i t h v e r y f o r m i d a b l e powers. I n M a y , 1635, h e g a v e h i s s a n c t i o n t o a n e w b o o k of canons, w h i c h h a d n o t even b e e n s u b m i t t e d t o t h e S c o t t i s h b i s h o p s , m u c h less a p p r o v e d b y a S c o t t i s h p a r l i a m e n t o r g e n e r a l assembly. I t c o n t a i n e d m a n y e n a c t m e n t s m o s t distasteful t o Scotsmen. I t asserted t h e k i n g ' s p r e r o g a t i v e as h e a d o f the C h u r c h a n d t h e bishop's a u t h o r i t y u n d e r t h e k i n g , d i r e c t e d t h e p l a c i n g o f t h e c o m m u n i o n - t a b l e at t h e east e n d o f the c h u r c h , a n d r e q u i r e d acceptance o f the n e w P r a y e r B o o k w h i c h h a d n o t y e t been c o m p l e t e d . T h e B o o k o f C a n o n s was p u b l i s h e d i n t h e following year. B y t h e a u t u m n o f 1636 t h e n e w S e r v i c e B o o k was ready. I t h a d b e e n d r a w n u p b y a few S c o t t i s h b i s h o p s , i n full s y m p a t h y w i t h L a u d a n d t h e k i n g , i t f o l l o w e d i n m o s t respects t h e E n g l i s h B o o k o f C o m m o n P r a y e r , w a s r e v i s e d a n d
1
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T h e C a n o n s are printed i n L a u d ' s Works, v . , 583 et sea.

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altered i n E n g l a n d , a n d was n e v e r s u b m i t t e d to a n y a s s e m b l y representing the Church of Scotland. I n D e c e m b e r a proc l a m a t i o n o f t h e S c o t t i s h C o u n c i l o r d e r e d the S e r v i c e B o o k to be u s e d i n e v e r y p a r i s h a n d r e q u i r e d e v e r y m i n i s t e r t o p r o c u r e t w o copies o n p a i n o f o u t l a w r y . I n M a y , 1637, t h e b o o k i t s e l f came d o w n to Scotland.
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F r o m t h e first a sullen s p i r i t o f resistance s p r e a d t h r o u g h the people, a l r e a d y exasperated at the indifference s h o w n t o its r e l i g i o u s feelings. C o n g r e g a t i o n s accustomed to K n o x ' s Book of Common Order saw i n the n e w l i t u r g y a n e a r a p p r o a c h t o the mass. T h a t a form of worship settled i n E n g l a n d without consulting Scotsmen s h o u l d be thrust upon the K i r k stung S c o t t i s h p a t r i o t i s m . S c o t l a n d , i t seemed, was t o r e t u r n t o a l l t h e superstitions o f R o m e at t h e b i d d i n g of a n i n s o l e n t E n g l i s h priest. O n S u n d a y , J u l y 23, t h e n e w l i t u r g y was read i n t h e c a t h e d r a l c h u r c h o f S t . G i l e s , E d i n b u r g h . W i t h some v a g u e f o r e b o d i n g o f t r o u b l e t h e m o s t d i g n i f i e d officers o f C h u r c h a n d State, the t w o archbishops, several bishops, the lords o f the c o u n c i l a n d t h e l o r d s o f session a t t e n d e d t o e n h a n c e the s o l e m n i t y o f the service a n d t o o v e r a w e the m u r m u r s o f t h e c r o w d . B u t scarcely h a d the D e a n o f E d i n b u r g h b e g u n t o r e a d t h e service w h e n h i s v o i c e was d r o w n e d b y cries o f h o r r o r a n d e p i t h e t s o f abuse. T h e b i s h o p i n t e r p o s e d a n d t h e u p r o a r was r e d o u b l e d . A w o m a n a i m e d a s t o o l at h i s h e a d w h i c h n e a r l y h i t t h e dean. T h e n the p r i m a t e c o m m a n d e d t h e m a g i s t r a t e s t o c l e a r t h e c h u r c h o f the rioters. I t was done, not w i t h o u t a s t r u g g l e , a n d t h e r e m n a n t o f t h e c o n g r e g a t i o n h e a r d the service t o t h e e n d , w h i l e t h e furious m o b t h u n d e r e d o n the d o o r s a n d t h e w i n d o w s fell i n s h i v e r s o n the p a v e m e n t . When a l l w a s over, t h e y m a d e t h e i r w a y h o m e as best t h e y c o u l d , t h e b i s h o p h a r d l y e s c a p i n g g r a v e i n j u r y at t h e h a n d s o f the rioters. I n o r d e r that the afternoon service m i g h t be celebrated, i t w a s necessary to set g u a r d s r o u n d t h e c h u r c h a n d t o e x c l u d e e v e r y w o m a n , f o r t h e f a i r s e x h a d been foremost i n the t u m u l t o f t h e morning. T h e Scottish p r i v y council was not forward to defend the i n n o v a t i o n s i n the C h u r c h , a n d i n d e e d h a d n o force w h i c h c o u l d control the m o b of E d i n b u r g h backed b y the zeal o f h a l f
S e e The Liturgy J a m e s Cooper.
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of 1637, commonly called LauoVs Liturgy,

edited b y D r .

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S c o t l a n d . S o w e l l a w a r e w e r e the c o u n c i l l o r s o f t h e i r i m p o tence, t h a t t h e p r i m a t e h i m s e l f m o v e d t h e s u s p e n s i o n o f t h e o l d a n d n e w forms o f p r a y e r a l i k e , u n t i l t h e k i n g ' s pleasure c o u l d b e t a k e n , a n d t h e m o t i o n was g l a d l y a d o p t e d . Charles o r d e r e d t h e m t o q u e l l resistance a n d L a u d r i d i c u l e d the h e s i t a t i o n o f the b i s h o p s . B u t t h e m i n i s t e r s d a r e d n o t r e a d the service, for t h e y k n e w t h a t n e i t h e r m a g i s t r a t e s n o r c o u n c i l l o r s c o u l d protect t h e m for o n e h o u r . A s t h e n e w s t r a v e l l e d o v e r S c o t l a n d , p e t i t i o n s w e r e d r a w n u p a n d passed f r o m h a n d t o h a n d , g a i n i n g signatures e v e r y w h e r e , a n d the g e n t r y a n d n o b i l i t y c a m e f o r w a r d t o l e a d a n d o r g a n i s e resistance. The k i n g , w h o b e g a n to see t h a t h e m u s t p u t off t h e a t t e m p t to force the l i t u r g y u p o n S c o t l a n d , s o u g h t r e l i e f i n p u n i s h i n g E d i n b u r g h a n d o r d e r e d t h a t t h e p r i v y c o u n c i l a n d court o f session s h o u l d r e m o v e t o L i n l i t h g o w . T h e r e a d i n g o f h i s p r o c l a m a t i o n r a i s e d a s t o r m w h i c h t h e c o u n c i l c o u l d appease o n l y b y i m p l o r i n g t h e h e l p o f the n o b l e m e n a n d g e n t l e m e n o p p o s e d t o the k i n g ' s p o l i c y . A G e n e r a l S u p p l i c a t i o n was d r a w n up, a s k i n g the k i n g that the b i s h o p s m i g h t be p u t o n t h e i r t r i a l a n d i n the m e a n t i m e shut out o f the c o u n c i l w h e n i t was d e a l i n g w i t h the state o f the C h u r c h .
1

T h e p a r t y o f resistance n e x t chose a p e r m a n e n t b o d y o f c o m m i s s i o n e r s r e p r e s e n t i n g a l l classes, a m i n i s t e r f r o m each presbytery, a c i t i z e n f r o m each b o r o u g h , t w o g e n t l e m e n f r o m each shire, a n d n o t fewer t h a n s i x n o b l e m e n . O n D e c e m b e r 21 these c o m m i s s i o n e r s presented t h e G e n e r a l S u p p l i c a t i o n t o t h e council. C h a r l e s s u m m o n e d t h e treasurer T r a q u a i r to a d v i s e h i m , b u t d i d not t a k e h i s advice. I n a new proclamation he a v o w e d t h e P r a y e r B o o k a n d w o u l d offer n o m o r e t h a n a p a r d o n to those w h o h a d p e t i t i o n e d against it. T h e petitioners affected t o treat t h e p r o c l a m a t i o n as m e r e l y t h e w o r k o f the c o u n c i l , w i t h w h i c h t h e y w o u l d h a v e n o m o r e t o d o w h i l e the b i s h o p s sat there. F i n d i n g t h a t the c o m m i s s i o n e r s w e r e t o o n u m e r o u s for p r o m p t a c t i o n , t h e y chose four " T a b l e s " o r c o m m i t t e e s , one o f nobles, o n e o f g e n t l e m e n , o n e o f citizens, a n d one o f ministers, w i t h power to unite whenever it seemed expedient. T h e n they recurred t o a precedent o f 1581, w h e n K i n g J a m e s h a d i n v i t e d h i s people t o enter i n t o a c o v e n a n t b y w h i c h t h e y r e n o u n c e d
B a i l l i e , Letters and Journals, and Papers.
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v o l . i . , appendix 2, entitled Original

Letters

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the d o c t r i n e s o f R o m e a n d b o u n d t h e m s e l v e s to d e f e n d the C H A P . C h u r c h o f S c o t l a n d . T w o o f the ablest o f t h e p o p u l a r leaders, ^* A l e x a n d e r Henderson, minister of Leuchars, a n d J o h n s t o n o f W a r r i s t o n , a lawyer, were appointed to draw u p a new version of this covenant, expressing the resolutions of a l l the opponents o f t h e P r a y e r B o o k . A f t e r t h e i r draft h a d b e e n revised b y the l e a d i n g n o b l e s , L o r d B a l m e r i n o , the E a r l o f L o u d o u n , a n d the E a r l of Rothes, and approved b y all the ministers then i n E d i n b u r g h , i t w a s c a r r i e d to t h e G r e y F r i a r s C h u r c h o n F e b r u a r y 28, 1638, t o b e s i g n e d b y t h e people i n their s e v e r a l orders. B y t h e N a t i o n a l C o v e n a n t the s u b s c r i b e r s , after r e c i t i n g t h e errors a n d c o r r u p t i o n s o f the C h u r c h o f R o m e a n d t h e statutes b y w h i c h the C h u r c h o f Scotland h a d been reformed, bound themselves, first, t o reject a l l i n n o v a t i o n s i n r e l i g i o n w h i c h s h o u l d n o t h a v e been a p p r o v e d i n free assemblies o f t h e K i r k a n d i n free p a r l i a m e n t s , a n d , s e c o n d l y , to u p h o l d t o t h e u t m o s t t h e a u t h o r i t y o f t h e c r o w n . A s t h i n g s were, the t w o p l e d g e s c o n t r a d i c t e d e a c h other, f o r a p r e s b y t e r i a n C h u r c h a n d a S t u a r t k i n g c o u l d n o m o r e w o r k t o g e t h e r i n the same l a n d t h a n fire a n d w a t e r i n t h e same vessel. Y e t t h e subscribers w e r e n o t
1

p l e d g i n g themselves as a p o l i t i c a l j u g g l e t o p e r f o r m w h a t was self-contradictory. T h e S c o t s w e r e as m o n a r c h i c a l as t h e y w e r e presbyterian. F o r t h e n e x t fifty y e a r s t h e largest, o r at least t h e m o s t effective, p a r t o f t h e S c o t t i s h n a t i o n c o n t e n d e d t o m a k e g o o d t h i s i m p o s s i b i l i t y . T h e y t r i e d t o force t h e i r system u p o n t h e v i c t o r i o u s p a r l i a m e n t a n d the defeated k i n g . They f o u g h t t o t h e last for t h e i r s y s t e m against t h e p o t e n t g e n i u s o f C r o m w e l l , a n d o n l y after a l o n g a n d painful e x p e r i e n c e u n d e r C h a r l e s I I . a n d J a m e s I I . d i d t h e y m a k e t h e i r choice between t h e r e l i g i o n o f t h e i r heart a n d t h e i r n a t i v e l i n e of k i n g s . A l t h o u g h t h e S c o t s are esteemed a s h r e w d a n d sceptical race, t h e m o s t famous d o c u m e n t i n t h e i r h i s t o r y was t h u s t h e outcome o f passion more than o f policy. F o r that very reason i t e x p r e s s e d the s o u l o f the people a n d was a d o p t e d w i t h a r d o u r b y m y r i a d s w h o k n e w n o t h i n g o f affairs o f state. The Grey F r i a r s C h u r c h c o u l d n o t c o n t a i n the m u l t i t u d e s t h a t c a m e to subscribe, a n d the c o v e n a n t h a d t o be l a i d out o n a t o m b s t o n e
* Rushworth, i i . , 734*

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C H A P , i n the c h u r c h y a r d . M a n y , as t h e y s i g n e d , burst i n t o tears. W h e n the c o v e n a n t was c i r c u l a t e d t h r o u g h t h e c o u n t r y i t f o u n d a n e q u a l l y eager reception, a n d , as t h e n u m b e r o f subscribers g r e w i n E d i n b u r g h a n d elsewhere, i t b e c a m e h a r d a n d e v e n dangerous for a n y o n e t o h o l d aloof. P o p u l a r fanaticism, o i g a n ised a n d aware o f its s t r e n g t h , has f e w scruples a n d n o r e g a r d for freedom. S e r m o n s , solicitations, t h r e a t s a n d even b o d i l y violence, a l l w e r e used t o get signatures, u n t i l at l e n g t h t h e nation s e e m e d u n a n i m o u s . T h e k i n g h a d n o t o n l y c h a l l e n g e d a most f o r m i d a b l e r e b e l l i o n , b u t he h a d c a l l e d f o r t h a s p i r i t w h i c h , h e r o i c as i t was, was also n a r r o w , d o g g e d , bitter, a n d intolerant a l m o s t t o m a d n e s s . A s t h e s p r i n g w o r e on, he s a w too late t h a t he h a d n o force w i t h w h i c h to encounter t h e u p r i s i n g , at o n c e o r d e r l y a n d desperate, o f a w h o l e people. He b r o u g h t h i m s e l f t o p r o m i s e that h e w o u l d n o t press the canons a n d t h e P r a y e r B o o k e x c e p t i n a f a i r a n d l e g a l w a y , but he h e l d that the covenant was a s t a n d a r d o f r e b e l l i o n w h i c h m u s t be surrendered. T o negotiate w i t h the rebels h e chose the M a r q u i s of H a m i l t o n . A s t h e h e a d o f one o f the m o s t i l l u s t r i o u s a n d p o w e r f u l families i n S c o t l a n d a n d t h e p e r s o n a l f r i e n d o f t h e k i n g , H a m i l t o n s e e m e d v e r y suitable for h i s a r d u o u s m i s s i o n . H e r e a c h e d E d i n b u r g h e a r l y i n J u n e a n d was m e t b y t h e covenanters w i t h a n a p p e a l t o a general a s s e m b l y f r o m w h i c h t h e bishops s h o u l d be e x c l u d e d a n d t o a p a r l i a m e n t . H e r e t u r n e d , h o p i n g that he m i g h t i n d u c e C h a r l e s t o a c c e p t w h a t h e t h o u g h t i n e v i t a b l e . S i n c e C h a r l e s h a d not t h e m e a n s o f m a k i n g w a r , h e sent H a m i l t o n o n a second m i s s i o n i n A u g u s t , w i t h a u t h o r i t y t o promise the calling of a general assembly a n d a parliament, b u t w i t h o u t a u t h o r i t y to a c c e p t t h e c o v e n a n t . W h e n H a m i l t o n a n n o u n c e d these offers, a n e w d i s p u t e arose u p o n t h e c o n stitution o f the assembly. T h e k i n g intended that it should consist s o l e l y o f c l e r g y m e n , i n c l u d i n g t h e bishops. H i s a d v e r saries m e a n t to e x c l u d e t h e bishops a n d a d m i t l a y m e n , a n d H a m i l t o n , finding them inflexible, returned to E n g l a n d . He doubtless u s e d his best efforts w i t h t h e k i n g a n d g a i n e d l e a v e t o a n n o u n c e e x t r a o r d i n a r y concessions. R e t u r n i n g t o E d i n b u r g h he d e c l a r e d t h a t t h e k i n g r e v o k e d t h e h i g h c o m m i s s i o n , t h e c a n o n s a n d t h e P r a y e r B o o k , a n d w a s r e a d y to r e v o k e t h e articles o f P e r t h i f the p a r l i a m e n t so d e s i r e d . E v e n t h e p o w e r

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209 CHAP,
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o f t h e b i s h o p s was t o be l i m i t e d .

H a m i l t o n w a s also c h a r g e d

t o s u m m o n a general assembly for N o v e m b e r a n d a parliament for M a y , 1639I n t h e elections to the general a s s e m b l y the people t o o k n o a c c o u n t o f the k i n g ' s wishes, the recent practice o r t h e c l a i m s o f the bishops, but w e n t b a c k t o a n act o f 1597 d e t e r m i n i n g w h o s h o u l d elect a n d w h o s h o u l d b e elected. E a c h parish was t o s e n d t h e m i n i s t e r a n d o n e l a y e l d e r t o the p r e s b y t e r y , w h i c h w a s t o elect three m i n i s t e r s t o t h e a s s e m b l y . T h e gentlemen w i t h i n t h e j u r i s d i c t i o n o f each p r e s b y t e r y w e r e t o elect o n e l a y elder. T h e b i s h o p s were c o n s i d e r e d m e r e l y as c u l p r i t s . T h e y w e r e i n d i c t e d i n l e g a l f o r m b e f o r e t h e p r e s b y t e r y of E d i n b u r g h , w h i c h referred t h e i r cause to t h e g e n e r a l a s s e m b l y . C h a r l e s , i n r e p l y , e m p o w e r e d H a m i l t o n t o a n n o u n c e that h e was p r e p a r i n g for w a r , a l t h o u g h desirous o f peace a n d w i l l i n g to s u m m o n a new and more regular assembly. W i t h o u t heedi n g t h e t h r e a t o r H a m i l t o n ' s effort t o interpose, t h e a s s e m b l y met i n G l a s g o w o n N o v e m b e r 21. O n the 28th H a m i l t o n p r o n o u n c e d its d i s s o l u t i o n , a n d w i t h d r e w , f o l l o w e d b y t h e o t h e r p r i v y c o u n c i l l o r s , a l l save o n e m a n w h o was t o b e the p o l i t i c a l chief o f the revolt against the crown, A r c h i b a l d , E a r l of A r g y l e . T h e assembly ignored the plea to the jurisdiction put i n b y the bishops, a b o l i s h e d the e p i s c o p a l office, declared t h e n u l l i t y o f a l l assemblies i n w h i c h bishops h a d b o r n e a part, c o n d e m n e d t h e articles o f P e r t h , the c a n o n s a n d the n e w P r a y e r B o o k , a n d p u t the C h u r c h o f S c o t l a n d o n a s t r i c t l y C a l v i n i s t a n d presb y t e r i a n f o o t i n g . T h e r o y a l s u p r e m a c y was thus e n d e d , a n d H a m i l t o n r e t u r n e d to E n g l a n d for the t h i r d t i m e w i t h n o t h i n g but failure t o report. C h a r l e s , i m p a t i e n t to c o n q u e r t h e Scots, was h e l d back b y w a n t o f means. E a r l y i n 1639 ^e issued a f o u r t h a n d last w r i t o f s h i p - m o n e y , b u t d i d not v e n t u r e t o ask for more t h a n ^70,000, w h i c h c a m e i n v e r y s l o w l y . F o r t h e i n v a s i o n o f S c o t l a n d i t was c o m p u t e d t h a t 30,000 m e n w o u l d be necessary, a n d t h a t such a n a r m y w o u l d cost ^935>ooo a year. I n h i s n e e d t h e k i n g fell b a c k o n p o o r e x p e d i e n t s . The
1 2

'

Hamilton Papers, relating to the years 1638-1650, edited by Gardiner. F o r a n account o f the proceedings o f the general assembly, see Baillie, Letters and Journals, i., 118-176.
1 2

V O L .VII.

14

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n o b l e s w e r e s u m m o n e d to discharge t h e i r m i l i t a r y service as feudal tenants. X h e t r a i n e d b a n d s o f the n o r t h e r n counties a n d a n u m b e r o f pressed m e n w e r e to f o r m the i n f a n t r y . A b o u t I 2 J O O O troops w o u l d be available on the border a n d 5,000 m o r e w e r e t o be e m b a r k e d for a d i v e r s i o n on the east coast o f S c o t l a n d . T h e k i n g ' s a r m y w a s n o t w e a k i n n u m b e r s alone j the m e n w e r e r a w , u n d i s c i p l i n e d , a n d indifferent t o t h e cause. C h a r l e s , w h o h a d n o s p a r k o f n a t i o n a l feeling, t r i e d t o o b t a i n f r o m the N e t h e r l a n d s a n u m b e r o f v e t e r a n S p a n i s h battalions i n r e t u r n for leave t o t h e S p a n i a r d s t o b e a t u p recruits i n E n g l a n d a n d I r e l a n d . F o r t u n a t e l y for h i m , n o t a S p a n i s h s o l d i e r c o u l d t h e n b e s p a r e d b y the g o v e r n m e n t at Brussels. G e n e r a l s were also w a n t i n g . T h e E a r l o f A r u n d e l , w h o h a d n o q u a l i f i c a t i o n save those o f r a n k a n d i l l - w i l l to p r o t e s t a n t i s m , w a s n a m e d c o m m a n d e r - i n - c h i e f , a n d the E a r l o f H o l l a n d , t h e m o s t agreeable o f c o u r t i e r s , b u t the m o s t u n t r u s t w o r t h y o f politicians, w a s to be g e n e r a l o f t h e horse. The post o f second i n c o m m a n d w a s g i v e n t o the E a r l o f E s s e x , w h o h a d sense, courage, a n d s o m e s l i g h t experience, b u t was i l l - c o n t e n t t o h a v e b e e n p l a c e d n o higher. T h e S c o t s o p p o s e d a fierce y e t m e t h o d i c e n t h u s i a s m to the languor a n d d i s c o n t e n t o f t h e E n g l i s h . I n spite o f t h e r o y a l navy they procured from abroad great quantities of arms a n d ammunition. Recruits came forward i n crowds, a n d a m o n g t h e m m a n y m e n o f t r i e d valour. F o r , i n a n age w h e n t h e S c o t s h a d few i n d u s t r i e s , l i t t l e c o m m e r c e , a n d n o access t o w i d e l a n d s b e y o n d the ocean, t h e y sought, l i k e t h e S w i s s , a career as soldiers o f fortune i n foreign countries. Religious preference h a d u s u a l l y l e d t h e m i n t o the service o f the p r o testant powers, n o t a b l y o f t h e D u t c h r e p u b l i c a n d S w e d e n , where, u n d e r t h e foremost generals o f E u r o p e , a n d i n l o n g a n d strenuous warfare, t h e y perfected t h e h i g h m a r t i a l qualities o f t h e i r race. H u n d r e d s o f these veterans were a v a i l a b l e to stiffen the c o v e n a n t i n g r a n k s , a n d one a m o n g t h e m , A l e x a n d e r L e s l i e , the n a t u r a l son o f a n obscure l a i r d , w a s c h o s e n t o s u p r e m e command. M o r e than t h i r t y years earlier L e s l i e h a d entered the S w e d i s h service. U n d e r three successive sovereigns h e h a d fought a g a i n s t the R u s s i a n s , t h e P o l e s , the D a n e s , a n d t h e 'Imperialists. H e h a d been k n i g h t e d b y Gustavus a n d created a field-marshal b y C h r i s t i n a \ b u t o n t h e a p p r o a c h o f t r o u b l e i n

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S c o t l a n d , he o b t a i n e d letters o f d e m i s s i o n a n d r e t u r n e d t o u p h o l d t h e c o v e n a n t w i t h purse a n d s w o r d . A l t h o u g h not a m a n o f genius, h e was a g o o d d i s c i p l i n a r i a n , a n d a p r u d e n t strategist. H e s o o n f o u n d h i m s e l f at t h e h e a d o f a n a r m y at least e q u a l i n n u m b e r t o t h e a r m y o f the k i n g , a n d i n f i n i t e l y s u p e r i o r i n e v e r y q u a l i t y w h i c h distinguishes a n a r m y f r o m a m o b o f countrymen. It o n l y r e m a i n e d for the c o n t e n d i n g parties t o set e a c h its o w n cause i n the m o s t favourable l i g h t . X h e S c o t s p u t f o r t h a declaration p r o t e s t i n g t h e i r l o y a l t y a n d l a y i n g a l l the b l a m e o n certain E n g l i s h prelates w h o f a v o u r e d t h e C h u r c h o f R o m e . Charles i n h i s p r o c l a m a t i o n d e n i e d t h a t t h e d i s p u t e t u r n e d o n the service b o o k o r o n e p i s c o p a c y ; i t w a s w h e t h e r h e s h o u l d be K i n g o f S c o t l a n d o r not. H e intended to cover the border w i t h h i s m a i n a r m y , w h i l e t h e force o n s h i p b o a r d , u n d e r H a m i l t o n , s h o u l d be d i s e m b a r k e d at A b e r d e e n to j o i n t h e G o r d o n a r r a y u n d e r the E a r l o f H u n t l y , a n d , t h u s r e i n f o r c e d , m a r c h southwards, r a l l y i n g t h e scattered l o y a l i s t s t o a s s a i l t h e e n e m y i n t h e rear. B u t the covenanters w e r e o n the alert. X h e y t o o k w i t h l i t t l e t r o u b l e e v e r y castle h e l d for the k i n g i n the s o u t h o f S c o t l a n d save C a e r l a v e r o c k . Against Huntly, w h o h a d risen o n a p r e m a t u r e s u m m o n s f r o m t h e k i n g , t h e y sent J a m e s G r a h a m , E a r l o f M o n t r o s e , a y o u n g m a n o f s p l e n d i d g e n i u s for war, t h e n as eager i n t h e cause o f t h e c o v e n a n t as h e w a s t o b e s o m e w h a t later i n t h e cause of C h a r l e s . O n his a p p r o a c h , H u n t l y , a l t h o u g h at t h e h e a d o f 5>ooo m e n , d e s p a i r e d o f success, d i s b a n d e d h i s troops, w e n t to meet M o n t r o s e , a n d promised not to hinder any of his people who m i g h t w i s h to s i g n t h e covenant, X h o s e w h o w e r e u n w i l l i n g t o . d o so s h o u l d s u b s c r i b e a n e n g a g e m e n t t o u p h o l d t h e laws a n d liberties o f S c o t l a n d , a n d H u n t l y h i m s e l f w a s t o r e m a i n q u i e t l y at h o m e . B u t t h e covenanters, a f r a i d t o h a v e so potent a c h i e f a t l a r g e w h e n t h e y s h o u l d j o i n battle i n t h e south, l u r e d H u n t l y t o A b e r d e e n , m a d e h i m a v i r t u a l p r i s o n e r , a n d c a r r i e d h i m off t o E d i n b u r g h . M o n t r o s e , i t is p a i n f u l to record, was the a g e n t i n this treacherous business. T h u s t h e d i v e r s i o n i n t h e n o r t h , so h i g h l y valued, b e c a m e
See C . S. T e r r y , Life Lev en.
1

and Campaigns

of Alexander

Leslie,

First

Earl

of

14 *

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THE

SCOTTISH

NATIONAL

COVENANT

1639

i m p o s s i b l e , a n d the E n g l i s h a r m y o n t h e b o r d e r h a d to a s s a i l a u n i t e d k i n g d o m . T h r e e r e g i m e n t s o n l y w e r e to g o o n b o a r d t h e fleet, w h i c h w a s to sail f o r t h e F i r t h o f F o r t h , w h e r e H a m i l t o n m i g h t t r y w h e t h e r a n y w o u l d t a k e his part. A r o y a l p r o c l a m a t i o n offered p a r d o n to a l l b u t n i n e t e e n o f the leaders o f the r e b e l l i o n , a n d t r i e d t o g a i n the vassals a n d tenants o f rebels b y p r o m i s i n g a r e d u c t i o n o f t h e i r rents. T h e S c o t s , w h o were w e l l i n f o r m e d b y t h e i r friends o f t h e k i n g ' s real w e a k ness, were n o t t o b e m o v e d b y threats o r p r o m i s e s . T h e E n g l i s h nobles w ere so d e e p l y disaffected t h a t C h a r l e s t e n d e r e d t h e m a n o a t h to fight i n his cause to t h e u t m o s t o f t h e i r p o w e r a n d t h e h a z a r d o f their lives. L o r d s S a y e a n d B r o o k refused the oath, a n d w e r e p l a c e d i n custody. H a m i l t o n entered t h e F i r t h o f F o r t h o n M a y 1, b u t c o u l d find n o place to d i s e m b a r k h i s m e n . T h e v e r y w o m e n were w o r k i n g o n the fortifications of L e i t h , a n d h i s o w n mother, p i s t o l i n h a n d , p r o m i s e d that she w o u l d be foremost to shoot h i m i f h e landed.- I n despair h e a d v i s e d his m a s t e r to m a k e u p t h e q u a r r e l a t a n y sacrifice. C h a r l e s w a s so far m o v e d as to issue a n o t h e r p r o c l a m a t i o n , c l a i m i n g o n l y t e m p o r a l a n d c i v i l obedience, b u t h e felt t h a t he m u s t d o s o m e t h i n g , a n d a d v a n c e d w i t h h i s troops as f a r as B e r w i c k . A few d a y s later the S c o t s r e a c h e d K e l s o .
T

T h e k i n g ' s forces h a d r i s e n t o 1 8 , 0 0 0 foot a n d 3>oo h o r s e , a n d he was i m p a t i e n t t o s t r i k e a b l o w , f o r h e k n e w n o t w h e r e t o find the m e a n s o f m a i n t a i n i n g t h e m . H o l l a n d w a s o r d e r e d t o d r i v e t h e e n e m y out o f K e l s o , b u t f o u n d , o r t h o u g h t h e f o u n d , t h e m far s t r o n g e r t h a n h i m s e l f a n d r e t u r n e d w i t h o u t firi n g a shot. N o t h i n g c o u l d m o r e d i s p i r i t n e w soldiers, left i d l e w i t h o u t shelter o r sufficient necessaries a n d b e g i n n i n g t o s i c k e n i n large numbers. T h e n L e s l i e w i t h the m a i n Scotch a r m y a d v a n c e d t o t h e b o r d e r , .and e n c a m p e d o n D u n s e L a w i n s i g h t o f t h e k i n g ' s troops. T h e S c o t s w e r e i n h i g h s p i r i t s a n d u n d e r exact discipline, w e l l fed a n d w e l l provided. T h e r e c o u l d be l i t t l e d o u b t h o w a p i t c h e d b a t t l e w o u l d go, b u t t h e S c o t t i s h leaders w e r e too s h r e w d a n d too d e f e r e n t i a l t o desire s u c h a battle i f i t c o u l d be a v o i d e d . T h e y t o o k t h e first o p p o r t u n i t y o f n e g o t i a t i n g , a n d b e g g e d t h e k i n g to n a m e c o m m i s s i o n e r s t o
1

treat.

B e s e t w i t h difficulties a n d u r g e d b y H a m i l t o n , w h o h a d
* Baillie, Letters and Journals, i . , 211-214*

1639

THE

TREATY

OF BERWICK.

213

c o m e b a c k to the c a m p , C h a r l e s g a v e w a y , a n d c o m m i s s i o n e r s C H A P , o f b o t h parties m e t o n J u n e 11 for a first conference. W h a t d r o v e the k i n g t o n e g o t i a t e w a s the w a n t o f m e a n s t o k e e p h i s a r m y together. H e h a d d e m a n d e d a free c o n t r i b u t i o n , first f r o m the c i t y o f L o n d o n , afterwards f r o m t h e w h o l e kingdom. W i t h the e x c e p t i o n o f t h e c l e r g y a n d s o m e s e r v a n t s of the crown, hardly a n y b o d y w o u l d contribute. T h e queen h a d s o l i c i t e d t h e catholics, a l t h o u g h t o s m a l l purpose. Under pressure f r o m the k i n g the c o u n c i l d e m a n d e d a l o a n o f ^100,000 f r o m t h e c i t y , b u t threats c o u l d w r i n g n o p r o m i s e f r o m t h e a l d e r m e n , a n d t h e c o u n c i l d a r e d n o t p u t its threats i n e x e c u t i o n . B y s t r a i n i n g a l l h i s resources the treasurer m a n a g e d t o collect ^20,000, a s m a l l s u m w i t h w h i c h t o c o n q u e r S c o t l a n d . C h a r l e s a c c e p t e d the t e r m s offered b y t h e Scots, a n d t h e t r e a t y o f B e r w i c k was s i g n e d o n the 18th. B o t h sides agreed t o d i s b a n d t h e i r a r m i e s . T h e S c o t s u n d e r t o o k t o dissolve a l l u n l a w f u l c o m m i t t e e s , s u c h as the T a b l e s , a n d t o restore t h e r o y a l castles, w h i l e C h a r l e s c o n s e n t e d t o leave a l l c i v i l m a t t e r s t o t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f p a r l i a m e n t , a n d a l l ecclesiastical to t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n of the general assembly. A s h e s t i l l refused t o a c k n o w l e d g e t h e a s s e m b l y h e l d at G l a s g o w , a free g e n e r a l a s s e m b l y w a s t o b e h e l d at E d i n b u r g h i n A u g u s t . P a r l i a m e n t was t o m e e t a f e w d a y s later, a n d , a m o n g o t h e r acts, w a s t o p a s s a n a c t o f oblivion and indemnity.
1

T h e t r e a t y o f B e r w i c k left t h e g r a v e s t differences b e t w e e n the k i n g a n d the Scots undetermined. T h e k i n g , i n his proclam a t i o n o r d e r i n g n e w elections for a g e n e r a l a s s e m b l y , s u m m o n e d t h e b i s h o p s a n d a r c h b i s h o p s t o sit there. T h e c o v e n a n t e r s a t once replied w i t h a protestation, a n d the E d i n b u r g h m o b w i t h s u n d r y acts o f b r u t a l v i o l e n c e . O n t h e o t h e r s i d e t h e c o v e n a n t e r s d i d n o t s t r i c t l y fulfil t h e i r p r o m i s e s o f d i s b a n d i n g t h e a r m y a n d dissolving the Tables. Conferences between the k i n g a n d t h e c h i e f c o v e n a n t i n g n o b l e s h a d n o o t h e r effect t h a n t o e m b i t t e r t h e q u a r r e l . C h a r l e s w a s r e s o l v e d never to a b a n d o n t h e cause o f e p i s c o p a c y i n S c o t l a n d \ t h e covenanters w e r e e v e n m o r e r e s o l v e d n o t to suffer its r e s t o r a t i o n , a n d , k n o w i n g t h a t t h e k i n g h a d o n l y y i e l d e d t o necessity, t h e y c o u l d n o t b u t r e g a r d h i m w i t h i n c u r a b l e d i s t r u s t . A t t h i s v e r y m o m e n t he was direct1

Rushworth, iii., 944*

214 CHAP,

THE

SCOTTISH

NATIONAL

COVENANT.

i n g the b i s h o p s t o protest against t h e n e w a s s e m b l y , a n d a s s u r e d the p r i m a t e t h a t he w o u l d n e v e r leave t h i n k i n g h o w t o r e m e d y a n y concessions w h i c h h e m i g h t b e f o r c e d t o m a k e against t h e interest o f t h e C h u r c h . W h e n the g e n e r a l a s s e m b l y met, i t re-enacted t h e measures a d o p t e d at G l a s g o w . W h e n t h e p a r l i a m e n t met, C h a r l e s a n n o u n c e d i n a l e t t e r t o T r a q u a i r that, t h o u g h h e h a d c o n s e n t e d to the a b o l i t i o n o f e p i s c o p a c y , h e w o u l d n o t consent to a r e p e a l o f a n y o f t h e statutes b y w h i c h e p i s c o p a c y h a d been established. S o f r a n k a n a v o w a l o f i n s i n c e r i t y w a s n o t lost u p o n the p a r l i a m e n t , w h i c h s u p p r e s s e d episcopacy, j u s t i f i e d t h o s e w h o h a d t a k e n p a r t i n t h e late r e b e l l i o n , a n d p r o v i d e d t h a t t h e c h i e f castles o f S c o t l a n d s h o u l d b e e n t r u s t e d t o n o n e b u t S c o t t i s h subjects, a p p r o v e d b y t h e estates after t h e y h a d b e e n n a m e d b y the k i n g . A s C h a r l e s w o u l d n o t defer to S c o t t i s h o p i n i o n i n ecclesiastical matters, C h a r l e s w a s t o h a v e his c i v i l a u t h o r i t y curtailed. H e lost p a t i e n c e a n d o r d e r e d T r a q u a i r t o p r o r o g u e the parliament. T h e E a r l s of L o u d o u n a n d D u n f e r m l i n e were sent t o ask t h a t h e w o u l d c h a n g e h i s r e s o l u t i o n . Charles w o u l d scarcely have y i e l d e d even i f left to himself, a n d he was n o w i n t h e h a n d s o f a m o s t resolute a n d i m p e r i o u s adviser, for i n S e p t e m b e r W e n t w o r t h h a d r e t u r n e d f r o m I r e l a n d , h i s fierce n a t u r e e x a s p e r a t e d b y p a i n f u l disease a n d b y a n x i e t y lest t h e w h o l e fabric o f p e r s o n a l g o v e r n m e n t w h i c h he h a d d o n e so m u c h t o rear s h o u l d c r u m b l e i n t o r u i n . I n t h e c o m m i t t e e o f c o u n c i l f o r S c o t t i s h affairs W e n t w o r t h p r e d o m i n a t e d , a n d , n e x t t o W e n t w o r t h , L a u d . I t is n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t t h e k i n g should have repeated the order to prorogue the parliament a n d refused t h e e n t r e a t y o f D u n f e r m l i n e a n d L o u d o u n t h a t h e w o u l d c o n f i r m the b i l l s p a s s e d i n the recent session. H a v i n g c o m m i t t e d h i m s e l f to a n e w w a r against S c o t l a n d , C h a r l e s h a d t o f i n d t h e w a y s a n d means. T h e c o u n c i l r e s o l v e d o n a fresh d e m a n d for s h i p - m o n e y . S o m e t h i n g w a s s a i d a b o u t levying an excise b y prerogative. B u t W e n t w o r t h urged the k i n g to c a l l a p a r l i a m e n t i n the h o p e t h a t either i t w o u l d g r a n t w h a t was a s k e d or, i f i t p r o v e d i n t r a c t a b l e , the k i n g w o u l d h a v e m o r e c o l o u r for t a k i n g w h a t h e w a n t e d b y h i s o w n a u t h o r i t y . T h e archbishop, w h o s h a r e d W e n t w o r t h ' s illusions, a n d H a m i l ton, w h o d i d n q t g r e a t l y c a r e w h a t h a p p e n e d i n E n g l a n d , s u p p o r t e d W e n t w o r t h , a n d t h e i r j o i n t influence p r e v a i l e d w i t h

1640

A PARLIAMENT

CALLED.

Charles. T h e lords of the council promised that, i f parliament C H A P , w o u l d n o t give, t h e y w o u l d assist h i m i n s u c h e x t r a o r d i n a r y w a y s as s h o u l d be t h o u g h t fit. T h e y e v e n offered a n i m m e d i a t e l o a n o f 300,000. W e n t w o r t h s u b s c r i b e d 20,000, t h r e e other m e m b e r s 10,000 apiece, a n d t w o - t h i r d s o f t h e l o a n h a d b e e n s u b s c r i b e d before C h r i s t m a s j a r e m a r k a b l e p r o o f o f t h e w e a l t h o f t h e E n g l i s h n o b i l i t y . I t was settled that t h e E n g l i s h p a r l i a m e n t s h o u l d m e e t o n A p r i l 13 a n d t h e I r i s h p a r l i a m e n t s o m e w h a t earlier, i n order t h a t its c o m p l i a n c e w i t h t h e k i n g ' s d e m a n d s m i g h t dispose the c o m m o n s at W e s t m i n s t e r t o g r a n t a l a r g e r supply. T h e k i n g , w i s h i n g t o sweeten p u b l i c o p i n i o n , released V a l e n tine a n d Strode from their l o n g imprisonment. B u t he showed b y h i s b e s t o w a l o f p r e f e r m e n t h o w l i t t l e he l o o k e d f o r a n y serious o p p o s i t i o n . H e created W e n t w o r t h E a r l o f S t r a f f o r d a n d r a i s e d h i m from lord deputy to the higher style o f lord-lieutenant of Ireland. O n the death of the L o r d - K e e p e r Coventry, he e n t r u s t e d t h e great seal t o C h i e f J u s t i c e F i n c h , o n e o f t h e e x t r e m e prerogative lawyers. H a v i n g dismissed S i r J o h n C o k e f r o m t h e secretaryship, h e g a v e that post t o S i r H e n r y V a n e , whose m a i n r e c o m m e n d a t i o n w a s t h e g o o d w i l l o f t h e q u e e n a n d H a m i l t o n , a n d this against t h e v e h e m e n t resistance o f S t r a f f o r d , who counted V a n e a personal enemy. T h e I r i s h p a r l i a m e n t m e t o n M a r c h 16, 1640, t w o d a y s before S t r a f f o r d r e a c h e d D u b l i n . A v a i l i n g h i m s e l f o f i t s d i v i sions a n d o f t h e n a t u r a l fear a n d abhorrence w i t h w h i c h t h e I r i s h catholics r e g a r d e d the S c o t t i s h covenanters, S t r a f f o r d o b t a i n e d l a v i s h assurances o f l o y a l t y a n d four subsidies, o r 180,000, a g r a n t w h i c h , i f w e take i n t o a c c o u n t t h e p o v e r t y o f I r e l a n d , m u s t b e deemed v e r y liberal. T h e lord-lieutenant reckoned that, w i t h s o m e h e l p i n m o n e y f r o m E n g l a n d , h e w o u l d b e able to dispose o f 9,000 I r i s h troops f o r t h e a p p r o a c h i n g c a m p a i g n . W i t h w h a t feelings t h e E n g l i s h w o u l d see Irish catholics o p p o s e d t o S c o t t i s h protestants h e d i d n o t a p p a r e n t l y reflect. T h e session o f t h e I r i s h p a r l i a m e n t closed t o h i s entire satisfaction.''' T h e E n g l i s h elections t o o k place i n M a r c h . T h e d i s c o n t e n t w h i c h h a d l o n g been g a t h e r i n g i n t h e hearts o f t h e people d i d n o t e x p l o d e w i t h v i o l e n c e b u t i t w r o u g h t far a n d w i d e . T o b e
Strafford Letters, i i . , 402,

216
C H A P ,

THE

SCO TTISH

NA TIONA

L CO VENA

NT

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^*

k n o w n as a n o p p o n e n t o f the p o l i c y h i t h e r t o pursued i n C h u r c h a n d S t a t e w a s t h e best r e c o m m e n d a t i o n o f a c a n d i d a t e . M o s t o f the m e n w h o b e c a m e f a m o u s i n t h e e n s u i n g troubles, w h e t h e r f o r o r against the k i n g , were r e t u r n e d as m e m b e r s o f the p o p u l a r p a r t y . P y m b r o u g h t t o h i s s i x t h p a r l i a m e n t definite c o n v i c t i o n s , large e x p e r i e n c e , a n d m a t u r e a b i l i t y . H a m p d e n , w h o s e resistance to s h i p - m o n e y h a d g i v e n h i m e q u a l w e i g h t , was elected b y h i s n a t i v e c o u n t y . O l i v e r C r o m w e l l , w h o h a d sat for H u n t i n g d o n i n t h e last p a r l i a m e n t , b e c a m e a burgess for the t o w n o f Cambridge, T h e reputation gained b y St. J o h n i n defending H a m p d e n w o n h i m a seat for T o t n e s . A m o n g t h e n e w m e m b e r s were the y o u n g L o r d F a l k l a n d , s o n o f the unsuccessful d e p u t y of Ireland, the most w i n n i n g a n d amiable a m o n g the public m e n o f t h a t d a y ; h i s f r i e n d the a c c o m p l i s h e d a n d eloquent E d w a r d H y d e , afterwards E a r l o f C l a r e n d o n , a n d G e o r g e JDigby, son o f t h e E a r l o f B r i s t o l , i n w h o m talents o f n o o r d i n a r y k i n d w e r e to be m a d e useless a n d e v e n r i d i c u l o u s b y a flightiness a n d p e r v e r s i t y h a r d l y c o n c e i v a b l e . A s a whole, t h e n e w house o f c o m m o n s r e s e m b l e d those w h i c h h a d g o n e before. T h e great m a j o r i t y o f t h e m e m b e r s were f a v o u r a b l e to the p u r i t a n s , hostile to the A r m i n i a n s , eager to redress grievances, a n d resolute to k e e p the p o w e r s o f p a r l i a m e n t u n impaired. T h e y were n o t , however, i n c l i n e d t o p u s h a n y t h i n g to a n e x t r e m e , a n d w o u l d have been a m e n a b l e t o w i s d o m a n d forbearance o n t h e p a r t o f the k i n g . B u t Charles was u n a b l e to i m a g i n e that h i s subjects c o u l d h a v e a n y g r o u n d o f complaint. W h e n p a r l i a m e n t m e t o n A p r i l 13 t h e l o r d - k e e p e r e x p l a i n e d the k i n g ' s n e e d o f m o n e y a n d i n t i m a t e d t h a t a b i l l g r a n t i n g t o n n a g e a n d p o u n d a g e f r o m the k i n g ' s accession a n d a s u b s i d y b i l l w o u l d b e presented t o t h e c o m m o n s . A f t e r these h a d b e e n passed t h e y w o u l d be free t o c o n s i d e r t h e g r i e v a n c e s o f t h e subject. T h i s o r d e r o f business d i d n o t a p p r o v e i t s e l f t o t h e house. M e m b e r after m e m b e r rose t o c o m p l a i n o f e n c r o a c h ments o n t h e l i b e r t y o f t h e p e o p l e . P y m summed up the various topics o f c o m p l a i n t i n a w e i g h t y o r a t i o n w h i c h m a r k e d h i m out as t h e l e a d e r o f t h i s a n d o f t h e e n s u i n g h o u s e o f c o m m o n s . H e d i d n o t attack persons, b u t p r o p o s e d t h a t t h e y s h o u l d ask t h e l o r d s t o j o i n i n s e a r c h i n g o u t t h e causes a n d r e m e d i e s o f these i n s u p p o r t a b l e g r i e v a n c e s a n d i n p e t i t i o n i n g

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t h e k i n g for redress. T h e commons then went into committee CHA1 X. o n the treatment o f E l i o t and other members after the dissolut i o n o f t h e last p a r l i a m e n t , o n t h e w r i t s o f s h i p - m o n e y , a n d o n t h e o l d g r i e v a n c e o f i m p o s i t i o n s . T h a t t h e l o r d s felt w i t h t h e c o m m o n s , a t least i n ecclesiastical affairs, w a s s h o w n as w e l l i n o t h e r w a y s as b y t h e i r c a l l i n g i n q u e s t i o n t h e b e s t o w a l of a bishopric on Manwaring. M a t t e r s once m o r e followed t h e familiar circle. T h e k i n g sent f o r t h e houses a n d t h e l o r d - k e e p e r i n s i s t e d t h a t t h e y m u s t grant a supply. T o kindle the emulation of parliament conv o c a t i o n v o t e d n o less t h a n s i x c l e r i c a l subsidies, o r 120,000. T h e c o m m o n s a s k e d t h e l o r d s t o g r a n t t h e m a conference, hinting that they k n e w not whether they h a d anything to g i v e o r n o u n t i l their liberties were cleared. T h e king, more a n g r y than ever a n d prompted b y Strafford w h o h a d c o m e b a c k f r o m I r e l a n d , w e n t d o w n t o t h e house o f l o r d s t o d e c l a r e t h a t s u p p l y m u s t p r e c e d e redress o f g r i e v a n c e s a n d t o a s k t h e peers n o t t o j o i n w i t h t h e c o m m o n s i f t h e y r e m a i n e d obstinate. T h e l o r d s w e r e m o v e d b y t h i s p e r s o n a l appeal to vote that grievances s h o u l d be postponed to supply, a n d t h e c o m m o n s v e r y n a t u r a l l y t r e a t e d t h e i r c o n d u c t as a breach o f privilege. Strafford t h e n told the lords that, i f the c o m m o n s refused a s u p p l y , t h e p a r l i a m e n t s h o u l d b e d i s s o l v e d . Y e t i n the council he advised the k i n g to y i e l d o n the point of ship-money, a n d t h e k i n g consented that the famous j u d g m e n t s h o u l d b e e a r n e d o n a w r i t o f e r r o r before t h e h o u s e o f lords, w h e r e i t w o u l d b e reversed as o f course. I n return the k i n g m i g h t expect a liberal g r a n t ; V a n e thought, twelve subsidies or 840,000. S t r a f f o r d w o u l d h a v e left t h e a m o u n t t o t h e g o o d w i l l o f t h e c o m m o n s , a n d t h e k i n g a t last a g r e e d t o t a k e e i g h t s u b s i d i e s , a l t h o u g h h e c h a n g e d h i s m i n d later. T h e n e x t m o r n i n g , M a y 4, V a n e a s k e d t h e house t o g r a n t twelve subsidies i n r e t u r n for the abandonment o f the c l a i m to s h i p - m o n e y . I n committee opinions were divided. H a m p d e n , w h o d i d not w i s h to m a k e t h e k i n g independent while so m a n y o t h e r g r i e v a n c e s w e r e left u n t o u c h e d , s a w t h a t t h e h o u s e w o u l d b e u n w i l l i n g t o g r a n t a s u m so e n o r m o u s , a n d t h e r e f o r e p r o posed that they s h o u l d d i v i d e o n the question o f g i v i n g the
* R u s h w o r t h , i i i . , 1131.

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s u m specified.

H y d e , w h o h o p e d t o close t h e difference

be-

t w e e n t h e house a n d t h e k i n g , p r o p o s e d t h a t t h e w h i c h most o f the members w o u l d answer m the

question

s h o u l d be w h e t h e r t h e y w o u l d g r a n t a s u p p l y at a l l , a q u e s t i o n affirmative. I n the course o f debate o t h e r g r i e v a n c e s w e r e d e n o u n c e d , s u c h as the i m p r e s s m e n t o f s o l d i e r s a n d t h e e x a c t i o n o f coat a n d c o n d u c t m o n e y , t h a t is, m o n e y t o men newly levied. clothe a n d transport the F i n a l l y , V a n e d e c l a r e d t h a t the k i n g w o u l d A s t h e k i n g was e n t e r i n g to T h e p a r l i a m e n t a r y leaders

take n o t h i n g less t h a n t w e l v e subsidies, w h e r e u p o n the debate was a d j o u r n e d to t h e f o l l o w i n g d a y . which he thought himself entitled. u p o n a serious war, he w a s n o t l i k e l y t o forego resources

h a d further p r o v o k e d h i m b y n e g o t i a t i n g w i t h t h e S c o t s ' c o m missioners a n d b y p r o p o s i n g to discuss t h e S c o t t i s h d e c l a r a t i o n . A f t e r the c o m m i t t e e b r o k e u p , t h e y r e s o l v e d o n a p e t i t i o n for a t r e a t y w i t h the Scots, a n d t h e i r r e s o l u t i o n b e c a m e k n o w n t o Charles. H e c a l l e d a c o u n c i l for s i x o c l o c k t h e n e x t m o r n i n g , T h e parliaannounced his intention of dissolving the parliament and carried i t out, regardless o f Strafford's u r g e n c y f o r d e l a y . ment, w h i c h h a d sat just t h r e e weeks, b e c a m e k n o w n i n contrast t o its m o r e f a m o u s successor as the S h o r t P a r l i a m e n t . I n later y e a r s H y d e e x p l a i n e d t h i s a b r u p t d i s s o l u t i o n b y t h e treachery o f S i r H e n r y V a n e , w h o b o r e a g r u d g e Raby. against Strafford for h a v i n g t a k e n h i s s e c o n d t i t l e f r o m V a n e ' s estate o f H y d e , after j o i n i n g t h e k i n g ' s p a r t y , was so resolute less the to find i n mere p e r s o n a l p i q u e s a n d a m b i t i o n s t h e causes o f t h e m i g h t y conflict, t h a t his account o f the m a t t e r carries t h e weight.
1

W h a t h a p p e n e d w a s m u c h t h e same that h a d h a p As

pened with every previous parliament o f the reign. ment, there c o u l d b e no h a r m o n y b e t w e e n m e e t i n g issued i n a n e w conflict.

k i n g a n d the c o m m o n s a c t e d o n o p p o s i t e theories o f g o v e r n them, and The every more T h i s time the members of

the o p p o s i t i o n w e r e n o t f r i g h t e n e d b u t i n c e n s e d . ^

moderate w e n t h o m e f u l l o f a n g e r j the m o r e d a r i n g felt w i t h O l i v e r S t . J o h n t h a t a l l was w e l l , for i t m u s t be worse before i t

* Clarendon, History, England, History, i i . , 66-795 and the criticisms o f R a n k e , History of

v i . , Appendix, criticism o f C l a r e n d o n , a n d Gardiner, History, c h . xci.

c h . xci.

See Gardiner's observations o n the dissolution o f the Short Parliament,

1640

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EXPEDIENTS.

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x

c o u l d be better. N e x t t i m e t h e y m e t t h e y w o u l d seek redress, b u t t h e y w o u l d seek revenge also. T h e Scottish war had to be carried o n , like the king's f o r m e r wars, w i t h o u t p a r l i a m e n t a r y assistance. T h e committee o f c o u n c i l for S c o t c h affairs was d i v i d e d as to t h e best m o d e of action. V a n e , who k n e w the feeling of the country, w i s h e d to s t a n d o n t h e defensive. S t r a f f o r d , w h o h a d a s o u n d m i l i t a r y i n s t i n c t , was for t a k i n g the offensive. F o r this purpose he a d v i s e d t h e k i n g to act " l o o s e a n d a b s o l v e d f r o m a l l r u l e s o f government". T h e I r i s h a r m y m i g h t be b r o u g h t o v e r to h e l p against t h e S c o t s . T h e a r c h b i s h o p agreed i n a d v i s i n g t h e k i n g to c a r r y matters w i t h a h i g h h a n d ; a d v i c e w h i c h C h a r l e s w a s always ready to take. S o m e members o f the late parliament w e r e sent t o p r i s o n \ t h e studies o f others were searched, t h o u g h i n v a i n , for c r i m i n a t i n g papers. M e a s u r e s were t a k e n t o e n force p a y m e n t o f s h i p - m o n e y a n d coat a n d c o n d u c t m o n e y . T h e l o r d m a y o r a n d a l d e r m e n w e r e c a l l e d before t h e c o u n c i l a n d r e q u i r e d t o raise a l o a n o f 200,000 f r o m t h e c i t y . They w e r e t o r e t u r n i n a couple o f d a y s w i t h a l i s t o f the persons a b l e t o c o n t r i b u t e . U n w i l l i n g o r a f r a i d to obey, t h e y c a m e w i t h out t h e list. " S i r , " s a i d S t r a f f o r d , " y o u w i l l n e v e r d o g o o d t o these citizens o f L o n d o n , t i l l y o u have m a d e e x a m p l e s o f some o f the aldermen. U n l e s s y o u h a n g u p some o f t h e m , y o u will do no good with them." B u t E n g l a n d was not Irel a n d , n o r c o u l d the l o r d m a y o r o f L o n d o n be t r e a t e d l i k e L o r d Mountnorris. T h e k i n g contented himself w i t h sending four o f the a l d e r m e n to p r i s o n . O n t h e s a m e d a y S t r a f f o r d t r i e d to o b t a i n a l o a n f r o m the S p a n i s h e n v o y s b y p r o m i s i n g that, w h e n the S c o t s h a d been v a n q u i s h e d , t h e k i n g w o u l d j o i n w i t h S p a i n to a t t a c k t h e D u t c h . L i t t l e as t h e S p a n i a r d s k n e w a b o u t E n g l a n d , t h e y d e c l i n e d t h e p r o p o s a l . B u t w h a t c a n be s a i d as to t h e j u d g m e n t o f t h e m a n w h o m a d e i t ?
1 2

M e a n t i m e s y m p t o m s o f p o p u l a r e x a s p e r a t i o n b e c a m e frequent. S e d i t i o u s a n d i n s u l t i n g p l a c a r d s were p o s t e d u p i n different parts o f L o n d o n . A m o b w e n t t o L a m b e t h i n h o p e s o f s u r p r i s i n g t h e a r c h b i s h o p a n d s a c k i n g h i s palace. The rioters w h o h a d b e e n p u t i n p r i s o n w e r e released b y a n o n s e t

* V a n e ' s notes used at Strafford's trial. T h e y are given i n one form, by Whitelocke, Memorials, a n d i n another form i n a paper printed i n Report III. o f the Historical MSS. Commission, p. 3. Rushworth, Strafford's Trial, p . 585.
2

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o f t h e i r fellows.

X h e t r a i n e d b a n d s o f t h e h o m e counties w e r e

b r o u g h t u p to restore o r d e r i n L o n d o n , b u t i t was w e l l k n o w n that t h e y h a d n o g o o d - w i l l t o t h e w o r k . X h e m e n pressed f o r t h e w a r began to desert o r m u t i n y i n a n a l a r m i n g f a s h i o n . S e c r e t a r y W i n d e b a n k a p p l i e d t o t h e p a p a l agent R o s s e t t i , w h o h a d r e p l a c e d C o n n , for m e n a n d m o n e y to h e l p t h e k i n g . W h e n matters h a d g o n e t h u s far, i t w a s n e c e s s a r y t o temporise. Xhe i m p r i s o n e d a l d e r m e n a n d m e m b e r s o f p a r l i a m e n t were set a t l i b e r t y a n d n o m o r e was s a i d about the l o a n . C h a r l e s s o o n repented o f t h i s forbearance, a n d t h e p a y m e n t o f s h i p - m o n e y a n d coat a n d c o n d u c t m o n e y w a s s e v e r e l y pressed. Neither forbearance n o r harshness c o u l d a v a i l a g a i n s t a n a t i o n r e s o l v e d n o t t o p a y . X h e c l e r g y a l o n e w e r e eager for t h e war. As p a r l i a m e n t h a d been d i s s o l v e d before i t c o u l d c o n f i r m t h e clerical g r a n t o f s i x subsidies, c o n v o c a t i o n , w h i c h c o n t i n u e d s i t t i n g , t u r n e d t h a t g r a n t i n t o a b e n e v o l e n c e o r free c o n t r i b u t i o n . I t put f o r t h a n u m b e r o f n e w canons, asserting, a m o n g other t h i n g s , t h e d o c t r i n e o f non-resistance a n d r e q u i r i n g a l l c l e r g y m e n a n d schoolmasters to declare o n o a t h t h e i r a p p r o v a l o f the established g o v e r n m e n t o f the C h u r c h " b y archbishops, bishops, deans, a n d archdeacons, etc. Its proceedings merely i n f l a m e d the g e n e r a l i l l - w i l l t o t h e b i s h o p s , a n d t h e " etcetera o a t h " became t h e f a v o u r i t e t h e m e o f p u r i t a n r i d i c u l e . U n d e r these c o n d i t i o n s t h e s e c o n d S c o t c h w a r b e g a n . Xhe k i n g gave the command-in-chief to the E a r l o f N o r t h u m b e r l a n d , w h o h a d l i t t l e h e a r t i n t h e cause, b u t was a f r i e n d o f S t r a f f o r d . S t r a f f o r d himself, w h o h a d m a n y o f t h e q u a l i t i e s o f a g r e a t soldier, was a p p o i n t e d l i e u t e n a n t - g e n e r a l a n d L o r d C o n w a y t o o k c o m m a n d o f t h e horse. I t w a s i n t e n d e d to collect 23,000 m e n o n t h e b o r d e r , b u t m o n t h s passed a w a y a n d t h e a r m y was still to make. X h e northern trainbands h a v i n g been excused
1

o n a c c o u n t o f t h e i r last y e a r ' s service, t h e o n l y m e n w h o felt some faint g l o w o f h e r e d i t a r y h a t r e d to t h e S c o t s were gone. X h e r a n k a n d file w e r e pressed m e n , i n d i f f e r e n t t o t h e cause, i g n o r a n t o f a l l t h a t relates to w a r , a n d w h o l l y w i t h o u t d i s c i p l i n e . X h e c a v a l r y w e r e m o u n t e d o n cart horses a n d a r m e d w i t h pistols w h i c h c o u l d n o t be d i s c h a r g e d . A s t h e t e m p e r o f t h e g e n t r y was s u c h t h a t t h e y c o u l d n o t b e t r u s t e d t o c o m m a n d
1

T h e C a n o n s a i e printed i n L a u d ' s Works, v., 607 et seq.

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t h e i r h u m b l e n e i g h b o u r s a n d dependants, t h e officers w e r e strangers t o t h e m e n . M a n y o f t h e m w e r e R o m a n catholics. A c o m p a n y a s k e d its c a p t a i n w h e t h e r h e w o u l d receive the c o m m u n i o n w i t h t h e m , a n d , o n his refusal, w o u l d m a r c h n o farther. O t h e r s t h r e a t e n e d t o m u r d e r officers w h o h a d t h e m i s f o r t u n e to offend t h e m . O n e o r t w o officers w e r e a c t u a l l y murdered. I n the eastern counties t h e recruits u n d e r t h e c o n j o i n t influence o f p u r i t a n i s m a n d l i q u o r often b r o k e i n t o t h e churches a n d p u l l e d u p a n d b u r n t the c o m m u n i o n r a i l s . I t was proposed to b r i n g i n D a n i s h cavalry to keep d o w n the E n g l i s h soldiers. A t l e n g t h orders were g i v e n t o enforce m a r t i a l l a w ] but t h i s b e i n g c o n t r a r y t o t h e P e t i t i o n o f R i g h t , t h e c o m m a n d e r s d a r e d not act w i t h v i g o u r .
1

CHAP, *
x

A s t h e s u m m e r a d v a n c e d , C h a r l e s was d r i v e n t o t h e m o s t desperate e x p e d i e n t s for m o n e y . H e seized t h e S p a n i s h b u l l i o n w h i c h h a d b e e n d e p o s i t e d i n t h e T o w e r t o be c o i n e d t h e r e for e x p o r t a t i o n to D u n k i r k . T h e m e r c h a n t a d v e n t u r e r s p r o t e s t e d so l o u d l y against a n act o f v i o l e n c e w h i c h w o u l d c a l l d o w n rep r i s a l s a b r o a d , t h a t t h e b u l l i o n w a s released i n r e t u r n for a l o a n b y t h e m e r c h a n t s o f ^"4^000 o n t h e security o f t h e farmers o f t h e c u s t o m s . T h e n t h e c o u n c i l o r d e r e d a debasement o f t h e curr e n c y t o t h e a m o u n t o f 75 P^ * cent. T h e base coins w e r e t o bear t h e l e g e n d i n L a t i n : " L e t G o d arise a n d let his enemies be scattered \ A g a i n t h e r e was s u c h a n o u t c r y i n L o n d o n t h a t e v e n p r i v y c o u n c i l l o r s v e n t u r e d to protest. T h e k i n g offered to a b a n d o n t h e scheme i f t h e c o m m o n c o u n c i l w o u l d t a k e u p t h e o l d project of a l o a n t r o m t h e c i t y , b u t t h e c o m m o n c o u n c i l d e c l i n e d t o d o a n y t h i n g a n d the d e b a s e m e n t o f the c u r r e n c y was q u i e t l y d r o p p e d . Strafford again begged for money from S p a i n a n d t o no purpose. T h e c o u r t o f R o m e r e p l i e d t o W i n d e b a n k ' s overtures that i t w o u l d s e n d b o t h troops a n d t h e m o n e y to m a i n t a i n t h e m i f t h e k i n g w o u l d b e c o m e a c a t h o l i c j o t h e r w i s e i t w o u l d g i v e n o t h i n g . A t the e n d o f J u l y , N o r t h u m b e r l a n d c a l c u l a t e d t h a t the a r m y w o u l d require f o r t h e n e x t t h r e e m o n t h s ^300,000 " t o w a r d s w h i c h we h a v e n o t i n c a s h n o r i n v i e w a b o v e ^20,000 at m o s t " .
1 , 2

O n t h e S c o t t i s h s i d e a l l was resolution a n d forwardness. An i n f o r m a l c o n v e n t i o n o f estates h a d m e t at E d i n b u r g h i n A p r i l .

1

State Papets,

Domestic, cccclvii. a n d cccclviii., passim. Tvtal, p. 5^9*

Rushworth, Straffords

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C 3 E

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1640

^ P

T h e p a r l i a m e n t m e t i n J u n e , regardless o f t h e k i n g ' s o r d e r p r o r o g u i n g i t to J u l y , a n d p r o m p t l y r e - e n a c t e d a l l t h e measures w h i c h h a d b e e n passed i n N o v e m b e r . W h e n i t rose i t left a c o m m i t t e e o f estates to c a r r y o n t h e g o v e r n m e n t . T h e covenanters soon h a d o n foot a n a r m y as n u m e r o u s a n d w e l l d i s c i p l i n e d as i n t h e p r e v i o u s y e a r . W h a t d i s c o n t e n t w a s still l i n g e r i n g i n s o m e parts o f S c o t l a n d , t h e c o m m i t t e e o f estates quelled w i t h a l l t h e remorseless e n e r g y o f S t r a f f o r d . A r g y l e s friends p r o p o s e d to g i v e h i m t h e p o w e r s o f a r e g e n t over a l l S c o t l a n d o r at least o v e r t h e c o u n t r y b e y o n d the F o r t h , w h i l e the s o u t h s h o u l d be entrusted t o t w o o t h e r n o b l e m e n . I n o r d e r to defeat this scheme, M o n t r o s e w i t h e i g h t e e n others s e c r e t l y entered i n t o t h e b o n d o f C u m b e r n a u l d a n d t h e i r resistance p r o v e d successful. A s y e t there was n o o u t w a r d b r e a c h a m o n g t h e covenanters. T h e y r e s o l v e d to b r i n g the w a r to an issue b y i n v a d i n g E n g l a n d , a n d , w e l l aware t h a t the E n g l i s h w e r e either f r i e n d l y o r indifferent, t h e y p u t f o r t h a s k i l f u l s t a t e m e n t o f their purposes. S i n c e t h e y c o u l d n o t afford t o c a r r y o n negotiations w h i c h m i g h t p r o v e endless, t h e y w e r e c o m i n g t o c l a i m redress o f t h e i r grievances f r o m t h e i r k i n g . S o far f r o m b e i n g hostile to E n g l a n d , t h e y e x p e c t e d t h e n e x t p a r l i a m e n t to d o justice u p o n his e v i l counsellors. T h e y w o u l d act as i n a f r i e n d l y c o u n t r y , p a y f o r a l l supplies, offer n o w r o n g to t h e people, a n d s h e d n o b l o o d unless t h e y w e r e a t t a c k e d . O n t h e o t h e r side t h e k i n g p r e p a r e d t o t a k e t h e c o m m a n d o f his a r m y , o r d e r e d the t r a i n b a n d s o f the n o r t h e r n a n d m i d l a n d counties to be c a l l e d out, a n d s u m m o n e d once more t h e m i l i t a r y tenants o f the c r o w n , a l t h o u g h p e r m i t t i n g t h e m t o c o m m u t e t h e i r service for m o n e y i f t h e y pleased. Northumberl a n d , w h o h a d seen t h e case to be desperate a n d h a d f a l l e n sick, w a s r e p l a c e d as c o m m a n d e r - i n - c h i e f b y Strafford, w h o s t i l l i m a g i n e d t h a t the n a t i o n w o u l d r a l l y r o u n d t h e k i n g , t h a t N e w castle m i g h t b e defended, a n d t h a t the S c o t s m i g h t be d r i v e n back into their o w n country. Charles reached Y o r k on A u g u s t 23, a n d at h i s e n t r e a t y the Y o r k s h i r e g e n t l e m e n agreed to t a k e the field. B u t o n the n i g h t o f the 20th L e s l i e , a t the h e a d o f 255OOO soldiers, h a d crossed t h e T w e e d a t C o l d s t r e a m a n d m a r c h e d s t r a i g h t s o u t h w a r d s , d i s r e g a r d i n g t h e fortress o f B e r w i c k o n his left flank. T h e Scots k e p t t h e i r p r o m i s e s to t h e E n g l i s h people, save t h a t t h e y a l l o w e d themselves t h e e x q u i s i t e

1640

THE

SECOND

BISHOPS

WAR.

223 CHAP, *
x

pleasure o f p i l l a g i n g the estates o f recusants a n d o f the d e a n a n d c h a p t e r o f D u r h a m . O n the k i n g ' s side n o t h i n g was r e a d y for resistance. S t r a f f o r d h i m s e l f w a s so b r o k e n i n h e a l t h t h a t h e c o u l d g o n o farther t h a n Y o r k . O f t h e troops, a b o u t 12,000 w e r e at N e w c a s t l e u n d e r C o n w a y , a n d about the s a m e n u m b e r w e r e w i t h the k i n g . C o n w a y left t w o - t h i r d s o f h i s m e n i n t h e t o w n , a n d w i t h t h e r e m a i n d e r t o o k post at N e w b u r n , t h e l o w e s t f o r d o n the T y n e . O n the 28th the e n e m y appeared, a n d , after a c a n n o n a d e w h i c h d i d l i t t l e h a r m , t h e E n g l i s h fled a n d t h e S c o t s passed the r i v e r . N e x t d a y C o n w a y w i t h d r e w the r e g i m e n t s left i n N e w c a s t l e a n d the S c o t s o c c u p i e d the t o w n . A l l N o r t h u m b e r l a n d h a d b e e n thus c h e a p l y w o n , a l l D u r h a m w a s a b a n d o n e d b y t h e k i n g ' s troops, a n d there was l i t t l e h o p e t h a t t h e l i n e o f t h e 1 ees w o u l d be m a i n t a i n e d against t h e i n v a d e r s . Strafford h a d b y this time reached D a r l i n g t o n . T o o late his e y e s w e r e o p e n e d t o t h e r u i n o f h i s cause. " P i t y me," he w r o t e to h i s k i n s m a n G e o r g e R a d c l i f f e , " for n e v e r c a m e a n y m a n t o so lost a business." * A number of public men, hostile to the king's policy, h a d m e t i n L o n d o n a n d a g r e e d o n a p e t i t i o n for t h e c a l l i n g o f a n e w p a r l i a m e n t , w h i c h s h o u l d n o t o n l y redress the g r i e v a n c e s o f t h e n a t i o n , but s h o u l d c a l l t h e k i n g ' s m i n i s t e r s t o a c c o u n t . A s t h e peers w e r e h e r e d i t a r y counsellors o f the c r o w n , i t s e e m e d decorous t h a t peers a l o n e s h o u l d s i g n , a n d the p e t i t i o n b o r e t h e names o f twelve, the E a r l s o f Bedford, E s s e x , E x e t e r , H e r t f o r d , R u t l a n d , and W a r w i c k , and the L o r d s Bolingbroke, Brooke, H o w a r d of Escrick, Mandeville, Mulgrave, a n d Saye. A few d a y s later t h e S c o t s p r e s e n t e d a s u p p l i c a t i o n to t h e k i n g f o r t h e redress o f t h e i r grievances w i t h t h e h e l p o f a n E n g l i s h p a r l i a m e n t . T h u s beset, C h a r l e s a d o p t e d a s u g g e s t i o n o f h i s c o u n c i l t h a t h e s h o u l d c o n v o k e a l l t h e peers to assist h i m w i t h their advice, possibly w i t h their wealth. S u c h a great council h a d n o t m e t since t h e r e i g n o f E d w a r d I I I . , b u t i t m i g h t d e l a y for a m o m e n t the c a l l i n g o f a m o r e f o r m i d a b l e a s s e m b l y . Y o r k w a s to be t h e p l a c e a n d S e p t e m b e r 24 t h e d a y o f t h e i r meeting. T h e S c o t s , a l t h o u g h successful, were i n a d i f f i c u l t p o s i t i o n . H a v i n g spent a l l the money w h i c h they h a d brought from
* VvHiitaker, Life of Radclijfe, p. 203.

224 CHAP, *
x

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SCOTTISH

NATIONAL

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h o m e , t h e y p r o c e e d e d to l e v y c o n t r i b u t i o n s o n t h e counties o f D u r h a m a n d N o r t h u m b e r l a n d at the rate o f ^850 a day. The people o f t h e n o r t h c o u l d n o t r e l i s h t h e p a y m e n t o f t r i b u t e t o the h e r e d i t a r y foe, a n d t h e r e a p p e a r e d i n Y o r k s h i r e a d i s p o s i t i o n t o r a l l y r o u n d t h e k i n g , w h o s e forces c o n t i n u e d to increase. B u t the people o f t h e s o u t h w e r e s t i l l f a v o u r a b l e to t h e Scots, a n d the citizens o f L o n d o n c a m e b y t h o u s a n d s t o s i g n a petition for a p a r l i a m e n t M o n e y w a s scarcer w i t h t h e k i n g t h a n ever. W h e n , therefore, t h e peers a s s e m b l e d i n t h e d e a n e r y at Y o r k , t h e k i n g bent h i m s e l f t o a s k t h e i r a d v i c e r e g a r d i n g t h e answer w h i c h h e s h o u l d g i v e to t h e Scots, a n d t h e means o f s u p p o r t i n g t h e a r m y u n t i l p a r l i a m e n t s h o u l d meet. The E a r l o f B r i s t o l , w h o s e a b i l i t y a n d e x p e r i e n c e e n t i t l e d h i m to l e a d , m o v e d t h a t t h e peers s h o u l d n a m e s i x t e e n o f t h e i r b o d y to negotiate w i t h t h e Scots, w h i c h was a c c o r d i n g l y done. On the f o l l o w i n g d a y i t was a g r e e d a t B r i s t o l ' s suggestion that t h e citizens o f L o n d o n s h o u l d be i n v i t e d to l e n d ^200,000 o n the f a i t h o f t h e peers to s u p p l y t h e i m m e d i a t e w a n t s o f the a r m y . T h e s i x t e e n peers v i r t u a l l y t o o k t h e n e g o t i a t i o n out o f the king's hands. O n October 2 they m e t the Scottish c o m m i s sioners at R i p o n a n d f o u n d t h e m s o m e w h a t p e r e m p t o r y . The Scots d e m a n d e d a p a y m e n t o f ^"40,000 a m o n t h so l o n g as t h e y occupied the n o r t h e r n counties, a n d t h e i r o c c u p a t i o n was to last u n t i l a peace s h o u l d h a v e b e e n m a d e . U n w i l l i n g to submit, the k i n g w o u l d h a v e r e m o v e d t h e conferences to Y o r k , w h e r e h i s presence m i g h t m a k e i t s e l f felt, b u t t h e Scots d e c l i n e d t o r i s k themselves i n t h e g r a s p o f a n a r m y c o m m a n d e d b y Strafford. N o r d i d t h e y object w i t h o u t r e a s o n \ at this v e r y m o m e n t Strafford w a s s u g g e s t i n g t o R a d c l i f f e t h a t i t w o u l d be w e l l to set o n the I r i s h p a r l i a m e n t t o d r i v e f r o m U l s t e r t h e S c o t t i s h settlers w h o w e r e n a t u r a l l y i n f a v o u r o f t h e i r c o u n t r y m e n at home. T h u s , i n o r d e r to embarrass t h e covenanters, S t r a f f o r d was p r e p a r e d to k i n d l e i n I r e l a n d t h e a p p a l l i n g w a r w h i c h b r o k e o u t i n t h e f o l l o w i n g y e a r w i t h consequences so b i t t e r that t h e y a r e felt e v e n t o t h i s d a y . R a d c l i f f e l a i d the p r o p o s a l aside, b u t i t c a n n o t b e forgotten i n j u d g i n g Strafford's character. T h e n e g o t i a t i o n was c o n t i n u e d at R i p o n , a n d at last the S c o t s l o w e r e d t h e i r d e m a n d t o ^850 a d a y , a b o u t ^25,000 a m o n t h . T h e E n g l i s h c o m m i s s i o n e r s agreed t o p a y
1
1

W h i t a k e r , Life of Radcliffe,

p. 206.

1640

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AFFAIRS.

225 CHAP, "

x

t h i s p r i c e for a cessation o f arms, a n d t o l e a v e t h e S c o t s i n possession o f D u r h a m a n d N o r t h u m b e r l a n d . A definitive t r e a t y w a s t o b e n e g o t i a t e d i n L o n d o n . C h a r l e s w o u l d n o t enforce the p a y m e n t t o t h e S c o t s b u t w o u l d n o t f o r b i d it. H e accepted the t r e a t y o f R i p o n a n d o n O c t o b e r 28 the g r e a t c o u n c i l w a s dissolved. I n a few d a y s a n e w p a r l i a m e n t w o u l d m e e t t o debate t h e m a n y painful a n d dangerous issues w h i c h h a d been r a i s e d b y eleven years o f p e r s o n a l g o v e r n m e n t . D u r i n g the struggle b e t w e e n the k i n g a n d his S c o t c h subj e c t s t h e consideration o f h i s k i n g d o m i n E u r o p e h a d d w i n d l e d to n o t h i n g . I n 1637 Charles was s t i l l e n d e a v o u r i n g to r e g a i n t h e P a l a t i n a t e for his n e p h e w w i t h o u t effort or e x p e n s e o n h i s o w n part, b u t h i s w e a k a n d s h i f t y b e h a v i o u r h a d d i s c r e d i t e d h i m w i t h a l l parties t o t h e great E u r o p e a n contest. I n 1638 h e a g a i n a s k e d the F r e n c h a n d t h e S w e d e s t o p r o m i s e t h a t t h e y w o u l d e x a c t the restoration of t h e P a l a t i n a t e , a n d t h e y a g a i n ref u s e d unless h e w o u l d b e c o m e t h e i r a l l y b o t h b y sea a n d b y l a n d . T h e n h e gave Charles L e w i s ^3^>ooo t o raise soldiers, a n d t h e p r i n c e t o o k the field w i t h a s m a l l a r m y w h i c h was routed b y the i m p e r i a l i s t s at V l o t h o o n the W e s e r , a c o m b a t notable as t h e first i n w h i c h his brother R u p e r t d i s p l a y e d t h e h e a d l o n g v a l o u r so w e l l k n o w n afterwards o n E n g l i s h battlefields. Rupert w a s m a d e prisoner, but C h a r l e s L e w i s escaped. M e a n t i m e the F r e n c h were successful i n a l l quarters, a n d Charles, a l a r m e d a n d v e x e d , c a m e t o t h i n k t h a t R i c h e l i e u was s t i r r i n g u p r e b e l l i o n i n S c o t l a n d i n order to d i s a b l e h i m f r o m a c t i o n elsewhere. He d r e w closer t o the S p a n i a r d s a n d a c t u a l l y g a v e h i s p r o t e c t i o n t o a S p a n i s h a r m a m e n t w h i c h sailed f r o m C o r u n n a for F l a n d e r s i n A u g u s t , 1639. T h e D u t c h under T r o m p , disregarding his p r o t e c t i o n , fell u p o n the S p a n i s h fleet a n d r u i n e d i t i n the g r e a t battle o f t h e D o w n s , fought o n O c t o b e r 11. X h e covenanters t h o u g h t o f a s k i n g for F r e n c h m e d i a t i o n a n d entered i n t o a t r e a s o n a b l e correspondence w i t h Bellievre, the F r e n c h ambassador, w h o w o u l d g l a d l y h a v e g i v e n t h e m h e l p . R i c h e l i e u , w h o w i t h u n e r r i n g j u d g m e n t s a w t h a t discord i n G r e a t B r i t a i n n e e d e d n o fuel, refused t o interfere a n d recalled B e l l i e v r e . M o d e r n research has d i s p e l l e d t h e o p i n i o n h e l d b y C l a r e n d o n a n d m a n y other historians t h a t t h e F r e n c h g o v e r n m e n t for its o w n purposes fostered t h e great c i v i l war.^
^ Gardiner, History, c h . xci. V O L . VII.

15

CHAPTER

XI.
PARLIAMENT.

T H E FIRST SESSION OF T H E L O N G CHAP.

A T t h e elections o f O c t o b e r , 1640* t h e m e n w h o h a d sat i n t h e short p a r l i a m e n t were f o r the most p a r t r e t u r n e d again. But the electors a n d t h e elected a l i k e w e r e i n a far different m o o d f r o m t h a t w h i c h p r e v a i l e d i n the s p r i n g , for the a r b i t r a r y d i s solution o f the last p a r l i a m e n t h a d raised p u b l i c i n d i g n a t i o n to the p o i n t at w h i c h i t becomes dangerous t o rulers. M e n h a d v e r y g e n e r a l l y c o m e t o believe t h a t there was a c o n s p i r a c y o n foot t o o v e r t h r o w t h e i r r e l i g i o n a n d t h e i r f r e e d o m , a n d to establish the R o m a n c a t h o l i c r e l i g i o n a n d a r b i t r a r y power. The pious fiction t h a t w h a t e v e r a k i n g does a m i s s is done b y t h e crafty suggestion o f e v i l counsellors s t i l l p r o t e c t e d C h a r l e s , b u t against his m i n i s t e r s a n d against t h e prelates t h e p u b l i c f e e l i n g was u n q u e s t i o n a b l y b i t t e r a n d revengeful. It d e m a n d e d s o m e t h i n g m o r e t h a n remonstrances o r e v e n statutes. T h e nation r e m e m b e r e d h o w f o r m e r p a r l i a m e n t s h a d been cut short a n d their protests, even their legislation, h a d been i g n o r e d . Even the Petition of R i g h t h a d not made the k i n g more tender of the p r o p e r t y o r the personal f r e e d o m o f h i s subjects. Parliam e n t was therefore t o be i n s u r e d a g a i n s t u n t i m e l y d i s s o l u t i o n , a n d t h e i l l advisers o f the c r o w n w e r e to be, n o t m e r e l y removed, but punished. T h e n i t w o u l d be t i m e to c o n s i d e r w h a t n e w l a w s s h o u l d be passed f o r t h e c o m m o n g o o d . In this t e m p e r t h e f i f t h p a r l i a m e n t o f C h a r l e s I. m e t o n N o v e m ber 3.

T h e k i n g ' s p o s i t i o n w h e n t h e p a r l i a m e n t m e t was s u c h t h a t he c o u l d h a r d l y offer a n y resistance t o its wishes. H e could not dissolve i t l i k e f o r m e r p a r l i a m e n t s , f o r w i t h o u t its h e l p h e c o u l d not raise t h e funds t o k e e p his o w n a r m y t o g e t h e r o r t o h i n d e r the Scots f r o m m a r c h i n g s o u t h w a r d s . F o r t h e s a m e reason h e
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c o u l d n o t refuse b i l l s n o r c h e c k i m p e a c h m e n t s . A l t h o u g h he C H A P , was helpless, h e w a s n o t c o n v i n c e d , a n d so l i t t l e w a s there a n y * c o m m o n g r o u n d o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g between h i m a n d t h e houses t h a t f r o m the first a k e e n observer m i g h t h a v e f o r e t o l d a c i v i l war. S i n c e B u c k i n g h a m ' s d e a t h C h a r l e s h a d been n o p u p p e t ; his p o l i c y , w h a t e v e r its blemishes, h a d been o f - h i s o w n c o n trivance and execution. H o w t h e n c o u l d he t a m e l y sacrifice t o the r a g e o f p a r l i a m e n t m i n i s t e r s whose o n l y fault w a s t o h a v e s e r v e d h i m d i l i g e n t l y after h i s o w n h e a r t ? A n d even i f h e c o u l d w o u n d h i s h o n o u r thus, h o w c o u l d he abjure those p o l i t i c a l p r i n c i p l e s w h i c h r e n d e r e d i t i m p o s s i b l e for h i m t o a c c e p t w i t h o u t reserve a n y s t a t u t o r y r e s t r a i n t u p o n r e g a l p o w e r ? I n the g o v e r n m e n t o f his p e o p l e h e was G o d ' s vicegerent, a n d h e h a d d o n e h i s best j a n d i f p e r c h a n c e h e h a d s o m e t i m e s e r r e d , i t w a s n o t for t h e m t o resist or even m u r m u r . B u t i n f u l f i l m e n t o f its o w n h i g h purposes D i v i n e p r o v i d e n c e h a d seen fit t o c h a s t e n h i m a n d h a d a l l o w e d madness, w i c k e d n e s s , a n d i m p i e t y t o t r i u m p h f o r a m o m e n t . C h a r l e s , therefore, r e m a i n e d p a s s i v e , y i e l d e d w h e r e h e c o u l d n o t resist, b e t r a y e d h o w u n w i l l i n g l y h e d i d so, a n d r e a p e d n o p o p u l a r i t y , n o confidence. If he at l e n g t h f o u n d a f o l l o w i n g a n d c o u l d p r o c l a i m a cause for w h i c h t h o u s a n d s o f E n g l i s h m e n w e r e p r e p a r e d t o die, h e o w e d t h i s p a r t l y t o t h e faults of h i s adversaries, p a r t l y to t h e g u i d a n c e o f m e n far wiser t h a n himself.
X I

O n t h e 5^-h the house o f c o m m o n s elected a speaker. It was t h e n usual to accept the n o m i n a t i o n o f t h e c r o w n , a n d C h a r l e s , i n default o f a n y w a r m e r p a r t i s a n o f h i s a u t h o r i t y , n a m e d W i l l i a m L e n t h a l l , a barrister. W i t h o u t a n y e x t r a o r d i n a r y gifts, L e n t h a l l h a d the tact, t e m p e r , a n d g o o d sense w h i c h are so n e c e s s a i y i n t h a t office, a n d a l t h o u g h h i s h o n e s t y was afterw a r d s c a l l e d i n question, he r e m a i n e d s p e a k e r u n t i l t h e r e m n a n t o f t h e c o m m o n s w e r e e x p e l l e d b y C r o m w e l l . O n the 7 t h t h e house b e g a n t o c o n s i d e r t h e grievances of t h e subject, b u t i t s first serious business was t h e a t t a c k o n Strafford. A w a r e o f t h e e n m i t y w h i c h he h a d aroused, S t r a f f o r d h a d b e e n m o s t u n w i l l i n g t o q u i t t h e a r m y , but t h e k i n g felt that h i s h e l p was necessary a n d w r o t e u r g e n t l y t h a t h e s h o u l d c o m e t o L o n d o n . I f h e came, h e s h o u l d n o t suffer i n h i s person, h o n o u r , o r fortune. S t r a f f o r d , w h o k n e w better, w r o t e t o R a d clifife t h a t h e was for L o n d o n " w i t h m o r e dangers beset, I
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believe, t h a n ever a n y m a n w e n t w i t h o u t o f Y o r k s h i r e " , ^Vhere e v e r y course is f u l l o f d a n g e r , a b r a v e m a n w i l l a d o p t t h e boldest, a n d Strafford was n o t w i t h o u t h o p e o f d e s t r o y i n g t h e chiefs o f t h e house o f c o m m o n s before t h e y c o u l d d e s t r o y h i m . O n a r r i v i n g i n L o n d o n h e a d v i s e d C h a r l e s to accuse his enemies o f t r e a s o n o n t h e g r o u n d o f c o r r e s p o n d i n g w i t h the S c o t s . C h a r l e s w a v e r e d , a n d t h e p a r l i a m e n t a r y leaders w e r e warned. T h e r e was n o t i m e t o lose. P y m m o v e d i n t h e house o f c o m m o n s t h a t t h e doors s h o u l d be l o c k e d . H e then den o u n c e d the i n t e n t i o n s o f S t r a f f o r d w i t h respect to the I r i s h a r m y , a n d a f t e r s o m e d e b a t e a select c o m m i t t e e was chosen t o p r e p a r e m a t t e r for a conference w i t h t h e l o r d s a n d a c h a r g e against S t r a f f o r d . U n t i l t h e c h a r g e h a d been p r e p a r e d i t was u n u s u a l t o a p p r o a c h the u p p e r house w i t h a d e m a n d for the arrest o f t h e accused. B u t t h e c o m m o n s felt so k e e n l y the d a n g e r o f l e a v i n g t h e i r e n e m y at l a r g e that, i n spite o f F a l k l a n d ' s remonstrance, P y m was e n t r u s t e d w i t h a message to t h e l o r d s a s k i n g t h a t t h e e a r l , as one accused o f h i g h treason, m i g h t be sequestered f r o m t h e house a n d i m p r i s o n e d i m m e d i a t e l y . T h e l o r d s c o m p l i e d w i t h t h e message, a n d S t r a f f o r d , w i t h o u t b e i n g a l l o w e d t o speak, w a s h a n d e d o v e r t o M a x w e l l , t h e usher o f t h e b l a c k r o d , a n d t a k e n out o f t h e house. T h e c o m m o n s c o u l d then m a t u r e t h e i r c h a r g e s i n safety.
2 3

P y m w h o h a d o b t a i n e d k n o w l e d g e o f Strafford's w o r d s i n t h e p r i v y council respecting the Irish a r m y , procured an order from t h e lords a u t h o r i s i n g t h e e x a m i n a t i o n o f p r i v y c o u n c i l l o r s u p o n oath, a n o r d e r w i t h o u t p a r a l l e l i n t h e h i s t o r y o f p a r l i a m e n t a r y i m p e a c h m e n t s . T h e p r e l i m i n a r y c h a r g e i n seven articles declared that T h o m a s E a r l o f S t r a f f o r d h a d t r a i t o r o u s l y e n d e a v o u r e d to subvert the f u n d a m e n t a l l a w s a n d g o v e r n m e n t o f the realms o f E n g l a n d a n d I r e l a n d , a n d i n s t e a d t h e r e o f t o introduce a n a r b i tral y and tyrannical government against law, w h i c h he h a t h declared b y t r a i t o r o u s words, counsels, a n d actions, a n d b y g i v i n g h i s m a j e s t y a d v i c e b y force o f a r m s t o c o m p e l his l o y a l subjects to s u b m i t t h e r e u n t o . A l t h o u g h the t e r m " fundamental l a w s , " t h e n u s e d for t h e first t i m e i n a p a r l i a m e n t a r y p r o c e e d i n g ,
4 5

x Whitaker, Life
2

of Radcliffe, i i i . , 8.

p . 218. p. 2 , L a u d , Works, iv., 97. i i i . , 295*

Rushwortb, Strafford* s Trial, Clarendon, History, See p . 219.

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n e v e r was a n d n e v e r c o u l d be defined w i t h l e g a l a c c u r a c y , these words expressed the belief o f the m a j o r i t y that Strafford h a d s o u g h t t o m a k e t h e k i n g absolute. most rigour. T h i n k i n g thus, they inferred that it was b o t h just a n d expedient to punish h i m w i t h the utT h e other charges o f c o n v e r t i n g t h e k i n g ' s m o n e y T h e charges t o h i s o w n use, t r y i n g to enlist p a p i s t s i n s u p p o r t o f h i s p o l i t i c a l schemes, a n d so f o r t h , were b y c o m p a r i s o n t r i v i a l . c o m m i t t e d to the T o w e r on the same day. T h e c o m m o n s t h e n assailed t h e o t h e r a d v i s e r s o f t h e c r o w n w h o m t h e y r e g a r d e d as S t r a f f o r d ' s a c c o m p l i c e s i n the c o n s p i r a c y against freedom a n d the protestant religion. W i n d e b a n k , the s e c r e t a r y o f state, a c a t h o l i c a t heart, h a d n o t o n l y c o u n s e l l e d a r b i t r a r y measures, b u t h a d g l a d l y c a r r i e d o u t t h e k i n g s p o l i c y o f p r o t e c t i n g c a t h o l i c priests. W h e n the house called u p o n h i m t o e x p l a i n h i s c o n d u c t , W i n d e b a n k fled t o F r a n c e , w h e r e letters f r o m H e n r i e t t a M a r i a ensured h i m a hospitable reception. Charles declared that he w o u l d not allow the parliament On t o p u n i s h h i s servants, b u t he c o u l d n o t w i t h h o l d the c o m m o n s f r o m i n q u i r i n g i n t o the a c t i o n s o f t h e l o r d keeper, F i n c h . D e c e m b e r 7 H y d e m o v e d that the judges w h o h a d taken p a r t i n h e a r i n g H a m p d e n ' s case s h o u l d b e a s k e d t o s a y w h a t s o l i c i tations they h a d undergone. F i n c h h a v i n g been i n c r i m i n a t e d H e a s k e d t o be h e a r d i n t h e r e p o r t o f t h e i r answers, F a l k l a n d m o v e d t h a t a c h a r g e s h o u l d b e d r a w n against t h e l o r d keeper. i n the house a n d defended h i m s e l f ably, but c o u l d not avert a v o t e for his i m p e a c h m e n t o n a charge of treason, whereupon he fled to Holland. T h e c o m m o n s h a d already resolved to i m O n D e c e m b e r 18 t h e l o r d s sequestered
1

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w e r e c a r r i e d u p t o t h e l o r d s o n N o v e m b e r 25 a n d S t r a f f o r d w a s

peach Archbishop L a u d .

h i m f r o m parliament a n d committed h i m to M a x w e l l ' s custody. r e d r e s s i n g o f p o p u l a r grievances.

P a r a l l e l w i t h the a t t a c k u p o n t h e k i n g ' s a d v i s e r s w e n t t h e T h e v i c t i m s o f the S t a r C h a m ber, B u r t o n , B a s t w i c k , P r y n n e , L i l b u m e , a n d L e i g h t o n , w e r e set free b y o r d e r o f p a r l i a m e n t a n d entered L o n d o n i n t r i u m p h . M o n o p o l i e s w e r e d e n o u n c e d , a n d i t w a s o r d e r e d that m e m b e r s c o n c e r n e d i n t h e m s h o u l d be d e b a r r e d f r o m s i t t i n g i n t h e house. I t w a s r e s o l v e d t h a t s h i p - m o n e y was a n u n l a w f u l t a x , a n d t h a t t h e j u d g e s w h o h a d g i v e n a c o n t r a r y j u d g m e n t h a d b r o k e n the
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law. T h e canons l a t e l y passed b y c o n v o c a t i o n a n d the etcetera o a t h " were d e c l a r e d i l l e g a l . C a t h o l i c officers w e r e t o be dism i s s e d f r o m t h e a r m y a n d t h e l a w s a g a i n s t recusants w e r e t o be r i g o r o u s l y enforced. I n o r d e r t o r e m e d y the grievance w h i c h was the root o f a l l the rest. S t r o d e brought i n a b i l l for a n n u a l p a r l i a m e n t s . I t d i d n o m o r e t h a n reaffirm t w o m e d i e v a l statutes a n d the m e d i e v a l p r a c t i c e d o w n t o the W a r s o f the Roses. I t therefore passed the s e c o n d r e a d i n g a n d was referred to a c o m m i t t e e . B u t there w e r e s o l i d reasons a g a i n s t c a l l i n g a n e w p a r l i a m e n t e v e r y year, a n d s u c h a measure w o u l d have been resisted, p r o b a b l y b y the l o r d s , c e r t a i n l y b y the k i n g . Strode's b i l l w a s therefore t r a n s f o r m e d i n c o m m i t t e e i n t o a triennial bill. T h e p o l i t i c a l p r i n c i p l e s o f the k i n g a n d o f t h e houses c o u l d never have been h a r m o n i s e d , b u t here t h e k i n g stood a l m o s t alone, the n a t i o n was w i t h the p a r l i a m e n t a n d therefore t h e k i n g w o u l d h a v e t o s u b m i t . U p o n ecclesiastical questions the m a j o r i t y o f the house o f c o m m o n s at least w a s e q u a l l y adverse to the k i n g , b u t here the n a t i o n w a s f a r m o r e d e e p l y d i v i d e d , a n d the k i n g was far m o r e l i k e l y t o find t h e means o f resistance. T h a t conflict w h i c h began w i t h t h e r e f o r m a t i o n , t h e conflict o f p r i v a t e j u d g m e n t against ecclesiastical a u t h o r i t y , was s t i l l i n progress. H a r d l y a n y one d e s i r e d full f r e e d o m o f conscience, but m e n were n o t agreed as t o w h e r e c o e r c i v e p o w e r s h o u l d reside o r as to h o w i t s h o u l d be e x e r c i s e d . T h e bishops a n d the p u r i t a n ministers a l i k e w i s h e d t o k e e p s u c h p o w e r i n the h a n d s o f the c l e r g y , w h i l e l a w y e r s a n d p o l i t i c i a n s v e r y g e n e r a l l y t h o u g h t t h a t i t s h o u l d be r e t a i n e d b y t h e state, a l t h o u g h t h e y m i g h t d i s p u t e h o w far the k i n g a n d h o w far t h e p a r l i a m e n t s h o u l d w i e l d t h e state's a u t h o r i t y . W h a t m i g h t be t o l e r a t e d , a n d w h a t m u s t be suppressed, w a s a f u r t h e r q u e s t i o n o n w h i c h the u t m o s t d i v e r s i t y o f o p i n i o n p r e v a i l e d . N e a r l y the whole nation disapproved o f the w a y i n w h i c h L a u d a n d his b r e t h r e n h a d e x e r c i s e d t h e i r p o w e r . W h e n t h e p a r l i a m e n t met, m o s t p e o p l e w e r e r e a d y t o l i m i t e p i s c o p a l j u r i s d i c t i o n , b u t t h e y were n o t o p p o s e d t o e p i s c o p a c y i n itself) s t i l l less t o the r e c e i v e d f o r m o f p u b l i c w o r s h i p . T h e y were g u i d e d b y n o l o g i c a l theory, b u t b y t h e E n g l i s h d i s t r u s t o f e x t r e m e courses. A p a r t o f the p u b l i c w e n t further a n d w i s h e d t o d e p r i v e the c l e r g y o f a l l t e m p o r a l p o w e r . H e r e political

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p r e c a u t i o n c a m e i n a i d o f d i s l i k e t o t h e bishops. I n the h o u s e C H A P , o f l o r d s , t h e n a s m a l l assembly, the v o t e s o f t h e bishops, onefifth o f t h e w h o l e , w e r e i n v a r i a b l y cast for t h e c r o w n , a n d , as t h e c r o w n a p p o i n t e d the b i s h o p s , t h e r e w a s l i t t l e h o p e o f a n y c h a n g e i n t h i s respect. B u t t h i s o p i n i o n i n v o l v e d n o j u d g m e n t o n e p i s c o p a c y as a m o d e o f C h u r c h g o v e r n m e n t a n d n o e n m i t y t o the B o o k o f C o m m o n P r a y e r . T h e r e was, h o w e v e r , a p r e s b y t e r i a n p a r t y i n the s t r i c t sense o f t h a t t e r m , w h i c h r e g a r d e d e p i s c o p a c y as c o n t r a r y t o t h e W o r d o f G o d a n d f o u n d fault w i t h the B o o k o f C o m m o n P r a y e r , p r e f e r r i n g a f o r m o f w o r s h i p like that of S c o t l a n d or G e n e v a T h i s party was n u m e r o u s i n t h e m i d d l e class, e s p e c i a l l y a m o n g t h o s e e n g a g e d i n i n d u s t r y a n d commerce, a n d was accordingly powerful i n L o n d o n a n d o t h e r l a r g e t o w n s , b u t i t was a s m a l l m i n o r i t y o f the nation. It was h i g h l y intolerant, especially o f Catholicism, a n d i t l o o k e d for s u p p o r t t o t h e S c o t s , w i t h w h o m i t w a s i n full s y m p a t h y . L a s t l y , there r e m a i n e d a p a r t y , s t i l l w e a k a n d obscure, w h i c h disliked a l l general systems o f C h u r c h governm e n t a n d d e m a n d e d f r e e d o m for e v e r y c o n g r e g a t i o n o f C h r i s t i a n m e n , t h e p a r t y k n o w n as B r o w n i s t s o r i n d e p e n d e n t s . This p a r t y was h o s t i l e t o t h e b i s h o p s , b y w h o m i t h a d b e e n persec u t e d a n d i t r e g a r d e d the R o m a n c a t h o l i c s as d a n g e r o u s t o t h e s t a t e j b u t i t w a s i n c l i n e d t o t o l e r a t i o n b y its first p r i n c i p l e s a n d s t i l l m o r e b y the c i r c u m s t a n c e t h a t it was w e a k a n d c o n d e m n e d as s c h i s m a t i c a n d lawless b y a l l other p a r t i e s . T h e p a r l i a m e n t i t s e l f was f a r f r o m s h a r i n g t h e fierce d o c t r i n a l z e a l o f t h e S c o t t i s h p a r l i a m e n t a n d g e n e r a l assembly. I t w i s h e d t o d e p r i v e the c l e r g y of t h a t p o w e r i n p o l i t i c a l affairs w h i c h t h e y h a d g a i n e d t h r o u g h the k i n g ' s f a v o u r a n d t o secure the ordinary puritan from annoyance, but it d i d not wish to c a r r y r e f o r m m u c h further. F r o m its first a s s e m b l i n g it rec e i v e d m a n y petitions c o m p l a i n i n g o f the recent canons, o f t h e increase i n i d l e ceremonies, o f t h e n e g l e c t s h o w n for the L o r d ' s d a y , a n d of other puritan grievances, a n d d e m a n d i n g reformation. F a r m o r e n o t e w o r t h y w a s a p e t i t i o n s i g n e d b y some 15,000 L o n d o n e r s a n d p r e s e n t e d t o the house i n D e c e m b e r , w h i c h called for the total abolition of episcopacy, the p o l i c y
1
1

D r . W . A . Shaw, i n his English

Church during" the Civil Wars and under

the Commonwealth,

v o l . i . , ch. i . , throws m u c h light o n the feeling i n parlia-

m e n t a n d the country with respect to ecclesiastical matters.

232 2HAP.

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a f t e r w a r d s k n o w n as r o o t a n d b r a n c h There followed a l o n g debate as t o w h e t h e r t h e p e t i t i o n s h o u l d be referred t o a c o m m i t t e e , the first debate w h i c h b e t r a y e d a n y serious difference a m o n g t h e c o m m o n s . A t length, without expressing a n y o p i n i o n o n the p r a y e r o f t h e p e t i t i o n , t h e y a g r e e d to m a k e t h e reference. M a n y o t h e r p e t i t i o n s f o r c h a n g e i n the C h u r c h w e r e r e c e i v e d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g weeks, b u t t h e house, b e i n g f u l l y o c c u p i e d w i t h s e c u l a r business a n d p e r h a p s d i m l y c o n s c i o u s o f t h e danger o f d i s s e n s i o n , w a s s l o w t o e n t e r u p o n ecclesiastical affairs. T h e p a r l i a m e n t h a d also to c o n s i d e r w h a t s h o u l d b e d o n e w i t h t h e three a r m i e s t h e n o n foot j t h e I r i s h w h i c h i t r e g a r d e d as hostile, t h e S c o t t i s h w h i c h i t r e g a r d e d as f r i e n d l y , a n d the E n g l i s h w h i c h i t h a r d l y k n e w w h e t h e r t o r e g a r d as f r i e n d l y o r hostile. A c o m m i t t e e o f the c o m m o n s o n t h e I r i s h a r m y p r o posed a j o i n t p e t i t i o n o f t h e houses for t h e d i s b a n d m e n t o f this dangerous force, a n d the c o m m o n s d e c i d e d t o a s k t h e l o r d s for a conference o n t h e subject. E n g l i s h and Scottish commissioners w e r e n e g o t i a t i n g a d e f i n i t i v e t r e a t y o f peace, a n d t h e S c o t s d e m a n d e d t h a t E n g l a n d , besides m a i n t a i n i n g t h e i r a r m y i n the n o r t h , s h o u l d bear a large part o f t h e e x p e n s e s o f t h e recent c a m p a i g n . A l t h o u g h t h e y w e r e n o t p o p u l a r , t h e c o m mons, w h o feared their w i t h d r a w a l , a g r e e d t o g r a n t t h e m " a b r o t h e r l y assistance," afterwards f i x e d at ^"300,000. T h e E n g l i s h a r m y was a l s o c o s t l y . W i t h these e x p e n s e s a n d w i t h a l l h i s unlawful sources o f r e v e n u e d r i e d u p , the k i n g w a s i n t h e u t m o s t poverty. T h e house, r e a d y t o r e l i e v e h i m i n s u c h a m a n n e r as s h o u l d n o t e n a b l e h i m to i g n o r e its wishes, v o t e d f o u r subsidies i n t h e course o f D e c e m b e r , a n d r e t u r n e d t o t h e c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f the k i n g ' s r e v e n u e after C h r i s t m a s , w h e n i t l e a r n e d that n o balance sheet h a d b e e n m a d e out f o r a n y y e a r after 1635* a n d was thus o b l i g e d t o w a i t f o r f u l l e r i n f o r m a t i o n .
1 r

Since the m e e t i n g of parliament the k i n g h a d found himself r e d u c e d f r o m a l m o s t absolute p o w e r t o m e r e l y n o m i n a l a u t h o r ity. A l r e a d y he began to look abroad for support, a n d hoped t o secure D u t c h a i d b y m a r r y i n g h i s d a u g h t e r M a r y to W i l l i a m , s o n o f F r e d e r i c k H e n r y , P r i n c e o f O r a n g e , w h o s e g r e a t talents a n d services g a v e h i m a l m o s t k i n g l y p o w e r i n t h a t r e p u b l i c . .
* R u s hworth, iv., 93*

[641

THE

TRIENNIAL

ACT

233 CHAP,

l e n r i e t t a M a r i a w a s s t i l l i m p o r t u n i n g the p o p s for warmed .ssistance a g a i n s t E n g l i s h h e r e t i c s . Charles showed a com>lying t e m p e r i n s o m e p a r t i c u l a r s . H e a n n o u n c e d t h a t the udges s h o u l d h e n c e f o r w a r d h o l d office d u r i n g g o o d b e h a v i o u r .nd n o t d u r i n g pleasure. H e g a v e the p l a c e o f s o l i c i t o r - g e n e r a l o S t . J o h n , o n e o f t h e fiercest e n e m i e s o f p r e r o g a t i v e g o v e r n nent, b u t h e s t i l l h o p e d t o p r e s e r v e h i s r e g a l p o w e r u n d i m i n ;hed. I n J a n u a r y , 1641, h e s u m m o n e d t h e houses t o W h i t e h a l l , n d w h i l e professing h i s readiness t h a t a l l m a t t e r s o f r e l i g i o n n d government should be reduced to what they were i n the urest t i m e s o f Q u e e n E l i z a b e t h , h e w a r n e d t h e m t h a t h e w o u l d e v e r a l l o w t h e b i s h o p s t o be r e m o v e d f r o m t h e house o f l o r d s , r f o r e g o t h e p r e r o g a t i v e o f s u m m o n i n g p a r l i a m e n t s as h e l o u g h t proper. N o t w i t h s t a n d i n g this declaration the b i l l to sgulate the meeting o f parliament passed t h e lords, and, a l o n g rith a s u b s i d y b i l l , w a s t e n d e r e d f o r t h e k i n g ' s a c c e p t a n c e o n February 15. O n t h e f o l l o w i n g d a y , s e e i n g n o o t h e r course p e n , h e g a v e h i s assent. T h e t r i e n n i a l a c t o f 1641 m u s t b e c a r e f u l l y d i s t i n g u i s h e d r o m t h e t r i e n n i a l act o f 1694* p u r p o r t was n o t t o l i m i t t h e fe o f a p a r l i a m e n t t o t h r e e y e a r s , b u t t o i n s u r e t h a t t h e i n s r v a l b e t w e e n t w o sessions o f p a r l i a m e n t s h o u l d n e v e r e x c e e d hat p e r i o d . I t p r o v i d e d that, i n c a s e t h r e e y e a r s s h o u l d h a v e lapsed since a dissolution or prorogation, the l o r d chancellor r lord keeper should, without awaiting any direction from the :ing, issue t h e w r i t s for t h e m e e t i n g o f a n e w p a r l i a m e n t , f h e f o r b o r e t o d o so, h e w a s t o b e i n c a p a b l e o f h o l d i n g h i s ffice a n d l i a b l e t o s u c h p u n i s h m e n t as t h e n e x t p a r l i a m e n t h o u l d inflict. I n h i s d e f a u l t , t h e peers w e r e e n j o i n e d t o meet t W e s t m i n s t e r a n d t o issue t h e w r i t s . S h o u l d t h e peers f a i l o issue t h e w r i t s , e a c h i n d i v i d u a l p e e r w a s r e q u i r e d n o n e t h e *ss t o a t t e n d p a r l i a m e n t . T h e sheriffs w e r e r e q u i r e d t o h o l d he e l e c t i o n s o f m e m b e r s o f t h e h o u s e o f c o m m o n s i n t h e s a m e manner as t h o u g h t h e y h a d r e c e i v e d t h e usual w r i t s for t h a t rnrpose, a n d t h e p e r s o n s t h u s c h o s e n were r e q u i r e d t o m e e t rithin a c e r t a i n t i m e . I n t h e d e f a u l t o f t h e sheriffs t h e freeo l d e r s o f e v e r y c o u n t y a n d t h e burgesses o f e v e r y b o r o u g h fere t o a s s e m b l e o f t h e i r o w n m o t i o n a n d t o elect t h e i r r e p r e entatives. A n y n e g l e c t t o c a r r y o u t these p r o v i s i o n s a n d a n y t t e m p t t o i n t e r f e r e w i t h t h e elections h e l d u n d e r t h e m w e r e

2 34 xf *
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^ *y P i ^ ^l N o p a r l i a m e n t h e n c e f o r w a r d was to be d i s s o l v e d o r p r o r o g u e d w i t h i n fifty d a y s after its m e e t i n g w i t h o u t the assent o f b o t h houses, n o r w a s either house t o be a d j o u r n e d w i t h o u t its o w n assent. A s a final security, this statute was t o be s o l e m n l y r e a d once a y e a r at q u a r t e r sessions a n d at the assizes. T h u s e v e r y possible p r e c a u t i o n was t a k e n against t h e u n w i l l i n g n e s s o f t h e s o v e r e i g n to meet p a r l i a m e n t . T h e act was necessary i f p a r l i a m e n t was n o t t o f a l l i n t o desuetude, b u t i t m a d e a r e v o l u t i o n a n d i t s h o w e d i n e v e r y l i n e a p r o f o u n d distrust o f the k i n g . T h e articles o f i m p e a c h m e n t against S t r a f f o r d h a d been c o m p l e t e d a n d sent u p to the l o r d s b y t h e e n d o f J a n u a r y . In spite o f the displeasure o f the c o m m o n s , w h o feared t h e p r i s o n e r t o o m u c h t o be j u s t or reasonable, t h e l o r d s a l l o w e d h i m m o r e t h a n three w e e k s to prepare h i s answer t o the articles. On F e b r u a r y 24 S t r a f f o r d was b r o u g h t t o W e s t m i n s t e r t o p u t i n his answer. N e a r l y a m o n t h m o r e elapsed before the a c t u a l t r i a l began o n M a r c h 22. N o t i n t h e m e m o r y o f l i v i n g m a n h a d there been k n o w n a t r i a l so m o m e n t o u s , for B a c o n a n d M i d d l e s e x h a d been c h a r g e d o n l y w i t h breaches o f c o m m o n d u t y i n t h e i r several offices, n o t w i t h a n y e n d e a v o u r to subvert the laws o r change t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n o f E n g l a n d . I n Strafford's person the k i n g h i m s e l f was i m p e a c h e d , for, i n spite o f reverential forms, e v e r y b o d y k n e w t h a t the acts c h a r g e d against Strafford h a d been done to enlarge t h e k i n g ' s p o w e r a n d w i t h the k i n g ' s a p p r o v a l . T h e d a n g e r feared b y the k i n g i f he s h o u l d a l l o w Strafford's c o n d e m n a t i o n , a n d t h e d a n g e r feared b y the w h o l e p a r t y o f r e f o r m i f t h e y s h o u l d fail t o secure it, m a d e t h e t r i a l a p o l i t i c a l conflict, a m o r t a l s t r u g g l e b e t w e e n t h e t w o highest powers i n the c o m m o n w e a l t h . W e s t m i n s t e r h a l l alone c o u l d suffice for s u c h a t r i a l . I t h a d b e e n f i t t e d w i t h seats for t h e l o r d s w h o w e r e t o t r y a n d for the c o m m o n s w h o were to accuse \ for the j u d g e s a n d for other persons w h o s e assistance m i g h t be n e e d e d ; a n d for the spectators, w h o c a m e i n great n u m b e r s . A throne h a d been set for the k i n g , b u t h e preferred t o o c c u p y a b o x p r o v i d e d for t h e queen, w h e r e h e c o u l d w a t c h the p r o ceedings w i t h o u t b e i n g f o r m a l l y c o n s i d e r e d present.
1

T h e case against

Strafford

was o p e n e d

by

Pym.

Its

* 16 Car. I., ch. i .

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w e a k n e s s l a y i n the a t t e m p t t o c o n s t r u c t a charge o f C H A P , treason o u t o f a m u l t i t u d e o f acts w h i c h w e r e n o t treasonable a c c o r d i n g t o t h e l a w as t h e n u n d e r s t o o d . W i t h regard to S t r a f f o r d ' s a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f I r e l a n d it was e a s y t o p r o v e i n stances o f o v e r w e e n i n g c o n t e m p t for l a w , b u t s u c h a c t s t h o u g h t h e y m i g h t b e g r a v e m i s d e m e a n o u r s , c o u l d n o t be c o n s t r u e d as treason. W i t h regard t o E n g l a n d the accusers w e r e f o r c e d t o r e l y u p o n the language i m p u t e d to Strafford i n the p r i v y c o u n c i l after t h e d i s s o l u t i o n o f t h e last p a r l i a m e n t . They had c o m e t o k n o w o f this l a n g u a g e t h r o u g h t h e y o u n g e r V a n e w h o h a d m a d e a c o p y o f n o t e s t a k e n b y h i s father S i r H e n r y , t h e secretary, a c c o r d i n g t o w h i c h S t r a f f o r d h a d t o l d t h e k i n g t h a t " he was to d o everything that p o w e r w o u l d admit," and that " he h a d a n a r m y i n Ireland w h i c h he might e m p l o y to reduce t h i s k i n g d o m " . T h e y c o n s t r u e d these w o r d s as a d v i c e t o t h e k i n g t o use t h e I r i s h a r m y i n k e e p i n g d o w n E n g l a n d , a n d t h e y f o u n d e d o n t h e w o r d s thus u n d e r s t o o d a c h a r g e of l e v y i n g w a r a g a i n s t the c r o w n d i s t i n g u i s h i n g , as w e s h o u l d do, t h e c r o w n i n i t s t e c h n i c a l , f r o m t h e c r o w n i n i t s n a t u r a l sense. B u t h e r e they encountered a threefold difficulty. I n order t o p r o v e a n o v e r t a c t o f treason t w o witnesses w e r e necessary. T h e o n l y a v a i l a b l e p r o o f i n the first i n s t a n c e was t o be f o u n d i n t h e copied notes shown to P y m b y the younger V a n e w h o was n o t a m e m b e r o f t h e c o u n c i l . H i s father's o r i g i n a l n o t e s h a d been d e s t r o y e d i n obedience t o a n o r d e r f r o m t h e k i n g . When the c o m m o n s had carried their point that p r i v y councillors m i g h t b e q u e s t i o n e d as t o w h a t t h e y h a d s a i d i n c o u n c i l , the e l d e r V a n e testified t o t h e w o r d s , b u t he was o n l y one witness. S e c o n d l y , t h e m e a n i n g o f t h e w o r d s h a d t o be ascertained. W h a t k i n g d o m was meant b y " this k i n g d o m " ? A s Charles w a s t h e n c o n s i d e r i n g h o w t o c a r r y o n t h e w a r against t h e S c o t s , " t h i s k i n g d o m " m i g h t as w e l l be S c o t l a n d as E n g l a n d , a n d s i n c e S c o t l a n d was a n i n d e p e n d e n t state, this c o n s t r u c t i o n w o u l d be f a t a l t o t h e p u r p o s e o f t h e accusers. V a n e w o u l d n o t t a k e u p o n h i m s e l f t o s a y w h i c h k i n g d o m was meant. Strafford d e n i e d t h e suggestion o f b r i n g i n g t h e I r i s h a r m y t o E n g l a n d . O f t h e r e m a i n i n g p r i v y c o u n c i l l o r s w h o h a d b e e n present w h e n S t r a f f o r d s p o k e , a l l w h o c o u l d be h e a r d , for L a u d a n d W i n d e b a n k w e r e d i s q u a l i f i e d as l y i n g themselves u n d e r i m p e a c h m e n t , testified that they could not remember any proposal b y Strafford

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PARLIAMENT

1641

C H A P , s u c h as was n o w alleged. T h u s i t s e e m e d i m p o s s i b l e t o p r o v e XI, t h a t t h e w o r d s h a d been u s e d i n t h e sense r e q u i r e d b y the impeachment. L a s t l y , t h e r e was the d i f f i c u l t y o f s h o w i n g t h a t t h e w o r d s , e v e n i f s p o k e n i n t h a t sense, a m o u n t e d t o treason. T h e l a w o f E n g l a n d knew o n l y o f treason against the k i n g a n d while he r e m a i n e d t h e r e a l h e a d o f t h e state, t h e d i s t i n c t i o n n o w so f a m i l i a r between t h e k i n g i n h i s p e r s o n a l , a n d t h e k i n g i n his p u b l i c capacity, was difficult, i f n o t i m p o s s i b l e , a n d h a d n e v e r been clearly m a d e . T h e l a w o f t r e a s o n h a d been stretched a n d p e r v e r t e d b y servile j u d g e s i n a t h o u s a n d w a y s , but a l w a y s i n order to strengthen the living, personal king. W h e n parliam e n t i n the f o u r t e e n t h a n d fifteenth centuries h a d b r o u g h t charges o f treason a g a i n s t m i n i s t e r s w h o s e r e a l fault was that, l i k e S t r a f f o r d , t h e y w e r e b e l i e v e d to e x e r t a m a l i g n influence o v e r t h e r e i g n i n g k i n g , i t h a d g e n e r a l l y , at w h a t e v e r cost t o t r u t h , c h a r g e d t h e m w i t h acts o f treason i n t h e l e g a l a n d l i t e r a l sense. T o give b a d advice to the k i n g , to advise h i m to break the law or t o use a n a r m y i n s l a u g h t e r i n g i n n o c e n t subjects, m i g h t w e l l be w i c k e d , m i g h t e v e n at l a w b e a m i s d e m e a n o u r , for p r i v y councillors w e r e a l w a y s a c k n o w l e d g e d t o b e a c c o u n t a b l e for advice given to the k i n g 5 but i n that age it c o u l d h a r d l y be b r o u g h t w i t h i n the r e c e i v e d d o c t r i n e o f treason. T h e treason c h a r g e d against S t r a f f o r d was r e a l l y t r e a s o n a g a i n s t t h e n a t i o n . S t r a f f o r d r e m i n d e d his j u d g e s t h a t , i f h e w e r e c o n d e m n e d , n o p e e r c o u l d h e n c e f o r t h b e safe i n a d v i s i n g t h e k i n g . L a b o u r i n g , as a l l accused persons t h e n d i d , u n d e r g r a v e disadvantages a n d c o n f r o n t e d w i t h the best t a l e n t o f t h e house o f c o m m o n s , h e m a d e a m a s t e r l y defence. I n t h e oft-quoted w o r d s o f W^hitelocke, w h o h a d a c t e d as c h a i r m a n o f t h e c o m m i t t e e for p r e p a r i n g t h e articles against S t r a f f o r d : " C e r t a i n l y never a n y m a n a c t e d s u c h a p a r t o n s u c h a theatre w i t h m o r e w i s d o m , constancy, a n d eloquence, w i t h g r e a t e r reason, j u d g m e n t a n d temper, a n d w i t h a b e t t e r g r a c e i n a l l h i s w o r d s a n d gestures, than this great a n d excellent person d i d , and he m o v e d the hearts o f a l l h i s a u d i t o r s (some f e w e x c e p t e d ) t o r e m o r s e a n d pity . A s t h e d a y s passed t h e l o r d s s e e m e d m o r e f a v o u r a b l e
w 1

t o w a r d s t h e prisoner, w h i l e t h e c o m m o n s b e c a m e
1

more i m -

Whitelocke, Memorials,

p. 44.

1641

THE

ARMY

PLOTS.

237

p a t i e n t , u n t i l a t l e n g t h t h e houses w e r e a l m o s t at v a r i a n c e ,

CHAP.
XI.

A _

:i

-r~

->i

a n d o n A p r i l 10 t n e l o r a s rose w i t n o u t n a m i n g a a a y o n w n i c n t o r e s u m e t h e h e a r i n g o f the i m p e a c h m e n t . Strafford himself felt h o p e f u l , b u t t h i n g s h a d h a p p e n e d elsewhere w h i c h r e d o u b l e d i n t h e c o m m o n s t h e i r distrust o f t h e k i n g a n d t h e i r r e s o l u t i o n t o p u t p a r l i a m e n t at a l l costs b e y o n d the r e a c h o f d a n g e r . T h e E n g l i s h a r m y i n the n o r t h was i n a b a d t e m p e r . It h a d e a r n e d n o t h i n g but disgrace i n t h e b r i e f c a m p a i g n o f 1640, a n d i t w a s n e g l e c t e d b y t h e house o f c o m m o n s i n contrast w i t h t h e S c o t t i s h a r m y w h i c h h a d t o be k e p t i n g o o d h u m o u r . S e v e r a l officers w h o w e r e also m e m b e r s o f p a r l i a m e n t , A s h burnham, Pollard,- W i l m o t , a n d H e n r y Percy, brother of the E a r l o f N o r t h u m b e r l a n d , agreed t h a t t h e y w o u l d canvass t h e i r c o m r a d e s t o s i g n a d e c l a r a t i o n p r o m i s i n g to s t a n d b y the k i n g , i f t h e p a r l i a m e n t pressed h i m t o o far. T h e y also e m p o w e r e d P e r c y t o p r o m i s e h i m t h e s u p p o r t o f t h e a r m y i n t h a t event. I n d e p e n d e n t l y o f these officers, S i r J o h n S u c k l i n g , a c o u r t i e r w h o is s t i l l r e m e m b e r e d for t h e a i r y g r a c e o f his poems, a n d H e n r y J e r m y n , t h e p e c u l i a r f a v o u r i t e o f H e n r i e t t a M a r i a , devised a s c h e m e for g e t t i n g c o n t r o l o f t h e a r m y . A s i t was k n o w n t h a t t h e E a r l o f N o r t h u m b e r l a n d w o u l d g l a d l y resign, t h e y p r o p o s e d t h a t t h e E a r l o f N e w c a s t l e s h o u l d succeed h i m as g e n e r a l a n d b r i n g t h e a r m y t o L o n d o n to assert t h e k i n g ' s cause. F o r lieutenant-general t h e y c h o s e C o l o n e l G e o r g e G o r i n g , w h o w a s w e l l k n o w n t o t h e queen, a n d h a d l a t e l y been a p p o i n t e d governor of Portsmouth. T h e y imparted their plot to the q u e e n w h o m a d e i t k n o w n t o t h e k i n g . I n t h e course o f S t r a f ford's t r i a l t h e k i n g , b e c o m i n g i m p a t i e n t t o r e g a i n t h e c o n t r o l o f affairs, a c c e p t e d P e r c y ' s offer o f h e l p f r o m t h e a r m y , b u t bade h i m c o n f e r w i t h S u c k l i n g o n a c o m b i n a t i o n o f t h e t w o projects. P e r c y a n d h i s friends w o u l d n o t h e a r o f a n i m m e d i a t e m a r c h on L o n d o n nor of the appointment of Newcastle and Goring. G o r i n g , t h u s baffled o f h i s a m b i t i o n a n d v o i d o f s c r u p l e , rev e a l e d t h e secret to t h e p a r l i a m e n t a r y leaders. A s h e h a d a s k e d t h a t h i s p a r t i n t h e m a t t e r s h o u l d n o t be m a d e k n o w n , t h e y s a i d n o t h i n g i n p u b l i c ; b u t t h e y w e r e f u l l y aware o f t h e d a n g e r i n w h i c h t h e y s t o o d a n d a l l t h e m o r e resolute t o p u s h S t r a f f o r d ' s i m p e a c h m e n t to t h e u t t e r m o s t . T h e g r i m a p o p h t h e g m o f t h e E a r l o f E s s e x , " S t o n e d e a d h a t h n o fellow," o n l y p u t i n t o w o r d s w h a t t h e m a j o r i t y o f t h e c o m m o n s felt i n t h e i r hearts.

238
CHAP.

FIRST

SESSION

OF

THE

LONG

PARLIAMENT.

1641

After the proceedings in ^Westminster ha.ll on the 10th, the fiercest enemies of Strafford, the ^inflexible" party, so-called, could no longer stomach the delays of the impeachment or the chance that the prisoner might escape after all. T h e y resolved to copy a Tudor precedent and to proceed against him by bill of attainder. Doubts of law and defects of evidence would thus be cured, but at the cost of dropping all semblance of judicial procedure. P y m and Hampden did not approve this course, but influential as they were, they did not lead the house in the modem acceptation of that term. T h e bill was read a first time that very day. Displeased at an attempt to remove out of their court a case already pending there, the lords made known that they would go on with the trial and deliver judgment in due course. The commons replied that they meant, notwithstanding, to proceed with the bill of attainder. They were not, however, united, for P y m and Hampden urged that they were bound in honour to prosecute the impeachment. The house therefore consented to attend in Westminster hall and hear the arguments of Strafford's counsel on the point of law, but would yield nothing further. O n A p r i l 21 the third reading of the bill of attainder was earned b y 204 votes to 59> a large relative majority, but less than one-half of the entire house. Selden, the calmest and most judicial, and Digby, hitherto among the most eager of the reformers, voted in the minority. It is remarkable that not only P y m , who despaired of keeping the commons to the impeachment, but Falkland, one of the most candid and scrupulous men in parliament, or indeed i n the country, should have voted for the attainder. In the house of lords the action of the commons had given general offence and a majority of peers led by Bristol wished to spare Strafford's life. But the king did nothing to inspirit them or to disarm suspicion, while the city lent its weight to the lower house, sending up a petition with 20,000 names annexed for Strafford's execution. At length the commons persuaded the lords to consider the bill of attainder, by promising to reply to the arguments of Strafford s counsel as directed to the question whether the bill ought to pass, not to the decision on the i m 1
1

Gardiner (ch. xcviii.) thinks that H a z l e r i g g and M a r t e n were a m o n g the

prime movers of the bill of attainder.

1641

THE

KING'S

ATTEMPT

TO

SAVE

STRAFFORD.

239

peachment. O n the 27th the bill was read a second time in the C H A P , upper house. A t this critical moment all that the king and queen did or said was hurtful to the prisoner. Charles spoke of going down to Yorkshire to take command of the army. H e told the parliament that he would not disband the Irish army until the E n g l i s h and Scottish armies had been disbanded. H e thought of taking refuge with the queen at Portsmouth, rallying all the forces which could be trusted, and dissolving the parliament. N o secrets could be kept at Whitehall, and every rumour found ready credence with a public which lived in habitual dread of popish conspiracy and saw in a papist queen the natural promoter of every reckless design. After the second reading came the legal arguments on the bill of attainder. St. John, the solicitor-general, spoke for the commons with a rancour more easy to understand than to excuse. W e give law," he said, to hares and deer because they be beasts of chase j it was never accounted either cruelty or foul play to knock foxes and wolves on the head as they can be found, because they be beasts of p r e y . " Bristol advised Charles to save Strafford, i f it were possible, by promising never to employ him again. O n M a y 1, accordingly, Charles summoned the houses to his presence and assured them that no one had ever advised h i m to bring over the Irish army or to change the laws of England, or had asserted in his presence the disloyalty of his English subjects. H e had resolved that Strafford was unfit to serve h i m even in the office of a constable, and he hoped that a way might be found to satisfy justice without pressing on his conscience. "Certainly," the k i n g added, " he that thinks him guilty of h i g h treason in his conscience may condemn him of misdemeanour." Thus to interpose when a bill was under discussion was unusual and unwise, for it would probably displease the lords and would certainly anger the commons. A l m o s t immediately afterwards Charles tried to regain command of the Tower by introducing a hundred trusty men, but the lieutenant, S i r W i l l i a m Balfour, a staunch Scot, refused to let them enter, and warned the parliamentary leaders.
f< 1

In the city popular passion broke loose from all control and
1

Rushworth, Stfaffotd?s

Ttial, p. 703*

240 CHAP,
X L

FIRST

SESSION

OF

THE

LONG

PARLIAMENT.

1641

a mob, not merely of the lowest class, came down to Westminster and beset the parliament, clamouring for justice and for Strafford's head. T h e names of the members o f the house of commons who had voted against the bill o f attainder were posted up at Westminster under the title o f " Straffordians, betrayers o f their c o u n t r y P y m declared that the king's interference was a breach of privilege, a n d moved for a committee to draw up a protestation binding the members to defend the protestant religion, the king s person, the privileges of parliament, and the liberties of the subject. H i s motion was carried and the protestation was taken, not only b y the commons but b y all the protestant lords, after which the clergy and citizens of L o n d o n were invited to give their signatures. A t the same time the lords inquired into the attempt on the Tower and ordered a reinforcement of the garrison. P y m told the commons what he had learnt of the plot to bring the army up to London, whereupon the commons asked the lords to hold an inquiry and to join in a petition to the k i n g that a l l persons attending the court should be hindered from quitting England. T h e lords agreed to both requests and the k i n g gave the desired orders. T h e n came the news that several of the ringleaders i n the plot had fled to France the night before they should have been examined b y the lords. O n M a y 8 the lords read the bill of attainder a third time b y 26 votes to 19* M a n y peers absented themselves, whether i n fear of violence or i n despair at the treachery of the court, and some may have voted in the majority for no better reason. T h e lords also passed a bill sent up by the commons, enacting that the parliament should not be dissolved without its own consent. In a letter of singular dignity a n d p a t h o s Strafford had besought the king to accept the bill o f attainder i n order to prevent worse consequences. T w i c e it was pressed on his acceptance b y deputations from the house o f lords and yet a third time b y both houses, while outside W h i t e h a l l the tumult swelled and the ways were beset w i t h a n angry throng, some of them i n arms. N e x t morning the bewildered k i n g summoned his council, who urged submission. H e consulted the judges who declared that they held Strafford guilty of treason.
1 2
a

Lords Journals, iv., 234* R u s h w o r t h , Strafford?s Trial,

p . 743*

1641

EXECUTION

OF

STRAFFORD.

241 CHAP,
A

H e appealed to the bishops who gave different opinions. A t nine in the evening he bent to his hard fate. " If m y own person only were in danger, I would gladly venture it to save L o r d Strafford s l i f e ; but seeing m y wife, children, and a l l m y kingdom are concerned in it, 1 am forced to give way to it. O n the following day he signed a commission empowering his assent to be given to the bill of attainder * and the bill forbidding a dissolution of the parliament.^ " M y lord of Strafford's condition," he added, " is more happy than mine." H e made yet a last appeal to the houses to spare Strafford, but he had b y his own acts killed the confidence which might have aided his entreaty. Strafford learned with a natural pang that his master had i n truth accepted his magnanimous proffer of life. " Put not your trust i n princes," he exclaimed, nor in the sons of men, for m them there is no salvation. T h e execution was appointed for M a y 12. F i n d i n g that he could not see L a u d without an order from the parliament, he would not trouble them but sent a message begging the archbishop to be at the window on that morning and to give him the last blessing. A s Strafford passed to his doom he looked up, and saw Laud's hands raised in benediction. H e died proud and unshaken. A n honest mind revolts from forced interpretations of the law and the clamour of the crowd as means of bringing a dangerous man to the scaffold, but Strafford's fate would inspire more compassion could we forget his own readiness to use violence and his own contempt for equity. Possessed of high executive talent, he wanted the temper and insight of the true statesman, and despite a certain magnificence of character he was thoroughly unscrupulous and tyrannical. Charles was pursued to the end by remorse for his part i n Strafford s death, and the infinite degradation of his surrender must have envenomed his hatred of the parliamentary leaders. N o r could they as rational men fail to surmise what he felt and take their measures accordingly.
<

U p o n the necessity of preventing any return to personal government both houses were still agreed. W i t h i n the four months between Strafford's execution and the rising of parliament, all the extraordinary courts of justice set up b y the
1

F o r the text o f the act of attainder, see Rushworth, iv., 262. 16 C a r . I., c h .
VII.

V O L .

l6

242
CHAP.
X L

FIRST

SESSION

OF

THE

LONG

PARLIAMENT

1641

Tudors were abolished, and all the irregular ways of levying money practised by them or b y the Stuarts, save such as already stood prohibited in the Petition of Right, were forbidden by statute. A bill especially promoted b y H y d e dissolved the court of star chamber, the court of the council of the north, and the court of the council of Wales, thus reducing the whole kingdom to the uniform jurisdiction of the courts of common law. A l l who had taken part in the collection of customs or impositions without parliamentary grant were voted delinquents, but were suffered to compound for their offence by paying 50,000. T h e tonnage and poundage act declared the taking of all such duties without consent of parliament illegal and punishable, and then granted them to the king, not for life nor for a term of years, but only until July 15 next ensuing. S el den had the honour of introducing three bills which declared ship-money, the distraint of knighthood, and the enlargement of the forests respectively to be unlawful. A l l passed through both houses without demur and Charles had no choice but to accept them. It might seem that the E n g l i s h constitution had been brought almost to its modern form. T h e k i n g had .been d i vested as thoroughly as laws could do it of all power to tax or to put constraint on the subject by means of any arbitrary jurisdiction. H e could not defer meeting parliament more than three years and he could hardly hope to do without its help so long. Parliamentary criticism of the government would be certain, regular, and full. I n choosing his ministers the king would have to consider before everything else the wishes of parliament, and by an easy transition parliament would gain a virtual power of choice. Such a system might well be beneficial, but it was possible only on condition that the k i n g and the parliament should accept it without reserve and work together with unfeigned good-will. Charles, whose authority had been much ampler and who firmly believed that no restraint upon his authority was binding longei than he thought it expedient, was not likely to practise so much self-denial. Changes of this sort can seldom be effected without a change of the sovereign or even of the dynasty. Still the king might have submitted to
1 2 3

^ 17 C a r . I., c h . x.
3

^16 C a r . I., ch. viii.

17

C a r . I., ch. xiv., xvi. a n d xx. respectively.

1641

PA RLIAMENT

A JVD EPIS

COP A C Y.

43
CHAP,

political restraints enforced by an almost unanimous people, had he not been opposed to the majority of the commons on the question of Church government and ceremonies, where he had a far better chance of making friends and adherents. Since the presenting of the root and branch petition in December, other petitions for reform i n the Church had crowded upon the commons, notably the ministers' petition and remonstrance, signed by joo or 800 clergymen, complaining of the errors in the Prayer Book, the growth of ceremonies, and the abuse of power by the bishops, but not demanding the suppression of their office. O n the question of referring these petitions to a committee there arose a debate which lasted over February 8 and 9 and revealed more fully the difference of opinion in the house of commons. Almost all the speakers blamed the bishops for the manner in which they had exercised their authority and were ready to divest them of secular functions. But some able men and zealous reformers such as Culpepper, Digby, and Falkland avowed their attachment to " p r i m i t i v e " episcopacy. In M a r c h the committee brought up its report and the house resolved that the employment of clergymen in temporal offices was a hindrance to the discharge of their spiritual function and prejudicial to the commonwealth. A bill to remove the bishops from the house of lords was introduced on the 30th, and after long delays caused b y Strafford's trial, was read a third time at the end of M a y . T h e lords were willing to deprive the bishops of their voices i n the Star Chamber but not of their seats in the upper house. A conference with the commons left them unchanged and they threw out the bill in the beginning of June. Their resistance had only heightened the zeal of the commons. There on M a y 27 a bill was introduced to abolish episcopal government altogether. It probably had its origin with two men who were gradually rising to influence, although their religious opinions were not those of the majority, the younger V a n e and Oliver Cromwell but the first reading was moved by S i r E d w a r d Dering, a man now wholly forgotten. In the discussion of this bill the rift between parties i n the
1 2 3 m f
1

T h a t is, episcopacy as it h a d existed i n the primitive C h u r c h , w h e n the Commons' Journals, ii., n o .

8

power o f the bishop was supposed to have been less than i n later times.
3

l6 *

Lords

Journals,

iv., 269.

244 CHAP,

FIRST

SESSION

OF

THE

LONG

PARLIAMENT

1641

house grew wider and deeper, although the difference was hardly one of principle. F e w of the leaders regarded episcopacy as either ordained or condemned b y God, O n the one side P y m and Hampden, who had no objection to a reformed and limited episcopacy, supported the bill, partly perhaps in the exasperation of the recent check, but more from the feeling that the bishops were a l l on the side of the prerogative and would be the most effective agents of that reaction which caused them a perpetual haunting fear. O n the other side Selden who resisted the bill has observed in his Tubls Talk, " They are equally mad who say that bishops are so jure divmo that they must be continued j and they who say, they are so antichristian that they must be put away. A l l is as the state wills." Selden preferred episcopacy to presbytery because he thought it more favourable to learning and somewhat less hostile to freedom of thought. E v e n men like Culpepper, H y d e , and Falkland, who resisted the bill with more warmth than Selden, would not have said that episcopacy was the only lawful government and certainly did not spare the faults of the actual bishops. T h e second reading was carried by 139 votes to 108, but the debates in committee were long and strenuous. It was resolved that the bill should include the suppression of deans and chapters and of the ecclesiastical courts. A t the same time few wished to set up such a presbyterian system as prevailed in Scotland. V a n e proposed to vest jurisdiction in a body of commissioners, partly clerical, partly lay, and the house resolved that all the commissioners should be laymen. In July the house was recalled to the cares of this world by the king's resolution to visit Scotland, so that the bill never emerged from the commons. The lords approached the question of Church government in a more conservative spirit. O n March 1 they appointed a committee for religion empowering it to consult such learned divines as it thought proper. Williams, who had regained his freedom soon after the meeting of parliament, was the presiding member. T o this committee different schemes of Church government were submitted, the best known being Archbishop Ussher's model, in which power was given to synods of the diocese and province, with the bishop and archbishop respectively as presidents. Williams himself had a plan b y which every

1641

THE

ECCLESIASTICAL

COURTS.

245
CHAP,

bishop was to act with twelve assistants, four chosen b y the king, four by the lords, and four b y the commons. A bill on this principle was brought into the lords, read twice, and allowed to drop. None of these mixed forms of Church government caught the public ear or kindled enthusiasm. T h e authority of bishops remained legally the same until it was swept away al together. A l t h o u g h the differences respecting Church government could not be reconciled, men were generally agreed as to the necessity of restraining the Church courts. A bill to abolish the court of high commission was brought into the house of commons on June 8. N o new court of that description was to be erected in future. N o ecclesiastical judge was thenceforward to inflict any pains or penalties on any of the king's subjects or administer any oath whereby they might be required to accuse themselves. T h e bill passed smoothly through both houses and was unwillingly accepted by the king. It was a memorable protest against the medieval conceptions of a Church enforcing its laws by punishment and of a state putting its powers at the disposal of the Church, conceptions still upheld b y a majority of the puritans. T h e houses also busied themselves with removing what they held to be superstitious innovations, ordered the communion-table to be set in the middle of the churches, and sent commissioners into the shires to remove images, pictures, ornaments, and relics of idolatry. A bill to end the ancient grievance of pluralities was introduced into the commons in February, 1641? but was baffled by the frequent interruptions of the time. Efforts were made to enforce what the puritans considered the proper observance of Sunday. Through its committees for scandalous ministers and for deprived ministers the house of commons was sedulous i n punishing those whom it regarded as offenders and granting reparation to those whom it regarded as victims. Gradually the parliament came to make itself the direct ruler in the Church as well as i n the State, and mainly for the same reason that those to whom the government had hitherto belonged were its enemies. B y its Church policy more than b y any other part of its conduct it helped to recruit a following for the sovereign.
1

17 C a r . I., c h . x i .

246

FIRST

SESSIOX

OF

THE

LONG

PARLIAMENT

1641

CHAP.
X 1 ,

The king, instead of cherishing the first elements of this part\', had many projects of his own. T h e Scots, desired union of religion and freedom of trade with England, and the E n g l i s h desired neither. Dissension was growing among the covenanters themselves. Moved partly b y jealousy of Argyle, partly b y a belief that for the good of the nation the crown ought to retain some power, Montrose besought Charles to come among his Scottish subjects and win their loyalty by granting them the free exercise of their religion and by calling frequent parliaments. H o p i n g to set the Scots against the English and augment the discord of the covenanters, the k i n g meditated a visit to Scotland. H a v i n g rashly declared that to his knowledge A r g y l e had planned the king's deposition, Montrose w i t h some of his friends was imprisoned in Edinburgh Castle, a token that Argyle's supremacy was not to be lightly shaken. Nevertheless the king persevered i n his design. A t the same time the queen was trying to get help from Rome b y promises of freedom for English catholics. She also desired to leave England and take, it was said, the crown jewels along with her. In their alarm the commons raised so many difficulties that she was forced to remain. She still had hopes of the E n g l i s h army. A paper was to be circulated among the soldiers, thanking the k i n g for all that he had granted to his parliament and offering to defend him against unreasonable demands and popular violence. Daniel O'Neill, an active and intelligent officer, was sent to try whether the generals would march southwards i f they were assured of the Scots remaining neutral. But the generals were unwilling to run such a risk, and O ' N e i l l himself fled to the continent on a summons to appear before a committee of the commons for examination as to his part i n the first army plot. L i k e the first plot the second served only to arouse new suspicions against the king. Suspicion prompted P y m to draft and the commons to adopt ten propositions for the settlement of the kingdom. T h e y included the disbandment of the armies, the delay of the king's journey to Scotland, the removal of counsellors who had furthered measures contrary to religion, liberty, and good government, the banishing of priests and recusants from court, and the placing of safe persons about the king's children. T o come into the realm as a papal envoy was to be declared treason.

1641

THE

KINCS

VISIT

TO

SCOTLAND.
1

247
CHAP,
XI.

T h e militia was to be put into safe hands. A general pardon was to be made out, and a joint committee of the houses was to confer from time to time for the public good. These bold propositions were adopted with little change by the lords, a proof of the extreme distrust which they felt for the king. Charles agreed to the disbandment of the armies and the expulsion of Rossetti, and, although he would give no promise, delayed awhile his journey to Scotland. H e continued to accept the bills sent up by the houses. In return, parliament prolonged the grant of tonnage and poundage, but only until August xo, the day fixed for the king's departure. A t the same time it repeated the demand that the king should discard his evil counsellors. T h e commons impeached Judge Berkeley of treason and five other judges of misdemeanour for their part in the judgment regarding ship-money. T h e y impeached thirteen bishops for having taken part i n enacting the canons already condemned. One of the number, W r e n , Bishop of Norwich, was impeached on a separate charge, for the adoption of unlawful ceremonies and for severities against the puritans. Charles was so eager to go northwards that he offered no resistance. A l r e a d y he had agreed w i t h the Scotch commissioners that i n return for his consent to recent changes in Scotland the Scots would help i n restoring h i m to his full authority. O n the appointed day Charles left L o n d o n for Edinburgh. Soon afterwards the E n g l i s h army was disbanded and the Scottish army recrossed the Tweed. T h e commons were still so uneasy that they appointed a committee of defence to consider who should be entrusted w i t h the command of the militia. A t the same time they made a memorable precedent. On pretence of giving full effect to the treaty of peace with Scotland, the houses had resolved to send with the k i n g commissioners who should keep a watch on all his actions. The lords chose the E a r l of Bedford and L o r d Howard of Escrick \ the commons chose A r m y n , Fiennes, Hampden, and S i r Philip Stapleton. W h e n the lord keeper, Littleton, declined to affix the great seal to their commission, Sir Simonds d'Ewes, a legal antiquary, assured his colleagues that an ordinance o f parliament had always carried great authority. Thereupon the com* R u s h worth, iv., 298.

248 CHAP,

FIRST

SESSION

OF

THE

LONG

PARLIAMENT

1641

mons adopted an ordinance empowering the persons named to attend his majesty in Scotland. T h e lords assented, and thus the first ordinance of the long parliament was passed on August 20. D'Ewes was mistaken i n his learning. T h e ordinances to which he referred were enactments of the king i n council, although often made on the petition of the houses. T h e new ordinances were enactments of the houses without confirmation by the king. A t this time a reaction i n favour of Charles was spreading through England. Abuses once removed are soon forgotten. The people give their hearts more willingly to one man than to an assembly, and reverence for the monarch was a profound tradition with Englishmen. T h e northern counties had been exasperated by the Scottish occupation and the whole kingdom resented the heavy pressure of taxes, for within less than a year the parliament had voted six subsidies and a poll tax, a total of j8oo,ooo. T h e constant meddling of the puritans with the habits and amusements of their neighbours offended hundreds of thousands who neither knew nor cared about the arguments for and against ceremonies or episcopal authority. The multitude is always fickle. T h a t it had once been angry with the k i n g and the bishops was alone a reason why it should i n turn be somewhat weary of the parliament. But events which none foresaw soon dispelled this languor, renewed a l l the old distrust of the king, and gave treble energy and resolution to his opponenta

C H A P T E R XII.
THE PRELIMINARIES O F T H E CIVIL WAR. CHAP.

C H A R L E S used every endeavour to gain popular feeling in Scotland and accepted all the bills presented to him on behalf of parliament. H i s arts were unavailing against the shrewdness of his Scotch subjects. The a r m y returning from the south was disbanded and all hope of using it against England was lost. A r g y l e required that no office should be filled without the approval of parliament where he commanded a majority. A m o n g his own order, indeed, the earl was unpopular. A fierce and headstrong aristocracy could not stomach the domination of a single nobleman, resting upon an alliance with the ministers and the common people. Hamilton, whose rank and wealth marked h i m out as a natural counterpoise to A r g y l e , bent to the force of circumstances and, as Charles bitterly said, was very active in his own preservation But there were bolder spirits, notably Montrose, who still chafed i n prison. Thrice he wrote to Charles, promising to reveal what concerned his crown and dignity. T h e third letter which denounced H a m i l t o n as a traitor Charles laid before Loudoun, the chancellor, and Argyle. T h e E a r l of Crawford, a catholic who had fought for his religion i n the thirty years war, formed a plan for seizing A r g y l e and Hamilton, and carrying them off b y sea to some secure hold. Should they resist or should their friends attempt a rescue, it might be necessary to k i l l them. T h e plot was made known to Leslie, who warned Hamilton and A r g y l e . A r g y l e informed the king and the parliament resolved to i n quire into the matter. T h e k i n g proceeded to the parliament house with an armed train, among them several enemies of A r g y l e and Hamilton, who thereupon professed themselves in danger and fled to KLineill Castle. Charles demanded that
tc

249

250
CHAP.

THE

PRELIMINARIES

OF

THE

CIVIL

WAR.

164:

Hamilton should be sequestered from the parliament until the charges against him had been examined, but the parliament cared only to inquire into the plot for seizing him and A r g y l e . This affair became known as the Incident. Seeing that he had failed to achieve the object of his visit to Scotland, the king sought no more than an honourable retreat. A r g y l e came back to Edinburgh and to supreme power, and in return the Incident was buried in oblivion. Montrose and other malcontents were set at liberty. T h e king raised A r g y l e to the rank of marquis, and Hamilton to the rank of duke, and created Leslie E a r l of Leven. Then, with outward cordiality and inward mistrust on both sides, he left his Scottish subjects for England, where his presence was urgently required. During the recess England became more and more unsettled. The disbanded soldiers, thrown loose upon the world, as was then the custom, had often turned vagrants and robbers. A s the old ecclesiastical coercion had broken down and no new one had yet been organised, there was an interval of religious freedom. Earnest illiterate English people have always been prone to grotesque forms of pietism. A t a season when the mind was morbidly fixed upon theological topics, this tendency was redoubled. Some became Antinomians in theory, possibly in practice. Sectaries known as Adamites thought it their duty to worship in the garb of innocence. T h e cobblers, smiths, and other craftsmen who set up to preach and pray often gave utterance to what seemed blasphemy or madness. Ill-conditioned fellows took on themselves to execute the resolutions of parliament by breaking communion rails, throwing down images, and smashing painted windows. Clergymen who adhered to the former usages in dress and ritual were sometimes mobbed. A l l who loved the old order were exasperated, and many who had been hostile to L a u d and the bishops began to revolt from the new anarchy. W h e n the houses re-assembled on October 20, letters giving an account of the Incident raised the suspicion that a stroke of the same kind might be contemplated in England, and the commons asked the lords to join in measures for the safety of parliament. T h e lords assenting, a guard of the Westminster
1
1

See Baillie, Letters and Journals,

i . , 392 ; Hamilton

Papers, p . 103.

1641

THE

IRISH

REBELLION.

251
CHAP,

trainbands was immediately set. Although the root and branch bill was dropped, a new bill excluding the clergy from temporal authority was introduced. It was a sign of the times that F a l k land who had supported a former bill to the same effect spoke against this one. H y d e took part with him, but they had not yet many followers, and the bill passed the commons within two days. The lords seemed ready to reject it, partly because they did not like the interference of the lower house with their constitution, partly because they did not relish those changes in the Church to which the bill seemed a prelude. T h e see of Y o r k and four others being vacant at this time, the k i n g appointed W i l l i a m s to be archbishop, and translated two of the bishops under impeachment to Norwich and Oxford. T h e commons retorted b y asking for a conference with the lords, and fixing on November 1 to discuss a remonstrance to the k i n g which had been proposed some months before and drawn up, but laid aside for more urgent affairs. T h e evidence which had been taken regarding the second army plot was read to the house. It led men to infer that the k i n g had gone northwards in the hope of finding troops to fight his battles, and every suspicion was envenomed by the terrible news which now came from Ireland. T h e causes of the Irish rebellion of 1641 are not hard to find. T h e Elizabethan conquest of Ireland had been so destructive as to hinder a fresh appeal to arms b y the children of the soil, but for that very reason it had left the bitterest memories. T h e Ulster plantation had given birth to a flourishing colony, but it had wrought the grossest injustice to the native proprietors who, whether they were crowded into the less fertile districts or remained as dependants of the new landlords, brooded over their wrongs and sufferings with that patient spirit of vengeance which distinguishes the Celt. Other and smaller but still exasperating evictions had followed. I n a time of deep quiet and without the slightest offence given, Wentworth had planned a large confiscation in the one province where the old Irish race still dwelt undisturbed and had forced it through b y the mockery of legal process. A l t h o u g h he had wanted leisure for the actual planting of new proprietors i n place of the old, he had taught Irishmen that under the K i n g of E n g l a n d they could never be secure i n their patrimony. T h e

25 CHAP,

THE

PRELIMINARIES

OF

THE

CIVIL

WAR.

1641

temper of the English parliament threatened the Irish with a new danger. Should the puritans become masters of England, it seemed certain that they would seriously endeavour to make Ireland protestant. While W entworth ruled in Ireland, the discontented were afraid to lift their heads. S i r Christopher Wandesford, who acted as lord deputy on his departure, died in December, 1640. After Strafford's execution Charles made the E a r l of Leicester lord lieutenant of Ireland and, pending his arrival, the lords justices, S i r John Borlase and S i r W i l l i a m Parsons, governed Ireland. Catholics and protestants agreed on the one point of disliking Wentworth s system. A committee of the lords and another of the commons negotiated with the king, who, caring far less about Ireland than about Great Britain, yielded much to them i n the hope of quiet or possibly of assistance. T h e Connaught plantation was given up. Various sources of revenue were abandoned. T h e catholics began to expect a full toleration. T h e n the army, for the most part catholic, was disbanded, and the English parliament interfered to hinder the K i n g o f Spain from enlisting 4 J C O O of the men. Charles sent directions to the Earls of Ormond and A n t r i m to rally the disbanded soldiers and seize Dublin Castle in his name and b y the authority of the Irish parliament. H e designed to win the catholics by a promise of freedom for their religion and make Ireland his stronghold against puritans and parliamentarians. Such a plan could not be disclosed even to the most faithful servants of the crown i n England, nor was even a beginning made of execution. B u t it became manifest that there was really no government in Ireland, while Britain was distracted b y quarrels which might at any moment end in civil war. Irishmen might well hope that a general uprising would shake off the foreign sway, regain the lost lands, and insure full freedom for the catholic religion. ^ ^ A s early as February, 1641, the thought of such an uprising had begun to grow. T h e catholic nobles of the Pale were still loyal. T h e first leaders of revolt were found among the Celtic aristocracy ; S i r Phelim O'Neil, who regarded himself as head of the great house which had so long ruled i n U l s t e r ;
r 5 1

See Carte, Life of Ortaond, i . , 105*1685 State Papers,

Ireland, cclx.

1641

THE

RISING

IN

ULSTER.

253

L o r d Maguire, who had a personal motive in the debts which C H A P , weighed on his estate, and Roger More, whose family had lost ^*** their lands in Queen's County. T h e y looked abroad for supplies of arms, if not for further help. A t that time it was easy to find Irishmen, as well as Scotsmen, who had gained experience and renown under foreign standards, and the conspirators hoped to enlist among others Owen Roe O ' N e i l l , a brilliant officer i n the Spanish service. In October a number of priests and laymen met at the Abbey of Multyfarnham in West-meath to discuss the manner of the rebellion. A few days later the unsuspecting lords justices were warned almost b y accident. L o r d Maguire and H u g h Macmahon with their followers had come into Dublin, intending to seize the castle the next day. One of the band, Owen O'Connolly, was secretly a protestant and contrived to inform the lord justice Parsons, adding, perhaps untruly, that a general massacre of the English in Dublin and elsewhere was part of the plot. T h e lords justices were almost without means of defence, but danger enforced prompt action. T h e y seized Maguire and Macmahon, and baffled the attempt on Dublin. T h e parliament was prorogued and a despatch was sent to the E a r l of Leicester, who still lingered in England. There was no means of stopping the rebellion elsewhere. T h e Irish in Ulster rose at once, stormed the outlying garrisons, and expelled the settlers w i t h their families. Wfiatever the leaders might wish, they could not restrain a half-barbarous peasantry in whom the hatreds born of race and religion were embittered by the loss of their lands and the insolence of foreign masters. A l t h o u g h there was no general or systematic massacre, there were partial massacres i n which women and children perished, as well as men. Simple murder was sometimes heightened b y atrocious cruelty. T h e fugitives who were spared were often stripped of everything they possessed. Left without food, clothing, or shelter, many starved before they could reach a place of refuge. T h e survivors who made their way to some E n g l i s h fortress were so wasted b y famine and hardship that sickness swept them off in great numbers. A c cording to the most critical estimate some four or five thousand may have been actually slaughtered at the outbreak of the rebellion, and twice as many may have perished in ways less

254
CHAP,
1

THE

PRELIMINARIES

OF

THE

CIVIL

WAR.

1641

direct. In the following months also many died either by violence or by prolonged hardship. In England the actual atrocities were multiplied by rumour. F o r t y thousand, two hundred thousand, three hundred thousand had been massacred. X h e contemptuous dislike with which the ordinary Englishman then regarded the Irish was raised almost to madness by the fury of revenge and the feeling that at last there was a fair excuse for seizing all the lands of the Irish catholics. So far as men sought any other explanation of the revolt than the savage nature of the Irish, they found it i n the baneful teaching of the Roman Church. T o the puritans of England and Scotland, who saw the machinations of Rome in all their troubles and believed that they were in daily peril from Roman attack, what had befallen in Ireland was not strange, although it was terrible: it only confirmed the suspicions and fears so long entertained \ it only threw a light upon much that had remained mysterious. Thus the first general outcry in Great Britain was for prompt, undistinguishing, and fearful vengeance upon the Irish rebels; the next, for protection by all possible means, however severe, against the alien Church which might soon contrive like rebellions and like massacres in England and Scotland. A l l who were thought to be working underhand for the restoration of popery became doubly odious \ the queen, whose intrigues with Rome for help to her husband in return for favour to the catholics, although not known, were suspected; the bishops, whom the puritans regarded as mere catholic decoys ; and the politicians who abetted the k i n g in withholding those ecclesiastical reforms which the house of commons persisted in demanding. T h e possibility, therefore, of adjusting religious differences in a reasonable way became fainter through the outbreak of the Irish "rebellion. B y the same event the political dispute between king and parliament was made irreconcilable. A l l were agreed that Ireland must be reconquered; but the reconquest would involve raising an army, and as the full proportions of the rebellion became known, men saw that this army must be numerous and that the struggle might be long. T h e K i n g of
1

T h i s is Gardiner's estimate (History, c h . ci.).

C/. L e c k y , History of IreIreland).

land, c h . i .

Petty, the most reasonable o f contemporary writers, thought that Anatomy of

37,000 were massacred i n the first year (Political

1641

EFFECT

ON

ENGLISH

POLITICS.

255 CHAP,

E n g l a n d was the captain-general of his people, and the raising and commanding of armies were among his most undoubted prerogatives. But if the king were allowed to raise, and still more to command, the army destined for Ireland, i f he were to return victorious at the head of many thousand veterans inured to obedience and to conquest, what other power in the state could for a moment be compared to his ? A n d who could doubt but that he would at once return to the method of government which suited his principles and his interests, that he would at once set aside all the restraints imposed by the new statutes, recall his old advisers, and take memorable revenge on all who had opposed his will either in political or in religious debate? If the presence of a superior Scottish army in the north had barely saved the parliament from the beaten and undisciplined E n g l i s h army, what might not be feared from a sole army under the king's command ? T h e parliament, which had met to vindicate the law, was forced to override the law to guard itself against the king. In so doing it made for the k i n g that party which he had never been able to make for himself. T h e Irish rebellion rendered certain that E n g l i s h civil war which hitherto had been only probable, and not for the last time the injustice of the E n g l i s h towards the Irish recoiled upon their own heads. U p o n the first news of the rebellion the houses voted that 8,000 soldiers should be raised and ^"5^000 borrowed, and that Leicester should repair to D u b l i n and carry on the war i n person. T h e Scottish parliament having agreed to help in putting down the rebels, pay was voted for 1,000 Scots to act i n Ulster. P y m moved that, i f the king would not employ counsellors acceptable to parliament, parliament would resolve on someway of defending Ireland, which would concur to its own safety and would pay over contributions to those i n whom it could trust. T h i s resolution was vigorously opposed, for that part of the house which disliked the religious views of the majority began to diverge from their political views also. P y m carried his point by 151 votes to 110. T h e remonstrance to the king was read i n the commons on November 8 and set down for consideration without further delay. This document contained, first, a statement of all that had been done amiss since the accession of Charles; secondly, a statement of all the reforms

256 CHAP,

THE

PRELIMINARIES

OF

THE

CIVIL

WAR.

1641

made by the parliament then sitting; and, lastly, a summary of the reforms still needed to perfect the work. W i t h it went a petition that the king would concur in depriving the bishops of their votes in parliament and granting an indulgence to the puritans, but above all would take councillors i n whom the parliament might confide. T h e G r a n d Remonstrance, as it came to be styled, was inevitably coloured by party spirit, both political and religious, above all b y that fixed idea of popish intrigues causing every evil then felt in the three kingdoms, which was so general that even the strongest and clearest minds could not resist the infection. It implied throughout that certain malignant persons, wishing to restore Romanism, had corrupted the bishops, had pushed themselves into the privy council, had abused the king's confidence, and had defamed the measures of the parliament. It was intended to justify the parliament in the eyes of the people, but it was certain to wound the king so deeply as to be inadvisable save on the ground that he could not be trusted. T h e debate on the Remonstrance proved the first trial of strength between the two parties which afterwards waged the civil war.
1

The swift and fearful growth of the Irish rebellion inflamed those feelings which had given rise to the Remonstrance. B y November 16 it had passed through committee. O n the 22nd the final debate began. T h e royalist leaders, Hyde, Culpepper, and Falkland, urged that the Remonstrance tended to reopen old disputes and to foment public disorder. P y m and his friends dwelt on the dangers which beset the state and the need for further securities. After a long and vehement discussion, lasting from mid-day to midnight, the Remonstrance was adopted by 159 votes to 148. A motion that it should be printed, in other words, that the house of commons should make a direct appeal to the nation, was put off, but H y d e and Culpepper demanded leave to record their protest against the adoption of the Remonstrance. O n the refusal of the majority, their friends, stung with anger and disappointment, broke into a tumult. Some waved their hats and shouted, some drew their swords, and it seemed as though the house of commons were turned into the likeness of a Polish diet. W i t h a few apt
* Rushwoith, iv., 43^*

1641

THE

GRAND

REMONSTRANCE,

257 CHAP,

words H a m p d e n recalled the members to order. B u t the feelings of the beaten party may be inferred from the temper of the victors. " I f the Remonstrance had been rejected," Cromwell said, " I would have sold a l l I had the next morning and never have seen England any more; and I know there are many other honest men of this same resolution." Charles reached London on the 2 5th and was entertained at the Guildhall by the citizens with a splendour which made him confident that they were on his side. In return he promised to restore the lands i n Derry whence they had been evicted b y the Star Chamber. Almost his first act was to dismiss the guard of the two houses. O n December 1 he received the Remonstrance and petition of the commons. H e promised an answer after taking time to consider what they offered. T h e commons, who wished to raise forces with the least possible recognition of royal prerogative, adopted a bill giving authority to press soldiers for the war i n Ireland, but incidentally declaring that the king could not constrain men to serve beyond their own county, save in case of sudden invasion. T h e peers asked the commons to explain why this declaration had been inserted i n the bill. T h e forward party i n the commons retorted with a bill for the nomination of a lord-general and a lord-admiral having the amplest authority over the forces b y land and sea respectively, the so-called IVIilitia B i l l . T h e king told the lords that he would accept the impressment bill, i f the declaration against his power were replaced b y a clause saving the rights of both parties. T h e lords at once resenting his interference with a bill yet i n their house, called on h i m to say b y whose information he had acted. A few days afterwards he dismissed Balfour from the post of lieutenant of the Tower and appointed Colonel Lunsford, a disreputable soldier of fortune. A b o u t the same time he gave his answer to the Remonstrance and the accompanying petition. H e asserted his right to choose his own ministers. Protesting that he knew nothing of the wicked and malignant party denounced b y the commons, he declared his readiness i n matters of religion to concur with the just desires of his people in a parliamentary way. I f parliament wished, he would consider the calling of a national synod to
1

Clarendon, History, iv., 49*5^ J V e r n e y ' s Notes of the Long Parliament, 120-128. VOL. VII. 17

pp.

s*5& CHAP,
X I 1

THE

PRELIMINARIES

OF

THE
1

CIVIL

WAR.

1641

reform corruptions in the Church. B y this reply Charles yielded nothing, for he undertook to act only when approached in a parliamentary way, in other words, by the two houses, which were almost certain not to agree. A national synod would be composed of clergymen mostly agreeing with himself. The commons were displeased with the k i n g on account of his answer and with the lords for refusing to join in a petition that Lunsford might be dismissed. T h e y read the militia bill a second time and asked the lords to join them in declaring to Charles the danger of the kingdom through the machinations of papists and other ill-affected persons. T h e city became so rebellious that he had to dismiss Lunsford and replace him b y Sir John Byron. L o r d Dillon, who came to London with the demands of the Irish rebels, was arrested and examined by a committee of the house of commons. Vif hat they learnt from him, together with the daily reports of the spread of the Irish insurrection, raised their fears to the height. The attack on the bishops was accordingly renewed. Petitions for depriving the.m of their seats in the house of lords had been numerously signed in the city. T h e mob which frequented the purlieus of the parliament jeered them, shouted ' N o bishop ! and maltreated Archbishop "Williams. Most of the bishops ceased to attend the house of lords. There were sharp encounters between the populace who held with the commons and the gentlemen, especially the officers out of employ, who resorted to Whitehall. It was during these days of disorder that the party names of Cavalier and Roundhead, afterwards so famous, first became current. The commons, when requested by the lords to join in declaring against riotous assemblies, and in asking the king to furnish a guard, could not bring themselves to censure the mob which terrified their opponents. Their fears were redoubled when the king announced that he was ready to raise 10,000 volunteers for Ireland, and gave commissions to officers who had drawn their swords upon the crowd. T h e archbishop and eleven bishops drew up a protest to the king and the lords that, having been assaulted in coming to the house, and finding no redress or protection, they were unable to attend, and that therefore all resolutions taken i n
1 1

* Rushworth, iv., 452*

1642

THE

IMPEACHMENT

OF

THE

FIVE

MEMBERS.

259 CHAP,

their absence were null and void. T h e lords immediately took offence and communicated the protest to the commons as entrenching on the privileges and being of parliament. T h e commons replied b y impeaching the bishops, and the lords placed them under arrest. T h e commons also petitioned the king for a guard under the command of the E a r l of Essex. F r o m time to time there had been t^.ik of the king's choosing ministers among the distinguished members of the house of commons. O n the first day of January, 1642, Charles offered P y m the post of chancellor of the exchequer. Either he withdrew his offer or P y m refused. H e then made Culpepper chancellor of the exchequer and F a l k l a n d secretary of state, and caused them to be sworn of the privy council. H y d e , the third leader of the moderate party, declined office, but was taken as a confidential adviser, and the king promised to do nothing without consulting all three. H a d this been the first overture towards an understanding between the king and a great party in parliament and the nation, it might have assisted a peaceful settlement. A s Charles almost immediately departed from his promise of consulting w i t h H y d e and his friends, we may doubt i f the offer to P y m were more than a personal bribe and the appointment of the others more than a personal reward.
1 2

It was believed that the leaders of the majority were preparing an impeachment of the Queen as having conspired against the public liberties and having held intelligence with the Irish rebels. Perhaps on the advice of Digby, who had forsaken the reformers for the court, and had been created a peer, Charles took the most summary means to save her, and ordered the attorneygeneral, S i r E d w a r d Herbert, to prepare articles of impeachment against five members of the house of commons, P y m , Hampden, Holies, Hazlerigg, and Strode. T o these was afterwards added one peer, the L o r d Mandeville, son of the E a r l of Manchester. T h e y were charged with an attempt to subvert the fundamental laws of England, with inviting a foreign power to invade the kingdom, and with raising tumults i n order to compel the parliament to join w i t h them i n their treacherous designs, even with actually levying war against the king. W h e n Herbert laid these charges before the lords on the morning of January
8
1 3

C l a r e n d o n , History, Clarendon, History,

iv., I39"45 Commons' Journals, iv., 122-26. Lords' Journals,

8

i i . , 363* iv., 501.

*7

260
2HAP.
a

THE

PRELIMINARIES

OF

THE

CIVIL

WAR.

1642

3 n d asked them to sanction the arrest of the persons accused, > the house, instead of giving orders to that effect, named a committee to inquire whether he had acted according to law. T h e commons that morning had received an answer to their petition for a guard. Charles engaged himself solemnly on the word of a king, that their security should ever be his care as much as the preservation of himself or his children. If that assurance should not suffice, he would command a guard to wait upon them. S t i l l dissatisfied, the commons sent to the city to ask that the trained bands might be ready. A little later P y m made known that his study and those of Holies and Hampden had been sealed up by the king's orders, and the house immediately resolved that to do this without their leave was a breach of privilege. T h e serjeant-at-arms having come from the king with orders to arrest the five members, the house named a committee to inform the king that the demand concerned their privileges and needed consideration. ^A^ith this message the serjeant-at-arms was forced to return. The lords were so deeply offended at the king's interference that they ordered the studies of the accused members to be broken open, and at length joined the commons in demanding a guard satisfactory to both houses. Instead of giving over his attempt, the king resolved to carry it out in person, but the secret of his intention was betrayed. N e x t morning the commons sent up the articles of accusation to the lords as a scandalous paper. T h e lords adopted this description of the articles. U r g e d by the queen, the k i n g hesitated no longer, and at three in the afternoon drove out of Whitehall with some 300 armed gentlemen and servants i n his train. W a r n i n g was brought and the accused members were told to withdraw. The river was close at hand and they took boat for the city. Charles alighted at the door of Westminster hall, which led direct to the desecrated chapel of St. Stephen where the commons sat. H e signed to his followers to remain in the hall, but some eighty, whether b y order or not, pressed after him. After sending a message to the house he entered w i t h his nephew, the young elector palatine, while the E a r l of R o x b u r g h held the door open and left a view of the armed men i n the lobby. The members rose and stood bareheaded. T h e k i n g passed

1642

THE

KING

IN

THE

HOUSE

OF

COMMONS.

261
CHAP,

up the house, stood before the speaker's chair and looked round. F i n d i n g that the accused were absent, he reminded the house that in case of treason no person had any privilege, and added that he must have them wheresoever he found them. A s silence ensued, Charles asked the speaker whether any of those persons were in the house. Lenthall, dropping on his knee, replied with grave composure : " M a y it please your majesty, I have neither eyes to see, nor tongue to speak in this place, but as the house is pleased to direct me, whose servant I a m here; and I humbly beg your majesty s pardon that I cannot give any other answer than this to what your majesty is pleased to demand of me T h e king paused and s a i d : " Well, I see all the birds are flown. I do expect from you that you shall send them unto me as soon as they return hither. If not, I will seek them myself, for their treason is foul and such as y o u will thank me to discover. B u t I assure you, on the word of a king, I never did intend any force, but shall proceed against them in a legal and fair way, for I never meant any other. I see I cannot do what I came for. I think this is no unfit occasion to repeat what I have said formerly, that whatsoever I have done in favour and to the good of m y subjects, I do mean to maintain it." H e went out of the house pursued b y cries of " Privilege, privilege!" H i s followers, whose threats and bragging had been heard through the open door, greeted h i m clamorously. H a d the k i n g wished to convince the commons of his intention to make a murderous onslaught, he could not more aptly have designed the scene or distributed the parts. A s soon as the lobby was clear the house adjourned. It is the nature of all such incidents as the attempted arrest of the five members to grave themselves on the mind and to appear even more significant than they are. Y e t the attempt and all the circumstances leading up to it were i n truth memorable and went far to extinguish the little hope that remained of peace between the king and the parliament. W h a t Charles did he may have believed to be legal, but the legal flaws i n his action were grave and palpable. T h e articles of impeachment in themselves were scarcely a greater straining of the law of treason than the articles against Strafford. But the prosecution
1
1

Rushworth, iv., 477; V e r n e y ' s Notes, pp. I37~39> Whitelocke, Memorials,

_

p p . 5^ 53 Clarendon, History,

iv., 131-57*

262 CHAP,
x

THE

PRELIMINARIES

OF

THE

CIVIL

WAR.

1642

***

of commoners before the lords, otherwise than on the accusation of the house of commons, was a breach of the august rule that every Englishman was entitled to be tried by his peers, a rule erroneously derived from Magna Carta, but certainly observed as sacred for many generations. A personal attempt by the king to arrest was yet another breach of the law, since the subject could have no remedy against him i f the arrest proved wrongful. The commons maintained that even a warrant to arrest ought to issue from some person or persons who could be held answerable to the law. T h e y also maintained their right to be satisfied of the reality of a charge of treason before they were asked to give up a member. O n this and on other grounds they contended that the attempt to arrest the five members was a violation of their privileges. T h e legal objections to the king s conduct were, however, the least weighty. Even the king's invasion of the parliament house with an armed and ill-conditioned retinue was not the most serious circumstance. AVhat mattered above all else was the plain disclosure of the king's feelings towards the majority of the house of commons, their leaders and their work. H e had put upon record that P y m and Hampden and their followers were traitors, and that their treasons went back to the very opening of the parliament, perhaps to the opening of the previous parliament. But, i f this were so, then all their work was called i n question. A l l the laws of the past year might next be challenged as the effect of duress upon the houses and the king. A l l the judicial proceedings of the parliament were . similarly tainted with suspicion of nullity. A s for the many grave and thorny affairs still under discussion, especially the affairs of the Church, how could they be despatched b y the joint action of the king with a parliament whose chiefs he deemed worthy of the gallows and the quartering block ? T h e king's apparition in the lower house made clear to all who had insight, that there was no common ground between the two parties save the field of battle. The next day after his failure at Westminster the k i n g went in state to the Guildhall to claim the accused members. H e was met with silence, broken b y cries of " P a r l i a m e n t ! " " Privilege of parliament! and he came back unsuccessful. T h e commons, having met again, adjourned to the 1 i t h , naming a committee to

1642

PREPARATIONS

FOR

CIVIL

WAR.

263
C H A P ,

sit at the Guildhall. A s soon as the committee met, it declared the impeachment and the warrant for the arrest of the members to be illegal. T h e k i n g issued a proclamation for their arrest. T h e committee retorted with a resolution that the city should provide a guard and name the officers. T w o days later Philip Skippon, the captain of the A r t i l l e r y Garden, a man of humble birth but a stout soldier, was appointed to the command of the city militia at the request of both houses. Such was the display of force on the side of the commons that the king thought well to leave London with his queen and children. O n the 9 t h they withdrew to Hampton Court almost unattended. O n the n t h the accused members returned b y the Thames to Westminster. T h e river was alive with armed vessels, the trained bands marched westwards, the whole city appeared to accompany them, and the multitude was swelled b y 4-JOOO freeholders who had come up from Buckinghamshire to show their zeal for H a m p d e n and the parliament. A committee of lords and commons pursued the king to H a m p t o n Court with complaints of his violation of privilege and demands for the punishment of his advisers, and the temper of the public was so alarming that in a few days he quitted H a m p t o n Court for Windsor. Civil war seemed so probable that both parties were eager to grasp every advantage in fortresses, arsenals, and the control of the militia. Charles believed himself secure of Portsmouth and hoped to secure H u l l , where large magazines had been formed for the Scottish war. H e named the E a r l of Newcastle governor of H u l l , and sent down Captain Legge to take possession. Troops could there be landed from Holland and Denmark. B u t the parliament had already ordered Sir John Hotham, member for Beverley, to take charge of H u l l , and Hotham's son reached H u l l long before Legge. Lunsford and other cavaliers assembled at Kingston, and D i g b y came over from Hampton Court to join them. Then the houses concurred in a general order to the sheriffs to call out the trained bands, suppress unlawful assemblies, and secure the county magazines. O n the 31st the commons drew up an ordinance giving the command of the militia to persons who should be named thereafter. A s the king was obdurate and the Londoners daily showed greater impatience, the lords agreed to join the commons in a petition that the king would entrust the

264
CHAP,

THE

PRELIMINARIES

OP

THE

CIVIL

WAR.

1642

fortresses and the militia to persons in whom the parliament could confide. N e x t day the lords passed the bill to exclude the bishops from their house. Charles gave a qualified assent to the petition and promised to drop the impeachment of the five members. H e sought to gain time until the queen had sailed for the continent, where she would be out of danger and might be able to find allies or procure munitions of war. H e would then repair to the north, where he hoped by his presence to awe Hotham into surrendering H u l l . W h i l e waiting, therefore, at Canterbury and Dover he yielded much. H e gave his assent to the bishops' exclusion bill and to the bill of impressment, promised to enforce the laws against recusants, and undertook to refer to parliament questions regarding the Church and the liturgy. T h e houses were half won b y these concessions when an intercepted letter to the queen from Digby, who had taken refuge in Holland, revived all their fears. T h e commons i m peached D i g b y of high treason and both houses agreed on an ordinance for the militia which they tendered to Charles, H e n rietta Maria sailed from Dover on February 2 3 . She took with her the crown jewels, upon which she hoped to raise a large sum of money, and she expected to obtain help from Holland and Denmark, perhaps from other powers. Charles returned to Greenwich, whither he summoned the Prince of Wales, but declined to remain near Westminster and took his way northwards. Thereupon the houses voted that the kingdom should be put in a posture of defence and named the new lords lieutenant. A t Newmarket the k i n g gave audience to the deputation which the parliament had sent with a declaration of its fears and jealousies. W h e n the E a r l of Pembroke hinted that he might well grant the militia for a time, he burst out: B y God, not for an hour. Y o u have asked that of me in this was never asked of a king, and with which I will not trust m y wife and children.
1 2 tl

The commons replied with a resolution 'that when the houses should declare the law of the land, contradiction was a high breach of the privilege of parliament. About the same time the parliament passed a bill confiscating the lands of Irish
1

16

Car. I., c h . xxvii., and 16 C a r . I., c h .

Lords Journals, iv., 5^7*

1642

THE

KING

AND

HYDE.

265
CHAP,

rebels to an enormous extent and making them security for a loan to defray the Irish war. Charles gave his assent, yet hinted that such severity might render the rebels desperate. O n M a r c h 19 he entered Y o r k , which for the next five months became his capital. Although he had resolved to yield nothing more, he was not in a condition to begin a war, for he was almost penniless, he did not control a single port, and the houses had seized the chief arsenals in the kingdom. The public had not yet forgotten his misgovernment and shrank from the thought of civil bloodshed. H e was therefore obliged to proceed with caution. vVhen at Greenwich, Charles had granted an interview to H y d e , and had agreed with h i m that he should remain at Westminster to watch the course of events, especially in parliament, and to keep the king well informed. W i t h every message from the houses to the king H y d e was to send secretly a draft answer which the king was to copy and return to parliament as his own. H y d e clearly discerned the one advantage in the king s situation. Since the houses were lopping off the ancient, undoubted prerogatives of the crown and making a revolution, it was for the king to sustain the part of one who defends order and true freedom against the caprice of an i n solent assembly. Himself a lawyer and a practised parliamentary debater, he was most expert in presenting his own case and refuting the case of an antagonist. Although his style would not seem to our age lucid or argumentative, it was weighty and noble. H y d e soon became, and for upwards of twentyyears he remained, the foremost statesman of the king's party. H e could not solve the contradictions of the time, but he could save Charles from palpable mistakes and teach h i m how to gain adherents.
1 1

There ensued an interchange of long and angry state papers between king and parliament. E a c h party distrusted the other profoundly and continued the debate, less in the hope of an agreement than to gain the goodwill of the public. T h e k i n g complained that the parliament encroached upon his lawful authority, and the parliament declared that he was bound to exercise that authority according to its advice. H e announced to the houses his intention of taking personal command in Ireland and levying for this purpose a guard of 200
2
1

Clarendon, Life,

part i i .

Clarendon, History,

v.

passim.

266 CHAP,
X I L

THE

PRELIMINARIES

OF

THE

CIVIL

WAR.

1642

horse and 2,000 foot, to be armed out of the magazines at H u l l . T h e houses replied that they could not approve of his design, and would not obey any persons appointed to govern E n g l a n d in his absence. W h e n the k i n g refused their request that the munitions of war in H u l l should be removed to London, they sent Hotham orders for the removal notwithstanding. Charles resolved on a personal summons to Hotham. O n A p r i l 23 he appeared before the town and required admission to view his own magazines. Hotham presented himself on the wall with the humblest expressions of duty, but would not let the k i n g enter even with twenty horsemen. The king had to retire after causing the heralds to proclaim H o t h a m a traitor. Meantime instinctive loyalty, respect for the law, and fear of the unknown were bringing over to Charles many who a year before had been zealous for the parliament. The dread of puritan supremacy in the Church wrought even more strongly to the same result. W i s h i n g to remove whatever vexed the puritans, the majority at Westminster intended to reform the Church after consultation with an assembly of divines chosen by the parliament and therefore certain to be puritan in temper. Episcopal government and the Prayer Book would inevitably be condemned. A t the same time the houses meant to enforce uniformity, and declared that they would not allow every man to worship as he pleased. Those who preferred episcopacy and the liturgy were taught how little they could hope from the houses by the imprisonment of some K e n t i s h grand jurors who had offered a petition against puritan innovation. T h e y rallied round a k i n g who shared, and was ready to fight for, their opinions, and with them went the catholics, whose lot would be much harder i f the puritans became masters. W e a r y of a hopeless struggle the king's friends at Westminster made their way northwards in large numbers. Charles directed the lord keeper, Littelton, to remove the courts of justice to Y o r k . The houses declared the order unlawful, but Littelton himself came with the great seal. The k i n g was again surrounded by a court and a council, and b y his order the Yorkshire gentry attended in arms as a guard for his person. The houses required him to desist from levying troops, and on June 2 they despatched to Y o r k their final demands, the famous Nineteen Propositions.
1

1 Commons' Journals,

i i . , 501.

1642

THE

NINETEEN

PROPOSITIONS.

267

The nineteen propositions may be resumed in one, that tbe C H A P , parliament, not the king, was to be sovereign of England. Thenceforwards the approval of the houses was to be necessary for the appointment of privy councillors, of the great officers of the crown and ministers of state, and of the chiefs of the courts of common law. The same approval was required for the persons entrusted with the education of the king's children. N o marriage was to be concluded for a child of the k i n g without the consent of parliament. N o peer made thereafter was to sit or vote without the consent of both houses. The judges were to hold office during good behaviour. T h e justice of parliament was to pass upon all offenders. The fortresses were to be entrusted to persons approved by parliament, and the militia ordinance was to take effect until a bill could be passed to regulate the militia. T h e liturgy and the government of the Church were to be reformed as the houses should advise, and the laws against recusants were to be enforced. Thus the nineteen propositions embodied even more than was won b y the revolution of 1688. T h e k i n g could not be expected to submit to them until he had tried the fortune of war. B o t h sides, therefore, hastened their preparations. T h e k i n g issued commissions of array, placing the militia under the authority of his own officers. W i t h the help of the E a r l of Newcastle he secured the town of Newcastle which gave him a communication with the continent. H e was disappointed, indeed, of succour from Scotland, Holland, and Denmark. H e was still so poor that he could not have taken the field but for the generosity of his partisans. T h e queen, who had raised money b y pawning the crown jewels in Holland, despatched a shipload of arms which arrived safely i n the Humber. The houses, on their part, adopted an ordinance inviting all well-disposed persons to contribute money, plate and horses. T h e y appointed a committee of lords and commons to provide for the safety of the kingdom. T h e y voted to raise a force of 10,000 men for active service and appointed the E a r l of Essex general. T h e y defined their cause as " the safety of the king's person, the defence of both houses of parliament, and of those who have obeyed their orders and commands, and the preservation of
X I L 1

^Lord's jfoiifndls, v., 97

268
CHAP,

THE

PRELIMINARIES

OF THE

CIVIL

WAR

1642
, 1

the true religion, laws, liberties, and peace of the kingdom \ O n July 11 the houses declared that the k i n g had begun a war against his parliament, and a few days afterwards they despatched by the E a r l of H o l l a n d a last petition that the k i n g would accommodate differences. Charles replied by calling on the parliament to dismiss its troops, restore his fortresses, acknowledge that it could not make laws without his consent, and adjourn to some place outside London. T h e only reply was a declaration by the houses of their reasons for taking up arms. O n August p, Charles proclaimed Essex and his officers traitors. T h e houses then denounced as traitors all who should assist the king. During this exchange of manifestoes the nominees of the k i n g and of the parliament respectively had been struggling with various success to call out the militia and secure the county magazines of arms and ammunition. T h e parliament had such an advantage i n point of wealth that its army was assembling fast, while the k i n g could muster few cavalry and scarcely any infantry. Feeling the necessity of action to call forth the loyal ardour of his subjects, he determined to raise his standard as soon and as near L o n d o n as possible. W i t h his two sons, Charles and James, his nephews, Rupert and Maurice, and such followers as he could muster, he repaired to Nottingham, where on August 22 the standard was raised in the kings presence and the civil war began.
1

Lords

Journals,

v., 208.

CHAPTER

XIII.

T H E FIRST PERIOD O F T H E CIVIL WAR. A T the beginning of the civil war it is desirable to review briefly the composition and the resources of the hostile parties. A s the conflict was political and ecclesiastical, not economic or social, it did not divide the nation strictly according to classes. O n either side might be found men of every rank and of every degree of wealth and culture. It is a mistake to think that the k i n g had no followers save hard-riding and hard-drinking squires. It is a commoner and more inveterate error to suppose that the champions of the parliament were a mob of low-born, low-bred, illiterate, and offensive fanatics. Nevertheless the interests and the prejudices of different classes tended to range them on opposite sides. Puritanism was especially a religion of the middle class and of the towns. Neither the virtues nor the vices of an aristocracy harmonise with the puritan ideal. Nonconformity, when it is punishable, requires an independence of character seldom found in the lowest class of all. Politically, the aristocracy were drawn both ways. T h e y had something to gain by the further abatement of the power of the crown, but they had more to lose b y the advance in power of their inferiors. A great majority of the peers took up arms for the king, leaving barely a score to fight for the parliament. T h e gentry were less unequally divided, yet much the greater number took part with Charles. O n the other hand, the middle class, that is to say, the traders and manufacturers of the towns and a very large proportion of the yeomen, then so numerous in England, held with the parliament. E a c h class drew in its dependants, the nobles and gentlemen their tenants and servants, the burgesses their journeymen and the humbler sort of townsfolk, and the clergy on either side those who had come under their spiritual influence. 269 CHAP,
x m

270 CHAP.

THE

FIRST

PERIOD

OF

THE

CIVIL

WAR.

1642

xni.

T h e social division determined the geographical distribution of the parties. T h e eastern and south-eastern counties from H u l l to Portsmouth, then the most populous, industrious, and wealthy region of the kingdom, were well-nigh unanimous for the parliament L o n d o n was the parliament s surest stronghold, its unfailing source of men and money. T h e seaports were generally on the same side. So were the clothing towns of the West R i d i n g and of Somerset, although exposed to the full fury of the royalists. In catholic and cavalier Lancashire, Manchester, the one town of note, was unshaken in resistance. W^hen the parliament had lost every other foothold in the valley of the Severn, Gloucester defended itself with heroic obstinacy against a siege b y the k i n g i n person. But in the north of England, in Wales and the W e l s h marches, and i n the wild peninsula of Devon and Cornwall the royalists soon gained and long kept a general mastery. It might be said that the lands north of the Humber and west of the Severn and the whole south-western region were the king's. There remained a broad middle zone, where now one and then the other party prevailed, according to circumstances, where towns were held for the parliament and castles were held for the king, where sieges were many and raids were incessant. U p o n the whole the classes of E n g l i s h society and the parts of E n g l a n d which upheld the cause of the parliament in the seventeenth century were those which in the sixteenth century had favoured the reformation and in the fifteenth century had favoured the house of Y o r k , while those classes and those districts which had clung to the house of Lancaster and afterwards to the ancient faith, were marshalled in the cause of the king. The parliament had a geographical advantage in the war. It drew its main resources from a smaller, more compact, and more defensible area than that which supplied the king. U n i t y of action and rapidity of movement were less difficult to its generals. In the number of men able to bear arms the belligerents were not perhaps unequal. B u t in wealth the parliament was certainly superior. It ruled over the richest part of the kingdom, and, holding almost all the ports, could levy the bulk of the customs. T h e king controlled only the poorer districts, where the inhabitants, engaged chiefly i n agriculture, had little command of money. M a n y of the nobles on his side

1642

MILITARY

ORGANISATION.

271
CHAP,

were opulent, it is true, and some were generous. T h e Duchess of Newcastle relates that her lord s losses, partly i n helping the king, partly through the severity of the parliament, exceeded ^900,000, a sum equivalent to a years revenue of the kingdom before the civil war. If we distrust a lady's arithmetic, we have the assurance of L o r d Herbert, afterwards Marquis of Worcester, that his own and his father's losses were almost as enormous. But war cannot long be waged even by the most ample private subscription. T h e king was soon crippled b y want of funds, and forced to levy contributions or even to tolerate the licence of his unpaid troops. The parliament laboured under similar difficulties and incurred similar reproaches, but never to the same degree or with the same fatal effect. I n military organisation both parties were at first equally defective. The sea had spared E n g l a n d the necessity of a regular army and of the administrative staff which it requires. T h e immemorial principle that every man was liable to bear arms for the defence of the realm remained in vigour. Thus were recruited the trained bands or militia which at the outbreak of the civil war numbered from 150,000 to 200,000. B u t the training was so brief and careless that these men were mostly quite raw. O n l y the London trained bands, about one-tenth of the whole, had been diligently exercised j the secret of that good service which they did in the field. E v e n when the militia had been embodied, they were not liable to march beyond their own county save in the event of a foreign invasion, and as soon as they crossed the boundary, they began to melt away. It was noted as a memorable proof of public spirit that, in the very crisis of the war, the Londoners consented to march one hundred miles from home to the relief of Gloucester. B o t h belligerents, therefore, sought to enlist volunteers for service unrestrained in respect of place. Here, although zeal for the cause might be equal on both sides, the king was at a great advantage. T h e gentry were still a warlike class, expert i n horsemanship and the use of arms, careless of pay and eager for renown, who infused their followers with something of their own high spirit. B u t the middle class which formed the main
^ Professor C . H . F i r t h ' s admirable monograph, CTOTHWSIVS Atmy, is the best study o f military organisation a n d the art o f war i n E n g l a n d at this p e r i o d .

272
CHAP, XIII.

THE

FIRST

PERIOD

OF THE

CIVIL

WAR.

1642

strength of the parliament was peaceable, industrious, sedentary. *pjj_g yeoman could not afford to leave his farm nor the tradesman his shop for lengthened service in field or garrison. Hence the recruits of the parliament were such as voluntary enrolment often sifts out o.f a rich community. " Your troops," C r o m well said to Hampden, " are most of them old decayed servingmen, tapsters, and such k i n d of fellows/' The king's advantage, however, was confined to his cavalry, for gentlemen were not apt to enlist as foot soldiers, and the men whom he obtained for his infantry were certainly no better than those who served the parliament. A s the war went on and the supply of volunteers ran short, both parties had recourse to impressing the men they wanted. Neither party was able to pay its troops punctually, and therefore indiscipline and desertion were common, but, since the k i n g was much poorer than the parliament, these evils were most glaring i n his forces. N o t until the parliament established the New Model were the conditions fulfilled under which every arm and every rank of the service could become thoroughly effective, and then a war which had threatened to become endless was decided in a few months.
1

Cavalry held a far larger place i n the seventeenth century than now. T h e infantry were armed two-thirds with the musket and one-third with the pike, and musketeers were combined with pikemen to produce the same results which are obtained by the modem combination of the rifle with the bayonet. But the musket took much time to load and had a short range; the pike was long and cumbrous, and the joint force of pikemen and musketeers was unwieldy. N o t only were battles often decided b y charges of horse, but infantry could not safely march over an open country, a "campania," unless covered by a strong body of cavalry. It was thought desirable that cavalry should form one-third or even one-half of an army. Hence the king's superiority i n this arm was, while it lasted, of the utmost consequence. The parliament's forces were better provided with artillery, but, as yet, the cannon played a small part in battles. I n sieges the cannon had long been supreme, and on the continent the art of fortification had been wholly renewed since the close of the middle ages. E n g land at the outbreak of the civil war possessed only one or two
1

Carlyle, Letters and Speeches of Oliver

Cromwell,

Speech x i .

1642

THE

COMMAND

OF THE

SEA.

273
CHAP,

fortresses of the new type, such as H u l l or Berwick, and these were neia ior u i e parliament, i n tne course 01 tne war Oxford was fortified by the k i n g on the latest principles. But most of the towns and castles which stood a siege had only their medieval walls and towers, strengthened, perhaps, by some hasty earthworks. T h e y were able to prolong their resistance because the besiegers seldom had a proper train of artillery. T h e first period of the civil war did not produce any great generals. M a n y officers on either side knew something about war on a grand scale, since they had fought for the D u t c h republic, or the K i n g of Denmark, or the K i n g of Sweden, but none of these men can be said to have displayed genius. Dogged courage and fidelity were the best qualifications of the E a r l of Essex. Prince Rupert was a swift and daring cavalry captain, but lacked the patience, the self-control, the large intellect necessary for directing a war. Waller, on the side of the parliament, and Hopton, on the side of the king, displayed finer qualities, but scarcely found an opportunity of testing how much they could perform. T h e younger Fairfax was serving a hard apprenticeship in the north, Cromwell held only subordinate commands, and Montrose was without employment O n neither side do we find large plans, concentration of forces, or sustained vigour of execution. The struggle is tedious and perplexed i n the last degree. Other causes, indeed, beside the mediocrity of the generals tended to this result. The want of funds, the indiscipline of the troops, the intermixed positions held by royalists and parliamentarians, alike contributed to multiply petty local operations which could decide nothing but consumed the strength of both parties. In the control of the sea the parliament wielded a most effective weapon. Charles had taken a commendable interest in the strength of the navy, but, like his predecessors, he had neglected the welfare of the crews, who repaid him with indifference. T h e E a r l of Northumberland, the lord high admiral, was a somewhat lukewarm member of the popular party. W h e n the parliament in March, 1642, requested h i m to name the more zealous E a r l of W a r w i c k his vice-admiral, he readily obeyed. Charles forbade the appointment and sent a trusty veteran, Sir
1
1

Oppenheim, History V O L . VII.

of the Administration

of the Royal Navy from

i$og

to 1660, i . , 216-301*

l8

274
CHAP.
x m

THE

FIRST

PERIOD

OF THE

CIVIL

WAR.

1642

John Pennington, to command the fleet. Although a few captains demurred, the seamen generally accepted Warwick as their admiral, and he secured the fleet for the parliament, to which it remained loyal throughout the war. The parliament was thus enabled to protect the commerce of London and other ports, to relieve the coast fortresses, such as H u l l or Plymouth, and to embarrass the king's communications with foreign countries. Here and there a ship might elude the watch of its cruisers, but no large reinforcement could reach the king from abroad. When Charles raised his standard at Nottingham he could scarcely be said to possess an army, and the forces of the parliament at Northampton were so much stronger and better equipped than his own that by a prompt stroke they might have ended the war ere it had well begun. But they lay still because their general had not yet arrived. Charles was induced to send L o r d Falkland and L o r d Spencer to the houses with an overture for peace which was bluntly rejected, but did him much good in public opinion. Soon he was at the head of a respectable force. H e gave the command-in-chief to the E a r l of Lindsey, and made Rupert general of the horse and Sir Jacob Astley general of the foot. H e bestowed on Rupert the invidious privilege of receiving orders only from himself. O n September 10, Essex took up his command and was impatient to advance against Nottingham, for he had 20,000 men. Charles, who had but half of that number, resolved to march towards Wales by way of Derby and Stafford, and recruit in the friendly western shires. H e reached Shrewsbury on the 20th. There recruits poured in, although arms remained scarce. W a n t of money made payment for supplies impossible and the soldiers had to live upon the country. Rupert had learnt in the German wars to act on this necessity, but his methods were apt to turn the common people against the king.
1

Some of the king's horse under Sir John Byron had for a moment occupied Oxford, and, when driven out, made their way to Worcester, whither Rupert came to their support. Towards Worcester, therefore, the E a r l of Essex directed his march from Northampton. The royalists waited long enough to repulse his advance guard in a skirmish at Powick Bridge but did not attempt to hold the city against his main army. When
1

C l a r e n d o n , History, vi., 73.

1642

BATTLE

OF EDGEHILL.

275
CHAP,

they had rejoined their friends, Charles could dispose of 14,000 men and felt equal to an offensive movement. Breaking up from Shrewsbury on October 12, he marched upon L o n d o n by way of Bridgnorth and Birmingham. In L o n d o n the alarm was great. Chains were stretched across the streets to break the rush of cavalry, and the parliament gave orders for raising a second army to be commanded b y the K a r l of Warwick. Essex, leaving a garrison in Worcester, returned to defend the capital. But so careless were the commanders on both sides that the parliamentarians had reached the little town of K i n e t o n in Warwickshire and the royalists the village of Edgcott a few miles distant, before Charles learnt from Rupert how near he was to the enemy. H e saw that he must disable Essex for attack, and on the morning of the 23rd he drew out his army along the steep crest of Edgehill, overlooking the broad vale i n which K i n e t o n lies some three miles distant. Weakened by detachments and with most of his artillery a day's march behind under Hampden's escort, Essex was so i n ferior i n numbers to the k i n g that he could not think of storming the heights. H e therefore marshalled his forces a mile or more from the foot of Edgehill, thus constraining the royalists, who were short of supplies, to descend and begin the battle. Lindsey, deeply hurt that the cavalry were not under his orders, had resigned the general command to the E a r l of Forth, and had chosen to lead his regiment into action. According to the practice of that age the infantry of each army formed the centre, w i t h the cavalry on the wings. O n the k i n g s right the main body of his horse was massed under Rupert, and the remainder on the left were commanded by Wllmot. It was one o'clock i n the afternoon when the fight began. I n a headlong charge Rupert routed the parliamentarian left and pursued them into K i n e t o n , where his troopers fell to plundering the baggage train that choked the street. W i l m o t swept before him part of the horse on the parliamentarian right, and followed the chase as eagerly as Rupert. Thus the enemy's centre was exposed and its ruin seemed certain. But Rupert and W i l m o t forgot to look behind, and the k i n g had no more horse at his call. Essex rallied his shaken infantry, and S i r ^Villiam Balfour, with such of the parliament's horse as had not fled, dashed at the centre of the king's array. The royalists were driven in, their cannon
18 *

276
CHAP,

THE

FIRST

PERIOD

OF THE

CIVIL

WAR.

1642

were for a moment taken, Lord Lindsey was mortally wounded, and Sir Edmund Verney, the standard-bearer, was killed. So suddenly was the fortune of the day reversed that only the return of his horsemen and the early fall of an October evening saved Charles from a total defeat. N o trustworthy account of the loss on either side remains, but it would appear to have been heavy on both. Next day Essex was joined by Hampden s regiments with the guns, but he did not think fit to renew the combat. H e fell back towards Warwick, whence he made for London, while Charles continued his march towards Banbury, which surrendered without a blow, and thence to Oxford, which became his capital during the rest of the war. From Oxford he advanced on London without allowing himself to be delayed by overtures for a treaty. Essex, however, reached London first and embodied the new levies in his army. Xhe houses prudently claimed Edgehill as a victory by a vote of thanks and a present of $,000 to their general. A t Colnbrook Charles received the envoys of the parliament, whom he sent back with a proposal that Windsor Castle should be surrendered to him, although he would make no cessation of arms. Next morning, November 12, his vanguard, under Rupert, stormed Brentford with severe loss to the parliamentary troops. But then the Londoners, who were alarmed not only by the danger to the good cause, but by the near prospect of a sack, came out in multitudes to reinforce the army of Essex. H e took post at Turnham Green with 24,000 men, perhaps double the numbers of the king. The royalists presently quitted Brentford, and soon afterwards Charles retired to Reading, where the negotiation was renewed without effect. H e took up his winter quarters at Oxford, covered by a circle of garrisons, Reading, Wallingford, Banbury, and Marlborough. Communication with the west was free, for Worcester had been abandoned by the parliamentarians. The Earl of Forth succeeded to the command-in-chief of the kings army. A t the beginning of the war Charles had given the Earl of Newcastle a commission to act as general of all his forces in the north of England. The earl was prompt and active, but could ill brook the drudgery of command. H e had the courage which makes light of death, but not the fortitude which can sustain and

1642

THE

WAR

IN THE

NORTH

AND

THE

WEST

277
CHAP,

repair defeat. The friends of the parliament in Yorkshire chose for their general Ferdinand, L o r d Fairfax, and the parliament ratified their choice. A s most Yorkshiremen were averse to domestic war, the parties concluded a treaty of neutrality, but this was promptly disallowed by the houses. Thereupon Fairfax mustered his friends and forced the royalist gentry to take shelter behind the walls of Y o r k . B y straining all his influence and wealth Newcastle succeeded in assembling 8,000 men before the end of November. H e then invaded Yorkshire from Durham, defeated the younger Hotham at Pierce Bridge, overran the N o r t h R i d i n g and raised the blockade of Y o r k . After defeating Fairfax at Tadcaster on December 6, he seized Pontefract and cut off the ^/Vest R i d i n g from H u l l , the base of the parliamentarians in Yorkshire. In the south-west everything at first went well for the parliament. Before raising his standard the king had sent the Marquis of Hertford to act as his general i n that region. The marquis gathered a handful of men with whom he attempted to hold Sherborne Castle. O n the approach of a parliamentary army, under the E a r l of Bedford, he disbanded his force and crossed the sea into South Wales. S i r R a l p h Hopton with a few friends seized Pendennis Castle near Falmouth, but all the rest of the county was controlled by the parliamentary committee at Launceston. Its members proceeded to Bodmin where they formally indicted Hopton and his followers at the quarter sessions as disturbers of the public peace. A t Bodmin they were surprised to meet Hopton himself, who displayed his commission as the king's general, required the obedience of all good subjects, and persuaded the grand jury to find a true bill against the Launceston party for assembling in a riotous manner. The Cornishmen rose i n answer to his call and swept the parliamentarians out of their county. Beyond its bounds the militia would not march j but Hopton, with the help of Sir Bevil Grenville and a few other gentlemen, raised 1,500 volunteers, invaded Devonshire and left to the parliament nothing save the walled towns. Thus at Christmas, 1642, the king's situation was very different from what it had been three months before. Then it seemed doubtful whether he could wage war at all j now he was master of half the kingdom and the confidence of success was with his men, not with the forces of the parliament.

2*jB
C

THE

FIRST

PERIOD

OF

THE

CIVIL

WAR.

1642

^AP.

In the pause of active operations the parliament sought to organise more effectively those parts of England which it controlled. Hitherto it had entrusted administration in each shire to a committee of friendly gentry. But the shire was too small an area for the purpose, and the committee might easily be thwarted b y the king's friends if they were at all numerous. The parliament, therefore, decided, where possible, to group several counties under one committee. A number of midland counties were thus grouped in the midland association. Soon afterwards, Norfolk, Suffolk, Essex, Cambridge, and Hertford were combined in the eastern association, which bore a notable part in the later events of the civil war. In its service C r o m well first proved his capacity. H i s zeal for the cause of the parliament he had already shown. H e had made a present of arms to the townsmen of Cambridge; he had intercepted the university plate on its way to the king, and he had raised a troop of horse with which he rode in the charge that redeemed the day at Edgehill. ^fhen the eastern association was formed, he went home to make his troop a regiment. H e selected recruits on the principle which he had urged to Hampden of getting " men with a spirit that is likely to go on as far as gentlemen will go," men of religion to face the men of honour. In those puritan counties he found the men he wanted. " I have a lovely company," he wrote to a friend, " you would respect them did you know them ; they are no anabaptists, they are honest, sober Christians." H e became colonel of the regiment which he had formed, the famous Ironsides, and before the close of 1643 proved himself the best leader of horse i n England.
1

The unfortunate course of the war and the taxation imposed by ordinance to support it chilled many supporters of the parliament. E v e n i n London multitudes called for peace. The house of lords agreed on propositions for a treaty and the house of commons resolved to negotiate. O n February 1, 1643, the parliamentary commissioners opened that negotiation with the king which is known as the treaty of Oxford, A m o n g the propositions which they tendered, three were of the highest moment. The houses required that the k i n g should assent to the bill abolishing episcopacy and to such other bills for settling
1

Carlyle, Letters and Speeches of Oliver Cromwell,

Letter xvii.

1643

THE

TREATY

OR OXFORD.

279
CHAP, XIII.

of Church government as they should adopt after consulting w i t h an assembly of divines. T h e y required the k i n g to settle the militia in such a manner as should be approved by both houses. T h e y also required that the k i n g should leave delinquents to a legal trial and the judgment of parliament. But on these heads Charles would never yield so long as he had any hope i n arms. Believing episcopal government a matter of divine ordinance, he could not agree to its suppression. C l a i m i n g the power of the sword as his unquestionable prerogative he would never make a gift of it to parliament. Interest, honour, and conscience forbade him to abandon under the name of delinquents those who had shared his distress, executed his commands, and maintained his cause with purse and sword. H e therefore ignored the propositions of the parliament and advanced others of his own, for the restoration of his revenues, ships, and fortresses, the recall of unlawful acts done b y the houses, and the passing of a bill to preserve the Book of C o m m o n Prayer from the attacks of the sectaries. H e added, indeed, a vague offer of indulgence to be shown to tender consciences. T h e parliament could not accept such proposals, unless it were ready to sacrifice everything for which it had hitherto contended. N o progress therefore was made i n the treaty of Oxford. U n w i l l i n g to resign all hope, the houses instructed their commissioners to treat for a cessation of arms which would allow more time to negotiate a settlement. Even this could not be obtained, and i n the course of A p r i l the commissioners were recalled.
1

D u r i n g the negotiation the war on the whole went in favour of the king. T h e parliament sent the E a r l of Stamford into Devonshire with a force which compelled H o p t o n to quit the county. Ruthven, the governor of Plymouth, presumed to invade Cornwall on his own account. B u t the Cornishmen rose again, under H o p t o n and Grenville, to defend their native soil, and defeated Ruthven on Braddock Down, near Liskeard, on January 19, 1643. T h e n they invaded Devon a second time, driving Stamford and his troops before them, and threatening P l y mouth. I n February, a force from Oxford stormed Cirencester and subdued all Gloucestershire save the capital. Other de1

Whitelocke, Metnoficils, pp. 67*69 Rushwortli, v., 164*262.

280
CHAP,
X I 1 1

THE

FIRST

PERIOD

OF THE

CIVIL

WAR.

tachments occupied several midland towns such as Lichfield, Stafford and Tamworth, thus opening a communication with the E a r l of Newcastle. I n the north Newcastle began the year b y sending S i r W i l l i a m Savile to subdue the West Riding. T h e men of Bradford and H a l i f a x , with the help of some troops from H u l l , commanded b y young S i r Thomas Fairfax, defeated Savile and made the earl retreat to Y o r k although they were not strong enough to profit by their victory. T h e queen, who had been busy in H o l l a n d pawning the crown jewels and purchasing arms and ammunition, set sail for E n g l a n d in February, and reached Bridlington Quay, whence she was escorted to Y o r k b y the E a r l of Newcastle. There she negotiated with Sir H u g h Cholmley, governor of Scarborough Castle, whom she persuaded to desert the parliament. S i r John H o t h a m and his son began to waver i n their fidelity, and gave no help to the Fairfaxes. A t the beginning of March, L o r d Fairfax was driven back upon Leeds, where he was presently blockaded by the royalists. W h e n the treaty at Oxford had ended, Essex with the main army of the parliament marched from Windsor to invest Reading. The town was neither strong nor well provided, and surrendered on A p r i l 2 7 after a siege of twelve days. Its capture opened the way to Oxford, but Essex found that his men, whose pay had fallen into arrear, were not in a good temper. W^hen this grievance had been redressed, sickness broke out, and Essex could not move until he had been reinforced. H e fixed his headquarters at Thame, and occupied the village of Wheatley near Oxford, but he neglected the precautions which every general should observe when close to an active and enterprising foe. O n the night of June 17 Rupert sallied from O x f o r d with a party of horse to seize a convoy of treasure coming from L o n d o n to the headquarters. H e missed his prey, but cut up some small detachments exposed i n outlying villages. A t length the alarm spread, and the parliamentarians gathered on his rear. O n Chalgrove field Hampden, with a few troopers, overtook Rupert and tried to hold h i m i n play until reinforcements came. A f t e r a sharp skirmish H a m p d e n was mortally wounded and his men were scattered. Rupert regained O x f o r d without hindrance, while Hampden made his way to Thame almost alone. H e
1
1

Letters of Henrietta

Maria,

ed. b y M r s . Everett Green, pp. 161-79.

1643

ROYALIST

SUCCESSES

IN THE

NORTH.

281
CHAP,

lingered in much pain until the 24th. The words commonly ascribed to him in his last moments are found only in a late and spurious narrative. It is enough that he died as he had lived for his country. In him the parliament lost perhaps its best and wisest leader. Yet we may think him fortunate in his death, for even if he could have divined the only possible terms of reconciliation, he could not have induced the warring factions to accept them, nor could he have found a fitting place under that military rule which became the nation's last resource against anarchy. Sickness again thinned the army of the parliament, and Essex fell back to Aylesbury and thence to Brickhill, nearer London, while the queen with a large convoy of arms and ammunition reached Oxford unmolested. In the north of England the Fairfaxes continued to struggle gloriously but vainly against the growing forces of Newcastle. On M a y 21 Sir Thomas Fairfax surprised Wakefield and took 1,400 prisoners, but was not strong enough to hold the town. No help could be got from the eastern counties, which feared a royalist invasion for themselves, and the last hope of the parliament In the north was almost extinguished by the treachery of Hotham and his son, who had resolved to surrender H u l l , the one impregnable fortress and the one port through which men and supplies could be introduced from the sea. The Hothams, however, awakened so much suspicion that they were arrested and sent to London, although not tried and executed until many months afterwards. I n June, Newcastle, with 10,000 men, again invaded the West Riding. O n the 30th the Fairfaxes at the head of an ill-armed and ill-disciplined levy gave him battle on Adwalton Moor, not far from Bradford, and suffered a total defeat. They made their way to Bradford and thence to H u l l , where L o r d Fairfax was welcomed by the citizens as their governor. Thus H u l l was saved, but the West Riding was lost, and Newcastle controlled all the lands north of the Humber. H e next attacked Lincolnshire, sending a strong body of horse under Charles Cavendish, to threaten Gainsborough, where L o r d Willoughby of Parham commanded for the parliament. Sir John Meldrum, the general of the eastern association, and Colonel Cromwell marched to its relief and in
1

*- Printed i n the

Ctentleinan s Magazine
y

for 1815 \ see Professor Firth's Biography.

article on Hampden, Dictionary of National

2&2
CHAP,

THE

FIRST

PERIOD

OF THE

CIVIL

WAR.

1643

an action fought near the town Cavendish was slain and his men were routed. Xhe victors had presently to retire before "Newcastle's main force, which took Gainsborough and L i n c o l n and overran almost the whole of the county. It seemed likely that the earl would invade the counties of the eastern association and even t r y an advance on L o n d o n . In the south-west of England the royalists were also victorious. Xhe parliament had raised Stamford's army to y,ooo men, but these forces were useless to a general whose only qualifications were rank and wealth. Hopton and Grenville, though they had not half his numbers, attacked him near the village of Stratton, in Cornwall, close to the Devon border, on M a y 16 and gained a decisive victory. After this brilliant feat of arms Hopton invaded Devon a third time and overran the whole county save a few seaport towns. X h e king felt strong enough to detach a body of troops under Prince Maurice and the Marquis of Hertford, which effected a junction with the Cornish army at Chard. S i r W i l l i a m Waller who, with small means, had gained much reputation on the Welsh border, was recalled by the parliament to the defence of Somerset, but could not do more than cover Bath. H e occupied Lansdown H i l l , which rises steeply behind the city. O n July 5 the royalists attacked him, and, pressing up Lansdown, in despite of cannon and musketry and charges of horse, established themselves on the top, although with heavy loss. X w o thirds of their cavalry were killed or wounded, and the brave Grenville was among the dead. Under cover of the night ^Valler retired into the town. A s the royalists had neither men nor ammunition sufficient to besiege him there, they determined on marching to Oxford and joining the king. ^TValler was strong enough to follow and harass their rear, and when they reached Devizes he took his post on Roundway D o w n and barred their further progress. It was resolved that Maurice, with the cavalry, should make a bold push for Oxford, while Hopton, with the infantry, should do his best to hold Devizes until Maurice with fresh forces could come to his relief. Before a general assault could be delivered, Maurice returned from Oxford and occupied Waller's old position on Roundway D o w n . Waller had to regain it i f he would continue the siege. In the ensuing battle, fought on the 13th, he fled with his cavalry,

1643

ROYALIST

PLOT

IN

LONDON
CHAP.

and his infantry were all killed, wounded, or made prisoners. The parliament had no other force which could keep the field in the west. Rupert joined the victors with a reinforcement from O x f o r d and invested Bristol. The city itself lay i n a hollow easily commanded from the surrounding heights. It had been enclosed with lines nearly five miles in extent, but they were unfinished and weakly manned. Supplies were scanty and some of the citizens were hostile to the parliament. The governor, Nathaniel Fiennes, owed his advancement, not to military skill or experience, but to family connexion and talent for debate. On the 26th Rupert ventured a general assault, and, before it could be pushed home, Fiennes surrendered Bristol. H e was afterwards sentenced to death b y a court-martial for his failure i n duty, but his life was spared. T h e capture of this large and rich city, the second seaport of the kingdom, seemed to forebode the complete subjugation of the west of England by the k i n g . A t a time when almost every courier announced defeats and loss of territory, the houses were alarmed by the discovery of a dangerous plot in the capital. A m o n g the rich and even i n the parliament were some secret partisans of the king. Charles issued to certain citizens a commission of array, empowering them to raise forces for his service. E d m u n d Waller, the poet, then a member of parliament, acted as intermediary between the citizens and those of his colleagues who were i n the secret. O n an appointed night the royalists were to rise, secure the lord mayor and the leaders of the commons, and open the gates to a force from O x f o r d . But evidence was found, which led to the arrest of Waller and his brother-in-law, Tompkins, on M a y 31. W^aller was smitten with such abject terror that he offered to confess everything. H i s evidence proved fatal to Tompkins and another accomplice, Chaloner, who were executed on July 5, but he so skilfully interested the house i n his own behalf that he escaped with a fine of ^"10,000. T h e discovery of the plot rekindled the spirit of resistance. T h e members of both houses entered into a covenant to maintain the cause of the parliament against the k i n g until the papists, then in arms, should have been brought to justice, and the lords agreed to the ordinance for holdi n g an assembly of divines, which they had hitherto opposed. A n effort was also made to increase the revenue. From the first the parliament had found that the taxes levied i n

284
CHAP,
x

THE

FIRST

PERIOD

OF THE

CIVIL

WAR.

1643

***'

time of peace were insufficient to meet the expenses of the war. It announced an intention of making delinquents, in other words, the king's followers, answerable for those expenses 1 but this resource would not avail until it had gained the victory. A t the close of 1642 it imposed a direct tax, first on London and then on the whole of its territory; and this taxation became permanent. A certain sum-total was fixed for the monthly assessment; the parliamentary commissioners fixed the contribution of each county and borough, and the local authorities fixed the share to be paid b y each individual. Direct taxation, however, did not prove adequate. In March, 1643, P y m proposed an excise upon articles bought and sold. Such a tax, although familiar in Holland, had never been i m posed i n E n g l a n d and was so unpopular that the house rejected his motion. But the need of money became so urgent that an excise ordinance which also increased the customs was passed in July. About the same time it was resolved to put a much greater number of men into the field. The army of Essex was to be reinforced, so that it could take the offensive again. A second army was to be levied and entrusted to Sir W i l l i a m Waller for the defence of the home counties. The infantry of the eastern association was to be raised to 10,000 men, and the E a r l of Manchester was appointed general there, in order that his rank i f not his talents might ensure unity of action. A s there was no likelihood that the armies of Essex, "Waller, and Manchester could be brought up to their full strength by voluntary enlistment, the houses, on August 10, passed an ordinance for impressing recruits. These vigorous resolutions could not be executed all at once, and meantime the k i n g might order the advance upon L o n d o n of three armies his own, the northern, and the western \ a movement which, i f it took effect, would decide the war. It was averted b y the unwillingness of his followers to go far from home so long as any danger threatened there. T h e Cornishmen, who had marched victorious half-way across E n g land, would no longer leave their county open to raids from P l y mouth. Newcastle, whom the k i n g had rewarded for his services with the rank of marquis, was recalled northwards b y the entreaties of the Yorkshiremenj who feared incursions from the garrison of H u l l . The W e l s h levies would not cross the Severn

1643

THE

SIEGE

OF

GLOUCESTER.
CHAP,

so long as the parliament held Gloucester. Concentration thus became impossible, and no large plan could be executed. The Cornisbmen returned home. Prince Maurice, with the remainder of his army, was sent to subdue Dorset, and soon conquered the whole county except the seaports of Poole and L y m e Regis. H e then reduced all the fortresses of the parliament i n Devonshire save Plymouth. Newcastle, on September 2, began the siege of H u l l . The king had invested Gloucester on August 10. So prosperous did his cause still appear that several lords at this time forsook the parliament for the king, among them Holland, who, finding himself distrusted and contemned at Oxford, stole back to London in the autumn. Gloucester was without regular defences, and had a garrison of only 1,500 men, ill supplied. Massey, the governor, has been suspected of treachery to his employers. Charles could still muster 8,000 troops for the siege, but remembering the heavy loss at Bristol, chose to make regular approaches rather than try the fortune of an assault. The besieged took the offensive i n frequent and successful sallies. D a y after day passed without any sign of surrender, while the parliament, aware that the fall of Gloucester would be followed by an attack on London, strained every nerve to form an army of relief, and was heartily supported by the ministers and the citizens. Beside the pressed men, six regiments of the L o n d o n trained bands agreed to march for the deliverance of Gloucester. O n August 26 Essex set out from Colnbrook, and with the reinforcements which he gathered on the way was soon 15,000 strong. Leaving Oxford to the south, he marched over the Cotswolds, where the royalist cavalry under Rupert and Wilmot hung on his flanks and tried to head him back. Charles, who was too weak to give him battle, broke up the siege on September 5 and retreated towards Painswick and thence to Evesham. There remained in Gloucester only three barrels of powder. Essex entered Gloucester on the 8th, and halted there a couple of days while the citizens renewed their supplies. T o remain longer was impossible with an army such as he commanded and to return was difficult, for Charles could concentrate his forces to bar the way. Marching towards Tewkesbury, as though he would again pass north of Oxford, Essex turned suddenly southwards and captured Cirencester, where he found

286
CHAP,

THE

FIRST

PERIOD

OF THE

CIVIL

WAR.

1643

xiii.

a magazine of provisions which he needed extremely. Then quitting the open "campania of the Cotswolds, he plunged into what Clarendon terms " the deep enclosed country of North Wilts," struck the great road which leads down the valley of the Kennet, and pushed on for L o n d o n . Charles, although he had been outmanoeuvred b y Essex, d i d not despair of cutting him off. Rupert's cavalry came i n contact with the parliamentarians on Aldbourn Chase and headed them back towards Hungerford, while Charles, with the main body, planted himself at Newbury. Essex took up his headquarters at Enborne Street about three miles to the south-west. Both armies extended across the down which rises between the Kennet to the north and the Enborne brook to the south Towards Newbury and the south this down was largely open common, but farther west and especially on the slope towards the Kennet it was cut up by enclosures and copses. A s supplies of food were running short, Essex had to cut his way through or surrender. The king, who could afford to wait, should have remained on the defensive. O n the morning of the 20th, the parliamentarians began to move. But the royalists by a series of errors were the first to attack. On the left Rupert hurled himself in vain against the L o n d o n regiments. O n the right, the royalists, having allowed the enemy to seize heights which commanded their position in the low ground by the Kennet, were forced to attack uphill, if they would not retreat. L e d by S i r Nicholas and S i r John Byron, they charged again and again, making a little way at a heavy price, for the soldiers of the parliament disputed every hedge. In the centre, amid lanes and enclosures, the conflict was long and stubborn, but at length Essex remained master of the ground as far as the open heath. W h e n darkness fell victory was still doubtful. B o t h armies had suffered severely, but the parliament lost no officer of much note while the k i n g lost some of his noblest followers. The generous Falkland, despairing of peace and unable to witness any longer the sufferings of his country, had sought and found death early in the action. The Earls of Carnarvon and Sunderland had also fallen. The battle must have been renewed the next day had not the royalists exhausted their ammunition. In the night Charles drew off his forces towards Oxford, and at morning Essex resumed his march

1643

EVENTS

IN IRELAND.

287
c p

towards L o n d o n . The king's troops reoccupied Reading, and this ^ ^ was the one result gained by their supreme effort at Newbury. T h e Londoners who had fought so well could no longer be spared from their callings, and the army of Essex fell back into its former weakness. Perhaps three-fourths of the kingdom were at this time subject to Charles. The k i n g and the houses had for some time been endeavouring to draw help from Ireland and from Scotland respectively. In Ireland the avowed intention of the E n g l i s h parliament no longer to tolerate Catholicism and its vast scheme of confiscation, together with the unwise cruelty of the lord justices, had long since united in arms the whole R o m a n catholic population, not merely the pure Irish who wished to be independent, but also the Anglo-Irish, who only desired freedom for their religion and security for their estates. B y the summer of 1 6 4 2 the E n g l i s h and Scots were confined to a few fortresses with the adjoining districts. The insurgents proceeded to organise themselves. I n M a y , an assembly of clergymen and laymen met at K i l k e n n y , and resolved to form a supreme council. W h e n the supreme council met it appointed Thomas Preston, a colonel in the Spanish service, to command its forces in Leinster. Owen Roe O'Neill, who landed about the same time on the shore of L o u g h Swilly, needed no commission to give him authority over the men of Ulster. Preston was confronted by Ormond, who had lately been raised to the rank of a marquis, and commanded the king's forces. O'Neill was opposed to the Scottish army under Monro. W i t h i n ferior discipline and organisation the Irish had the advantage of numbers, and in spite of defeats continued to gain ground on their enemies.
1

The general assembly of the confederate catholics, which was i n a l l but name an Irish parliament, met at K i l k e n n y on October 24, the day after the battle of Edgehill. It proclaimed freedom for the catholic religion and restored the Church lands to the catholic clergy. Without ordaining any general confiscation of the estates of the settlers it sequestered the rents of all landowners who were hostile or neutral. It did not demand national independence, but took as the motto on its seal, " Irish5

* Clarendon, History,

v i i . , 201-239 j M a y , History pp. 7 ~ 4 3 7*

of the Long

Parliament,

bk. i i i . , c h , v i . j Vv^hitelocke, Memorials,

288
CHAP,

THE

FIRST

PERIOD

OF

THE

CIVIL

WAR.

1643

men unanimous for God, the k i n g and the c o u n t r y T h e policy thus suggested was that of the A n g l o - I r i s h nobility, and might not have satisfied all the Irish catholics in the event of final success. The general assembly wished to earn the favour of Charles, and Charles might well desire to conciliate them, as he could then employ i n England the troops fighting for him i n Ireland, and possibly Irish troops also. F e w will now blame him for not adopting the remorseless policy of the parliament which threatened to make the Irish war endless. B u t throughout his Irish negotiation Charles justly incurred the double reproach of unwisdom and dishonesty: of unwisdom, because he would lose far more than he could ever gain by employing Irish catholic troops i n his English quarrel; of dishonesty, because he must have known that he could not keep any promise of religious equality made to the Irish catholics. More than once he consented to sacrifice Irish interests altogether if he might recover his own authority i n E n g l a n d . The temptation was doubtless severe and the circumstances were such that an upright and straightforward policy was well-nigh impossible. In January, 1643, Charles, who would not allow Leicester to go to Ireland, empowered Ormond and others to confer with the Irish leaders and to report on their demands. The meeting of commissioners from both sides took place at T r i m on March if. The Irish tendered a remonstrance of grievances, closing with the demand for a free parliament, unfettered by Poynings' A c t . If this were granted, they would send 1 0 , 0 0 0 men to the king's assistance. Charles was unwilling to go so far, but found an advantage in prolonging the discussion. In A p r i l he authorised Ormond to treat for one year's cessation of arms, and i n J u l y he consented to offer the Irish a free parliament. T h e confederates were divided among themselves. "While the Anglo-Irish nobility welcomed the king's offer, a large part of the clergy, led b y Scarampi, the papal legate, and the old Irish of the north, led b y O'Neill, felt that the king, even if he wished, would never be allowed to grant their full demands, and that their best hope lay, not i n negotiating with him, but in recovering the whole country, so that whichever party prevailed in E n g l a n d would have to acknowledge an independence which it could not undo. In this they were right, but both sides were so desirous of the cessation that it was concluded on September 15* The king and the con-

1643

THE

SCOTS

AND

THE

PARLIAMENT

289
CHAP,

federates respectively were to keep what they actually held, and the Scots, under Monro, were to have the benefit of the cessation if they chose to come i n ; but i f they stood aloof, Ormond was to remain neutral while they were attacked, or even, i f the king consented, was to help in attacking them. T h e supreme council undertook to find yy,ooo for the royal troops which were to pass into England. The terms of a definitive peace were to be discussed at Oxford between the k i n g and the agents of the supreme council. Thus closed the first period of the Irish rebellion . T h e Scots had no part i n the events which led immediately to the outbreak of the civil war in England, but they could not be indifferent to the issue of the conflict. I f the k i n g should regain b y arms his full authority i n England, he would certainly proceed to regain his full authority in Scotland. I f the E n g l i s h puritans were vanquished, the Scottish K i r k would not long remain presbyterian. A s soon as it became clear that the k i n g would not be easily overcome, the Scots commissioners at Oxford urged h i m to admit their mediation on the basis of a common government and discipline for the Churches of both kingdoms. Charles refused, and at H a m i l ton's suggestion tried to raise a party against A r g y l e at home. Montrose went to the queen at Y o r k , assured her that the Scots would before long send an army to help the parliament, and proposed to forestall them b y raising a war in Scotland. Hamilton prevailed w i t h the k i n g to reject his offer. T h e government of Scotland, growing more and more alarmed at the k i n g s success, summoned a convention of estates to meet on June 22, and the king, on Hamilton's advice, offered no hindrance. It also published papers showing that some of the royalist nobles had laid a plot to rise for Charles with the help of catholic troops from Ireland. The convention sent copies to the E n g l i s h parliament, which resolved that it would seek counsel of the Scots, and invite them to send representatives to the assembly of divines at Westminster on J u l y 1. After the defeats of Adwalton Moor and R o u n d w a y D o w n , it went further and agreed to ask the Scots for an army. T w o peers and four commoners were entrusted with
1
1

"Wishart, Deeds of Montrose, ch i i .

VOL.

VII.

9 ^

290

THE

FIRST

PERIOD

OF

THE

CIVIL

WAR. O f the
J > ^ 1

C H A P , t h i s c o m m i s s i o n , b u t t h e peers n a m e d t o o k n o p a r t .
XIII* ,t r V T T XT il.^ sU.^
(

c o m m o n e r s t n e y o u n g e r o i r Jrienry v a n e w a s t n e a D i e s t a n a t n e most distinguished. T h e y w e r e assisted b y t w o m i n i s t e r s , S t e p h e n M a r s h a l l a n d P h i l i p N y e , f o r i t was certain that the n e g o t i a t i o n w o u l d t u r n l a r g e l y u p o n ecclesiastical m a t t e r s . T h e conferences w h i c h b e g a n a t E d i n b u r g h o n A u g u s t 8 soon disclosed a w a n t o f m u t u a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g . T h e Scots w o u l d rather h a v e a p p e a r e d i n E n g l a n d as m e d i a t o r s t h a n as allies o f either p a r t y . "When t h e y f o u n d t h a t the E n g l i s h c o m m i s s i o n e r s r e q u i r e d m i l i t a r y a i d , t h e y resolved t o i m p o s e upon E n g l a n d their o w n system o f C h u r c h government a n d discipline. T h e E n g l i s h d i d n o t d e m u r to t h e c o n d e m n a t i o n o f episcopacy, b u t s o m e o f t h e m a t least favoured c o n g r e g a t i o n a l i n d e p e n d e n c e w h i c h w o u l d b e r i g o r o u s l y repressed u n d e r t h e S c o t t i s h system, a n d a l l d i s l i k e d t h e i n q u i s i t o r i a l j u r i s d i c t i o n e x e r c i s e d b y t h e C h u r c h courts i n S c o t l a n d . A t last the S c o t s tendered a n agreement o n the model of their o w n national covenant, w h e r e b y t h e p e o p l e o f b o t h countries b o u n d t h e m selves t o u p h o l d the true protestant r e l i g i o n i n t h e C h u r c h o f S c o t l a n d , t o r e f o r m r e l i g i o n i n the C h u r c h o f E n g l a n d a c c o r d i n g t o the e x a m p l e o f the best r e f o r m e d C h u r c h e s , a n d t o b r i n g b o t h i n t o t h e nearest c o n j u n c t i o n a n d u n i f o r m i t y . As the E n g l i s h c o m m i s s i o n e r s d a r e d n o t refuse outright, V a n e b e t h o u g h t h i m of a n a m e n d m e n t w h i c h m i g h t reserve some freedom to h i s c o u n t r y m e n . T h e r e was t o be a r e f o r m a t i o n o f r e l i g i o n i n E n g l a n d according to the Word of God a n d t h e e x a m p l e o f t h e best r e f o r m e d C h u r c h e s \ a n a d d i t i o n w h i c h m i g h t s e e m e d i f y i n g a n d insignificant, b u t b y r e f e r r i n g t h e m a t t e r to e a c h m a n ' s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f " the W o r d , left i t altogether indefinite. T h a t episcopacy s h o u l d b e abolished i n E n g l a n d , that the p r i v i leges o f b o t h p a r l i a m e n t s a n d t h e liberties o f b o t h k i n g d o m s s h o u l d be m a i n t a i n e d , t h a t the k i n g ' s a u t h o r i t y s h o u l d be p r e served, a n d t h a t incendiaries a n d m a l i g n a n t s s h o u l d b e b r o u g h t t o justice, w e r e matters r e a d i l y accepted o n a l l sides. A b o u t t h i s t i m e M o n t r o s e c a m e t o t h e k i n g w h o l a y before Gloucester, t o l d h i m t h a t he h a d b e e n offered t h e c o m m a n d o f t h e a r m y w h i c h t h e S c o t s w e r e about t o s e n d to t h e assistance o f the p a r l i a m e n t , a n d r e p e a t e d t h e a d v i c e t h a t a d i v e r s i o n s h o u l d be a t t e m p t e d i n S c o t l a n d . C h a r l e s , f o r once o v e r 1 2
1

Rushworth, v . , 47^

W i s h a r t , Deeds of Montrose, c h . i i i .

1643

THE

SOLEMN

LEAGUE

AND

COVENANT

291
CHAP,

scrupulous, refused the offer and gave H a m i l t o n a new proof of confidence by making h i m a duke. T h e Solemn League and Covenant, having been approved b y the general assembly, was ratified by the convention of estates on August 17. In L o n d o n the assembly of divines which had lately met approved it and the commons extended its scope to Ireland. W h e n it had passed both houses, the commons and the members of the assembly of divines swore to the Solemn League and Covenant on September 25. Somewhat later the few peers who still lingered at Westminster swore to it also. T h e Scottish convention of estates then took measures to raise an army, on the understanding that the E n g l i s h parliament would contribute ^30,000 a month to its support. T h e Scots became entitled by treaty to require a thing as mischievous to attempt as it was impossible to execute; namely, the forcing of E n g l a n d and Ireland under the presbyterian yoke. T h i s was to be done without harming the person or infringing on the authority of a king who abhorred presbytery. England was to remain a monarchy, but peace with the monarch was rendered hopeless. Before the Scots could enter E n g l a n d some months elapsed, during which the fortune of the war remained doubtful. In the east of England the parliament prevailed. T h e E a r l of M a n chester took L y n n , the only town in Norfolk held for the king. Lincolnshire was added to the eastern association. O n October 11 Cromwell routed at W^inceby a considerable body of horse and dragoons, which had invaded the county from Newark. O n the same day the garrison of H u l l made a successful sally, which dispirited the Marquis of Newcastle so much that he raised the siege. T h e city of L i n c o l n surrendered to the parliamentary forces a few days afterwards. But the armies of E s s e x and Waller remained too weak for an offensive movement. T h e king s troops coming back from Ireland were embodied in two new armies, destined the one to attack the southeastern counties, the other to clear the enemy out of Cheshire, Shropshire, and Lancashire. H o p t o n took the command of the first army. The better to withstand him, the counties of H a m p shire, Surrey, Sussex, and K e n t were united in a south-eastern association, of which the defence was committed to W a l l e r . H o p t o n began his advance early in December, found no op5

^*

292
CHAP,

THE

FIRST

PERIOD

OF THE

CIVIL

WAR.

1643

position i n Hampshire and took A r u n d e l Castle on the 9th. But Waller surprised and captured a large detachment of his men near A l t o n , and forced him to retreat. Arundel Castle was retaken in January. L o r d B y r o n , who commanded for the king in Cheshire, was more successful than Hopton, and by t h e close of the year had almost expelled the parliamentary forces. The parliament sustained a heavier loss in the death of P y m on December 8. Although P y m fills an ample space in English history, it is hard to form a vivid conception of the man. O f his private life we know almost n o t h i n g ; of his speeches we have few and meagre reports; nor are there any memorable statutes which we can ascribe to his genius. H i s power over a popular assembly and his sagacity in meeting difficulties and dangers as they arose are beyond question. This great revolutionary chief began with seeking to preserve rather than destroy. H e arose to vindicate the ancient liberties of England and the protestant religion. H e set himself against the k i n g and the bishops because he thought that they had endangered these inestimable treasures; but he was not i n any other sense the enemy o f monarchy or of episcopacy. B y the force of circumstances he was driven to propose those limitations on the power of the crown which were only adopted after a second revolution and a change of dynasty, as he was driven to agree with the Scots for a presbyterian reformation of the Church, which was not desired b y the nation and could never be completed. L i k e many wise men at that time who rejected the principle of persecution, he thought that neither R o m a n C a t h o l i c i s m nor anything which he held to approach it could safely be tolerated. H e desired to maintain uniformity i n religion tempered b y indulgence to puritans more rigid than himself. It is doubtful whether he could have mediated successfully between the principles of the Scots and the principles of the independents, in other words, between the authority of the parliament and the demands of the army. Perhaps we may term him, like Hampden, fortunate in his death j but the house of commons never found such a leader again, and the superiority, not of force only, but of wisdom passed to the military chiefs.

CHAPTER XIV.
T H E SECOND PERIOD O F T H E CIVIL WAR. C H A R L E S had summoned all members of either house who C H A P , had left Westminster or would consent to do so on promise X I V . of pardon to meet i n a parliament at O x f o r d ; and most of the peers and about one-third of the commons were ready to obey his summons. O n January 22, 1644, the k i n g opened the session i n Christ Church hall. It lasted nearly three months without any effect upon the course of the civil war. The assembly at Oxford tried to open a negotiation with the houses at Westminster, which was not even begun, as they would not allow it the style of a parliament. It could only retort by declaring that the lords and commons sitting at Westminster and all who abetted them were traitors. It granted the k i n g an excise, but vexed h i m with many criticisms of details. Finally it was prorogued by the king on A p r i l 16. A t Westminster, the deaths of Hampden and P y m left Vane and St. John leaders of the house of commons. O f these men V a n e was little more than thirty years of age and St. John was about forty-five. Neither was truly in sympathy with the mass of the puritan members. Vane, the friend of Cromwell and M i l t o n , was in politics a republican and a democrat, and i n religion a mystic, averse to Church establishments and desirous of a large toleration. St. J o h n secretly favoured the independents and, as the event showed, was indifferent to monarchy. B u t V a n e and St. J o h n alike could practise an astute reserve while making themselves necessary b y their talent and z e a l , and both could sway the house to the best advantage, for both were resolved on a vigorous prosecution of the war, the one thing immediately needful. A n ordinance instituted the famous committee of both kingdoms, consisting of seven peers and

293

294
CHAP, XIV.

THE

SECOND

PERIOD

OF THE

CIVIL

WAR.

1644

fourteen commoners, together with the four commissioners who represented Scotland. It had full control of the war, and of negotiations with foreign states, but it was to make no cessation or treaty with the king, save b y the express order of both houses. A m o n g its members were found all the chief captains of the parliament from Essex to Cromwell; but, as they were usually away on active service, the civilians determined its resolutions, which in consequence were sometimes ill-judged or dilatory. T h e intervention of the Scots weighted the balance of war heavily against the king. Hitherto he had gamed ground, partly because he acted on a strategic plan superior to the illconcerted measures of the parliament, partly because his cavalry were, as a rule, more effective than the cavalry opposed to them. Henceforwards he was overmatched in strength, and the territory from which he could draw men and money shrank and dwindled. O n l y the divided counsels of his enemies enabled him to reach another winter without total ruin. O n January 19, the Scottish army, commanded b y the E a r l of Leven, began its passage of the Tweed. A s it was 2 1 , 0 0 0 strong, the royalists of Northumberland could not meet it in the field, and fell back on Newcastle. T h e Marquis of Newcastle turned from the southern to meet the northern adversary, but could bring no more than 3 , 0 0 0 horse and 5 , 0 0 0 foot. Step by step he was driven towards Y o r k , while the parliamentary forces pressed up from the south to take h i m i n the rear. The younger Fairfax reinforced Sir Thomas Brereton, the parliamentary commander in Cheshire, who had been losing ground to L o r d Byron. They marched to the relief of Nantwich, then besieged by Byron, and routed his army, making 1,500 prisoners. A m o n g these was Colonel Monk, a stout soldier of fortune, destined b y his shrewdness and freedom from conviction to a memorable career. The royalists were thus thrown on the defensive in Cheshire, the towns of the West Riding, always staunch to the parliament, were freed from the last danger of attack, and the East R i d i n g was speedily recovered by the elder Fairfax. The fortress of Newark, which alone broke the line of communication between the capital and the advancing Scottish army,
1

Commons Journals,
7

iii., 3 9 2 ; Lords

Journals,

v i . , 430.

*644

NEWARK

AND

CHERITON

295
CHAP,

was closely beleaguered by the troops of the eastern association, under the command of S i r John Meldrum. T o save it, Rupert set out from O x f o r d with a handful of men. T a k i n g a circuitous route through Shrewsbury and Chester, he gathered reinforcements as he went, and on the morning of M a r c h 21 he was in sight of Newark. Enclosed between Rupert's force and the garrison sallying from the town, the besiegers had to surrender on condition of retiring without their arms or artillery. Rupert pushed on and regained the city of Lincoln, but lacked the strength either to remain in Lincolnshire or to march against the Scots, and returned perforce to Wales, where he strove to raise men and supplies. H i s departure allowed a free career to the Fairfaxes who stormed Selby on A p r i l 11, making upwards of 1,600 prisoners. A little later Newcastle took refuge i n Y o r k , and the Fairfaxes joined Leven and the Scots, i n order to form the siege. About the same time Montrose, who had at length received a commission as the king's lieutenant-general and had been created a marquis, invaded Scotland with a small force, but was speedily driven back across the border. In the south Charles was hardly less unfortunate. H e had reinforced Hopton's army and ordered him to renew the i n vasion of Hampshire. Waller defeated H o p t o n at Cheriton near Alresford on M a r c h 29 and relieved L o n d o n from all apprehension in that quarter. It was then resolved that Essex and Manchester should join their forces for an attack on Oxford, while Waller marched westwards to relieve the parliamentary garrisons. But the armies of Essex and Waller were far below their intended strength, and Manchester was busied until M a y i n expelling the royalists from Lincolnshire. Money was scarcer than ever, and much time was lost in wrangling between the houses. A t length the committee of both kingdoms decided that Manchester should remain i n the north, and that Essex and Waller should act against Charles. T h e king was so weak that he demolished the works of Reading and embodied the garrison in his army. A few days later he abandoned Abingdon. T h e parliamentary generals might then have begun a siege of Oxford, but they had never been on cordial terms, and preferred to act separately. In order to cut off O x f o r d from the west, they
1
1

W i s h a r t , Deeds of Montrose, ch. iii. a n d iv.

296
CHAP,

THE

SECOND

PERIOD

OF

THE

CIVIL

WAR.

1644

agreed that Essex should circle round to the north and cross the Cherwell at some distance above the city, while Waller, keeping to the south, should cross the Thames at Newbridge and so reunite with Essex. Essex failed to make good his passage over the Cherwell, although W^aller seized Newbridge and crossed the Thames. Charles b y a skilful feint brought Waller back to Abingdon and then, under cover of night, left Oxford with $,000 horse and 2,500 musketeers and crossed the Cotswolds to ^Vorcester ; but his condition still seemed desperate, for Essex and Waller were following from the east, while other enemies threatened h i m from north and south. A g a i n he was saved by the parliamentary leaders, who agreed that Essex should march to the relief of L y m e , leaving AA^aller to deal with the king. Thus the attack upon Oxford became impossible and the advantage of numbers possessed by the parliament was entirely lost. Seizing the opportunity, Charles at once returned to ^Woodstock and reinforced himself with every man who could be spared from Oxford. Then he marched on Buckingham, whence he could threaten the eastern counties or L o n d o n itself. T o bar his advance, the parliament sent Major-General Brown with a force of trained bands hastily raised in L o n d o n and the adjoining counties. Charles lost time i n hesitation until the approach of Waller forced h i m to turn away from London towards the north-west. The two armies came i n contact near Banbury. O n June 29, as they marched up the Cherwell, on opposite sides of the stream, they joined battle, almost by accident, at Cropredy Bridge, and Waller was defeated with the loss of his guns and many prisoners. Shortly afterwards he effected his junction with Brown, only to suffer a worse disappointment, for his militiamen melted away when the i m mediate danger to their own homes had passed. E v e n the Londoners would not stay with their colours, and the trained bands of Essex and Hertford behaved i n such a mutinous fashion that the general pronounced them only fit for a gallows here and a hell hereafter. W i t h the few men left Waller retreated to Abingdon. H i s army had ceased to exist; the army of Essex was far away i n D e v o n ; Oxford was safe for
2
1

Sjmaonds, Diary Ibid., pp. 22*24*

of the Marches of the Royal Army, pp.

7-8.

1644

RELIEF

OF YORK

BY RUPERT.

297

the rest of the year, and the king might assume the offensive C H A P , and march whither he would. XIV. W h i l e the king's cause prospered thus i n the south, it met with irretrievable disaster in the north. There the event of the war hung upon the relief of Y o r k . Rupert, on his return from L i n c o l n , had striven to form a fresh army, but week followed week before he was ready to take the field. O n M a y 16 he left Shrewsbury with a few thousand men. H e first marched towards Lancashire, where the Countess of Derby was gallantly defending Lathom House against a parliamentary force commanded b y Rigby. O n Rupert s approach, R i g b y retired towards Bolton. Rupert stormed Bolton on M a y 28 and killed or took most of the defenders. Goring came i n with 5,000 cavalry, chiefly men whom Newcastle had sent away from Y o r k when the investment was about to begin. Rupert then took Liverpool and almost cleared Lancashire of the parliamentarians. O n June 3 the E a r l of Manchester brought the troops of the eastern association to reinforce the besiegers of Y o r k , which was already in distress. Rupert still lingered in Lancashire to collect every available man, and it was not until June 28 that he crossed the Pennine H i l l s . O n July 1 the allied commanders abandoned the siege of Y o r k and took post on Marston M o o r , between that city and Knaresborough, with the intention of giving Rupert battle. Rupert shunned an encounter, crossed the Swale and Ouse and reached Y o r k that night. N e x t morning he met Newcastle, while the allies, fearing for the eastern counties, began their retreat by way of Tadcaster and Cawood. Rupert who bore instructions from the king, implying that he must fight the allies after relieving the city, told Newcastle that he intended to fight at once. Newcastle advised delay and, it should seem, with good reason. B u t Rupert, young, high-blooded, and spoilt b y favour and success, was not apt to practise self-denial or to wait upon occasion, and silenced the marquis by alleging a positive and absolute command from the k i n g to fight the enemy.
1

H e therefore pressed forwards i n pursuit. S i r Thomas Fairfax, Cromwell, and D a v i d Leslie, who commanded the parliamentary rearguard, were forced to call for help from their superiors, with the result that the whole army returned to
* V^arburton, Memoirs of Prince Rupert, i i . , 437'3^

2gS
CHAP,

THE

SECOND

PERIOD

OF

THE

CIVIL

WAR.

1644

its position on Marston M o o r and formed in order of battle. L o r d Fairfax's infantry, with a reserve of Scots, held the centre; the line was prolonged to the right by the remaining Scottish infantry, and to the left by the infantry of the eastern association. L o r d Fairfax's cavalry, w i t h three regiments of Scottish horse, composed the right wing, which was commanded by the younger Fairfax. X h e left wing consisted of the cavalry of the eastern association under Cromwell, and three regiments of Scottish horse under D a v i d Leslie. X h e whole amounted to some 25,000 men, the greatest force ever arrayed on a battlefield i n the civil war. Rupert's force did not, perhaps, exceed 18,000 men. It would appear that B y r o n commanded the cavalry on the right. X h e cavalry on the left were commanded by Goring. L o r d E y t h i n , who had acted somewhat as chief of the staff to Newcastle, led the central body of foot. In their rear a small reserve of horse was led by Rupert, for whom, as general-in-chief, that situation was convenient. Rupert brought his line close to that of the enemy, as i f for instant attack, but was persuaded not to begin the battle so late in the day, for it was about six o'clock. X h e n , assuming that nothing more would happen, he sat down to supper. X h e marquis retired to his coach to smoke a pipe, and many of the soldiers prepared to take their ease like the generals. It was a fatal oversight, for the parliamentarians were at length ready to engage. Cromwell charged and overthrew the first line of the royalist right. Rupert hastened to the rescue, but when Leslie came up to support Cromwell, the cavaliers, after a fierce struggle hand to hand, turned and fled. O n the other wing, S i r Xhomas Fairfax was less fortunate, X h e difficulties of the ground dulled the force of his onset, and although he and a few more pierced through the hostile ranks they were not broken. Goring gave the counterstroke with such vigour that he drove Fairfax's troopers off the field, and his men pursued the chase until they fell upon the baggage train, when they dispersed to plunder I n the centre the infantry of the two armies waged an obstinate and doubtful combat. A t length L o r d Fairfax's men and most of the Scots gave way. X h e parliamentary line had been cut in two, and perhaps a half of the parliamentary
1

See Firth's paper o n M a r s t o n M o o r , Transactions of the Royal Society, N . S . , xii.

1

Historical

iu44

BATTLE

OF MARSTON

MOOR.

299

troops, w i t h L o r d Leven and L o r d Fairfax, were in full flight, when the battle, to all seeming lost, was saved by Cromwell's clear glance and swift resolution. X h e troops of the eastern association, horse and foot alike, had been victorious i n their own part of the battle. A t Cromwell's word the whole mass wheeled round across the moor and fell on the royalist flank and rear. X h e infantry assailed those regiments which were bearing down the Scots. X h e cavalry pushed farther towards the royalist left. Goring s men were returning, but slowly and in disarray. Cromwell and Leslie charged home and routed the cavaliers on the very ground where less than two hours before they had routed the parliamentary horse. X h e king's infantry were thus left to contend alone against enemies closi n g all around. Newcastle's gallant regiment, the renowned Whitecoats, drew together i n a fenced field where they long withstood charge after charge. W h e n at last their ranks were broken, they refused all offers of quarter and fought desperately hand to hand against overpowering numbers, until no more than thirty remained alive. Xheir devotion was glorious to themselves but unavailing for their cause. Night fell on the total overthrow of the king's army. Seldom has so brief a battle been so murderous as the battle of Marston Moor. Rupert lost ^osoo men slain, besides many prisoners and all his artillery and baggage. Newcastle, who had fought against his will and would not return to court a beaten man, hastened to Scarborough and took ship for the continent. W i t h him went L o r d E y t h i n and other officers. Rupert with all the cavalry that remained, about 6,000 men, left Y o r k and returned to Shrewsbury to seek afresh the means of continuing the struggle. A fortnight after the battle Y o r k was surrendered by the governor, S i r Xhomas Glemham. Xhen the victors parted their forces in order to complete their work. Leven marched northwards to besiege Newcastle \ the Fairfaxes undertook to reduce the fortresses still held for the k i n g in Yorkshire \ and Manchester returned into the territory of the eastern association. B y the battle of Marston M o o r the k i n g lost all the lands beyond the Humber and was thrown on the defensive for the rest of the war \ yet a few weeks later he won a brilliant success which cheered the drooping spirits of his followers and delayed his final ruin.

CHAP,

300 CHAP.

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After relieving L y m e and occupying W e y m o u t h , E s s e x m e n a c e d H x e t e r , w n e r e tne q u e e n nact t a k e n retuge a n a n a d g i v e n b i r t h t o her y o u n g e s t d a u g h t e r , H e n r i e t t a , a f t e r w a r d s Duchess of Orleans. S t i l l w e a k i n h e a l t h she d e s i r e d a safe-conduct t o v i s i t B a t h , w h i c h E s s e x refused, a l t h o u g h h e offered t o escort h e r t o L o n d o n . S h e d e c l i n e d a n d m a d e t h e best o f h e r w a y t o F a l m o u t h w h e n c e she s a i l e d f o r F r a n c e . O n J u l y 12 C h a r l e s set out f r o m E v e s h a m i n p u r s u i t o f E s s e x . A f o r t n i g h t a f t e r w a r d s h e r e a c h e d E x e t e r a n d was j o i n e d b y P r i n c e M a u r i c e w i t h t h e t r o o p s w h i c h h a d besieged L y m e . E s s e x at T a v i s t o c k , f a r f r o m his base a n d f o l l o w e d b y a n a r m y a t least e q u a l t o h i s o w n , w a s i n e x t r e m e p e r i l y e t h e a l l o w e d some o f h i s officers w h o h a d estates i n C o r n w a l l t o p e r s u a d e h i m t h a t h e m i g h t easily c o n q u e r t h a t c o u n t y , a n d p u s h e d o n t o Bodmin. O n c e m o r e the C o m i s h m e n rose for the k i n g , w h o was c o m i n g u p fast to t h e i r s u p p o r t Conscious of his danger E s s e x m a d e f o r L o s t w i t h i e l , w h e r e h e w o u l d be n e a r t h e sea, a n d sent messages t o p a r l i a m e n t b e g g i n g t h a t W a l l e r m i g h t b e o r d e r e d t o a t t a c k the k i n g ' s rear. B u t W a l l e r w a s t o o r e m o t e a n d too w e a k f o r offensive a c t i o n . T h e k i n g occupied the heights above Lostwithiel and P o l r u a n fort overlooking the n a r r o w entrance o f F o w e y h a r b o u r , t h r o u g h w h i c h E s s e x h o p e d t o receive succour. W h e n t h e p a r l i a m e n t a r i a n s h a d e x h a u s t e d their s u p p l i e s , i t was resolved that t h e c a v a l r y s h o u l d t r y t o b r e a k t h r o u g h t h e k i n g ' s lines, w h i l e t h e i n f a n t r y f e l l b a c k o n F o w e y , there t o e m b a r k , i f i t w e r e possible. S h o r t l y before d a w n o n A u g u s t 31, S i r W i l l i a m B a l f o u r w i t h 2,000 horse, n o t u n d i s c o v e r e d b u t a l m o s t u n h u r t , passed t h r o u g h t h e k i n g ' s q u a r t e r s a n d t o o k t h e r o a d to P l y m o u t h . T h e i n f a n t r y , less f o r t u n a t e , w e r e e n t a n g l e d a n d c u t off o n t h e s h o r t b u t difficult m a r c h t o Fowey. E s s e x stole a w a y i n a boat t o P l y m o u t h , a n d S k i p p o n , the second i n c o m m a n d , s u r r e n d e r e d o n c o n d i t i o n t h a t h i s m e n should be allowed to depart without their arms. W h e t h e r from reluctance to shed b l o o d or f r o m the difficulty o f feeding his o w n a r m y a n d h i s captives, C h a r l e s thus t h r e w a w a y the f r u i t s o f t h e m o s t c o m p l e t e v i c t o r y w h i c h h e ever w o n .
m y r 1

F o r t h e t i m e , h o w e v e r , t h e p a r l i a m e n t w a s left w i t h o u t a force a b l e t o t a k e t h e field. E s s e x ' s i n f a n t r y w a s useless u n t i l

1

Symonds, Diary, pp. 49-68.

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MANCHESTER

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i t s h o u l d h a v e been r e - a r m e d . W a l l e r w i t h a s m a l l b o d y o f C H A P , h o r s e w a s at F a r n h a m i n S u r r e y . T h e a r m y o f t h e eastern association i n L i n c o l n s h i r e n u m b e r e d b a r e l y 6,000 m e n . Sickness a n d w a n t o f p a y c h i l l e d t h e t e m p e r o f t h e r a n k a n d file. T h e chiefs were d i v i d e d b y i n c u r a b l e s c h i s m . T h e E a r l of M a n c h e s t e r w a s a n indifferent s o l d i e r a n d a s t a u n c h p r e s b y terian. H e h a d n o heart to fight the k i n g a n d h e w a s pert u r b e d at t h e g r o w t h o f i n d e p e n d e n c y a m o n g h i s m e n . C r o m w e l l , h i s lieutenant-general, l o n g e d for a c t i o n a n d d r e a d e d a p r e s b y t e r i a n settlement. H e a v o w e d t h a t he w i s h e d t o see n o n e b u t i n d e p e n d e n t s i n t h e r a n k s of t h e eastern a s s o c i a t i o n , a n d c o u l d as r e a d i l y d r a w his s w o r d against t h e S c o t s as a g a i n s t a n y of the k i n g s party. H e disparaged n o b i l i t y itself and d e c l a r e d that h e h o p e d to see n e v e r a n o b l e m a n i n E n g l a n d . I n these circumstances the a r m y of t h e eastern association l a y at L i n c o l n n e a r l y t w o m o n t h s , d o i n g a l m o s t n o t h i n g a n d b e c o m i n g d a i l y less effective. Charles determined to return e a s t w a r d s a n d relieve t w o fortresses besieged b y t h e p a r l i a m e n t a r i a n s , B a n b u r y a n d B a s i n g H o u s e , w h i c h h a d been l o n g a n d g a l l a n t l y h e l d for h i m b y i t s o w n e r t h e M a r q u i s o f W i n c h e s t e r , H i s s t r e n g t h was g r i e v o u s l y r e d u c e d , for m o s t o f the C o r n i s h m e n w o u l d n o t f o l l o w h i m o u t o f C o r n w a l l , a n d he d e t a c h e d t r o o p s t o b l o c k a d e P l y m o u t h , L y m e , a n d T a u n t o n . E v e n the s o l d i e r s t h a t r e m a i n e d were often difficult to p a y a n d feed. I n order to h o l d back the k i n g , the committee o f b o t h k i n g d o m s sent ViTaller f o r w a r d t o S h a f t e s b u r y w i t h a l l t h e horse a v a i l a b l e , o r d e r e d M a n c h e s t e r to m a r c h t o h i s support, a n d t o o k measures to reorganise a n d e q u i p t h e a r m y o f E s s e x , w h i c h lay around Portsmouth. Manchester sullenly obeyed, but when h e c a m e t o R e a d i n g w o u l d g o n o farther, because h e w i s h e d to r e t u r n a n d cover t h e eastern counties f r o m the i n r o a d s o f the g a r r i s o n o f N e w a r k . I n t h e b e g i n n i n g of O c t o b e r , therefore, W a l l e r a b a n d o n e d Shaftesbury. M a n c h e s t e r , w h o h a d been rei n f o r c e d w i t h five c i t y r e g i m e n t s , at l e n g t h a d v a n c e d to B a s i n g s t o k e , w h e r e h e was j o i n e d b y W a l l e r . T w o d a y s afterwards E s s e x a r r i v e d f r o m P o r t s m o u t h w i t h 5>ooo m e n . I n presence o f t h e c o m b i n e d force, 19,000 s t r o n g , the k i n g c o u l d n o t a t t e m p t t o relieve B a s i n g H o u s e , a n d after p r o v i d i n g for t h e r e l i e f of B a n b u r y , h e resolved t o k e e p o n t h e defensive. T h e parliamentarians might have overwhelmed h i m h a d they been pro-

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CHAP, perly led. B u t the committee o f b o t h kingdoms, unable or a f r a i d t o n a m e a c o m m a n d e r - i n - c h i e f , entrusted t h e a r m y t o a c o u n c i l c o n s i s t i n g o f t h e three generals, several officers, a n d t w o civil members of their o w n body. S u c h a b o a r d has r a r e l y w o n a campaign. A l t h o u g h E s s e x w a s d i s a b l e d b y illness, the c o u n c i l o f w a r resolved t o seek t h e k i n g a n d fight h i m wherever he s h o u l d b e found. H e h a d t a k e n a p o s i t i o n n e a r N e w b u r y between t h e K e n n e t a n d t h e L a m b o u r n . T h e m e e t i n g o f these rivers p r o tected h i s front. B e y o n d t h e L a m b o u m his flank w a s c o v e r e d b y D o n n i n g t o n C a s t l e a n d a n e n t r e n c h e d outpost at S h a w . I n t h e rear P r i n c e M a u r i c e h e l d t h e v i l l a g e o f Speen. The w h o l e a r m y d i d n o t m u c h e x c e e d 10,000 men, b u t i t was so w e l l p o s t e d t h a t t h e c o u n c i l o f w a r w o u l d n o t a t t a c k front t o front. T h e y d e c i d e d that a part o f t h e i r forces u n d e r B a l f o u r a n d S k i p p o n , assisted b y W a l l e r a n d C r o m w e l l , s h o u l d m a k e a l o n g flank m a r c h r o u n d D o n n i n g t o n C a s t l e a n d assail t h e royalists i n t h e rear at Speen. A t the sound of their cannon M a n c h e s t e r w a s t o attack S h a w a n d so d i v i d e the forces o f t h e enemy. O n t h e a f t e r n o o n o f t h e 27th t h e fight b e g a n . The soldiers o f B a l f o u r a n d S k i p p o n d e l i v e r e d their attack b o l d l y , carried t h e v i l l a g e o f S p e e n a n d t o o k several guns. Manchester failed because h e w o u l d n o t m o v e u n t i l t h e e v e n i n g was a l m o s t spent. T h e s e c o n d b a t t l e o f N e w b u r y thus p r o v e d indecisive, but C h a r l e s was n o t s t r o n g e n o u g h t o await a second attack. L e a v i n g h i s h e a v y g u n s i n D o n n i n g t o n Castle, he r e t r e a t e d under cover o f the n i g h t t o W a l l i n g f o r d a n d thence t o O x f o r d , where he was j o i n e d b y R u p e r t w i t h 5>ooo m e n f r o m the west. After bestowing on Rupert the command-in-chief hitherto held b y t h e E a r l o f B r e n t f o r d , h e c a m e b a c k t o relieve D o n n i n g t o n C a s t l e a n d r e m o v e his a r t i l l e r y . H e offered battle t o t h e parl i a m e n t a r i a n s , w h o were so m u c h t h i n n e d b y sickness a n d desert i o n t h a t t h e y w o u l d not accept it. H e t h e n r e t i r e d w i t h o u t t h e i r d a r i n g t o pursue, a n d closed i n h o n o u r a n d safety a c a m p a i g n w h i c h h a d o p e n e d w i t h every l i k e l i h o o d o f h i s o v e r t h r o w .
1

T h e k i n g m i g h t g r o u n d n e w hopes o n those dissensions a m o n g h i s enemies w h i c h d a i l y b e c a m e m o r e notorious. The sects h a d g a i n e d g r o u n d d u r i n g t h e v i r t u a l toleration r e s u l t i n g f r o m t h e c i v i l war. T h e y were t h e nerve o f t h e a r m y o f t h e
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eastern association. T h e prowess o f C r o m w e l l a n d h i s veterans C H A P . o n M a r s t o n M o o r h a d taught t h e m to k n o w their strength a n d * c l a i m t h e i r f r e e d o m . T h e m i s c o n d u c t o r m i s f o r t u n e o f the p r e s b y t e r i a n a n d aristocratic generals, E s s e x , W a l l e r , a n d M a n chester, t e n d e d to depress t h e i r p a r t y . O n t h e other h a n d , t h e S c o t t i s h alliance g a v e n e w s t r e n g t h a n d fervour to the p r e s b y t e r i a n s . A l l parties w e r e k e p t o n the alert b y t h e b e l i e f t h a t a r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e E n g l i s h C h u r c h was at h a n d , a n d e v e r y difference was accentuated b y t h e debates o f t h e a s s e m b l y o f divines. T h a t a s s e m b l y w a s n o t , indeed, l i k e t h e S c o t t i s h g e n e r a l a s s e m b l y , a g o v e r n i n g b o d y , i t was m e r e l y c o n s u l t a t i v e , d e s t i n e d t o e n l i g h t e n p a r l i a m e n t , n o t t o legislate. It c o n t a i n e d t e n m e m b e r s o f t h e house o f l o r d s a n d t w e n t y o f t h e house o f c o m m o n s . T h e S c o t s h a d e i g h t representatives i n t h e a s s e m b l y . T h e E n g l i s h d i v i n e s were a l m o s t a l l s t a u n c h presbyterians, b u t a few, s u c h as B u r r o u g h s a n d G o o d w i n , w i t h o u t p r o f e s s i n g t o b e i n d e p e n d e n t s , were enemies o f a n y c o e r c i v e C h u r c h g o v e r n m e n t , a n d were i n fact the s p o k e s m e n o f those w h o d i s l i k e d presbytery. T h e a s s e m b l y first entered o n a r e v i s i o n o f t h e t h i r t y - n i n e articles. T h e n i t p r o c e e d e d t o discuss C h u r c h g o v e r n m e n t a n d d i s c i p l i n e . T h e debates w e r e l o n g a n d l a b o r i o u s . F r o m t h e s u m m e r o f 1644 o n w a r d t h e S c o t s b e c a m e b i t t e r l y hostile to t h e sectaries as the c h i e f obstacle to u n i f o r m i t y b e t w e e n the t w o C h u r c h e s . T h e sectaries d r e a d e d t h e presbyt e r i a n d o m i n a t i o n so m u c h t h a t some o f t h e m w o u l d g l a d l y h a v e treated w i t h the k i n g o n t h e basis o f a g e n e r a l f r e e d o m o f conscience.
X I V

A p e r s o n a l q u a r r e l g a v e p o i n t t o the abstract c o n t r o v e r s y . T h e c a m p a i g n e n d i n g i n t h e second b a t t l e o f N e w b u r y h a d d i s c l o s e d t h e l a c k o f u n i t y , v i g o u r , a n d i n t e l l i g e n c e a m o n g the p a r l i a m e n t a r y leaders, a n d M a n c h e s t e r h a d been the m o s t i n effective o f a l l . H e h a d a v o w e d his o w n indifference t o the w a r . " I f w e beat t h e k i n g n i n e t y a n d n i n e times, y e t h e is k i n g s t i l l , a n d so w i l l h i s p o s t e r i t y b e after h i m ; b u t i f t h e k i n g b e a t us once, w e s h a l l a l l b e h a n g e d a n d o u r p o s t e r i t y m a d e slaves." C r o m w e l l i n t h e h o u s e o f c o m m o n s accused h i m as t h e p r i m e cause o f failure. M a n c h e s t e r i n the house o f l o r d s d e f e n d e d his o w n m i l i t a r y acts a n d d e n o u n c e d C r o m w e l l as a n enemy to the nobility a n d to the presbyterian system, quoting Cromwell's bitter words against the Scots a n d the assembly of

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C H A P , divines. T h e commons showed an instinctive s y m p a t h y w i t h their o w n member a n d referred C r o m w e l l ' s charges to a c o m mittee. T h e lords took Manchester s part and the Scots gave their support to the lords. D i s c e r n i n g i n C r o m w e l l a foe to presbytery more dangerous t h a n Charles, the Scottish commissioners secretly debated w i t h the presbyterian leaders a n d the E a r l of E s s e x whether he should not be prosecuted as an incendiary. T h e y were advised that success was u n l i k e l y a n d the matter dropped, but it came to Cromwell's knowledge.
1

I t was clear that the w a r should either be ended b y treaty or waged i n a different fashion. Peace was desired on both sides, for b o t h felt exhausted b y their efforts. B u t neither party was prepared for those terms on w h i c h alone peace was possible, a n d a new negotiation proved as fruitless as those w h i c h h a d gone before. I n N o v e m b e r the houses adopted propositions, embracing the familiar topics of religion, the militia, and the delinquents, w h i c h were carried to O x f o r d on the 20th. There was no likelihood that Charles w o u l d accept them. T o the parliamentary commissioners he said 1 There are three things I w i l l not part w i t h , the C h u r c h , m y crown, and m y friends; a n d y o u w i l l have m u c h ado to get them f r o m m e ' ' . Nevertheless the k i n g and the parliament agreed to name c o m missioners for the settling o f a peace. M o r e fruitful t h a n negotiation was the attempt to form an effective a r m y a n d to find generals w i t h w h o m m i l i t a r y success overrode p o l i t i c a l scruples. T h e one need was satisfied b y the new m o d e l j the other b y the self-denying ordinance.
U

I n N o v e m b e r the counties most zealous for the cause, the eastern association, declared that they could no longer bear the burden of their a r m y a n d entreated the houses to find a remedy. T h e commons referred the petition to the committee of b o t h k i n g d o m s w i t h directions to consider of a frame or model of the whole militia. A f t e r l o n g deliberation the c o m mittee resolved that the a r m y ought to consist of 21,000 m e n and that its p a y should be secured b y regular m o n t h l y t a x a t i o n . T h i s army, distinct f r o m the local levies w h i c h w o u l d still be needed for local service, was to be available for service a n y where. I t could be kept under discipline, because i t w o u l d be * VVhitelocke, MetnoTi&ls, pp. n6-i7

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ORDINANCE.

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p a i d w i t h p u n c t u a l i t y . T h e necessary t a x e s w e r e t o b e l e v i e d C H A P , o n t h e counties least v e x e d b y t h e w a r a n d therefore b e s t a b l e t o b e a r a n e w b u r d e n . A n o r d i n a n c e e m b o d y i n g these r e s o l u t i o n s w a s a d o p t e d b y the c o m m o n s o n J a n u a r y 11, 1645, b u t t h e l o r d s r e c e i v e d i t c o l d l y , as i f t h e y foresaw t h a t t h e n e w a r m y would be democratic and anti-presbyterian i n temper. F o r t h e s a m e reason t h e l o r d s w e r e f r a n k l y h o s t i l e t o t h e s e l f - d e n y i n g o r d i n a n c e . Its o r i g i n was a l m o s t a c c i d e n t a l . The c o m m i t t e e a p p o i n t e d t o e x a m i n e t h e charges w h i c h C r o m w e l l a n d W a l l e r h a d b r o u g h t a g a i n s t M a n c h e s t e r sent u p a r e p o r t s t a t i n g i n g e n e r a l t e r m s t h a t the c h i e f causes o f d i v i s i o n w e r e p r i d e a n d covetousness. I n the debate w h i c h followed C r o m well declared that the public were accusing members of b o t h houses w h o h e l d h i g h c o m m a n d s o f p r o l o n g i n g the w a r In o r d e r to p r o l o n g t h e i r o w n greatness. T a t e , the c h a i r m a n o f the c o m m i t t e e , m o v e d the e x c l u s i o n o f m e m b e r s o f e i t h e r house f r o m a l l office o r c o m m a n d , c i v i l o r m i l i t a r y , d u r i n g t h e w a r . V a n e s e c o n d e d the m o t i o n , w h i c h s e e m e d i m p a r t i a l as b e t w e e n the officers c o n c e r n e d i n t h e late disputes. O n t h i s m o t i o n t h e first s e l f - d e n y i n g o r d i n a n c e w a s f r a m e d . It went up to the l o r d s o n D e c e m b e r 19, b u t there i t w a s s h a r p l y a t t a c k e d . Unb r o k e n t r a d i t i o n r e c o g n i s e d t h e peers as t h e m i l i t a r y leaders of the people. P r i d e , fear o f e x t r e m e counsels, a n d distaste for t h e sectaries, as w e l l as t h e n a t u r a l h e s i t a t i o n to c h a n g e a l m o s t a l l t h e generals i n the m i d s t o f a d o u b t f u l w a r , m o v e d t h e m t o reject the o r d i n a n c e . T h e commons retorted b y t h r e a t e n i n g t o press t h e i n q u i r y i n t o M a n c h e s t e r ' s c o n d u c t and b y naming S i r T h o m a s F a i r f a x commander-in-chief and S k i p p o n major-general. T h e p l a c e o f l i e u t e n a n t - g e n e r a l was left v a c a n t , b u t there is l i t t l e d o u b t t h a t i t w a s d e s i g n e d for C r o m w e l l . T h e houses h a d n e a r l y c o m e t o a n open b r e a c h .
1

A t t h i s v e r y t i m e the c o n d e m n a t i o n a n d e x e c u t i o n o f A r c h bishop L a u d showed h o w v a i n was the hope of a n y real unders t a n d i n g between the parliament a n d Charles. D o w n to the a u t u m n o f 1643 L<uid h a d r e m a i n e d i n t h e T o w e r , i t m i g h t s e e m forgotten b y h i s enemies. T h e Solemn League and Coven a n t e n s u r e d h i s d o o m , for i t g a v e t h e S c o t s p o w e r t o g r a t i f y their hatred. I n M a r c h , 1644, t h e a r c h b i s h o p a p p e a r e d at t h e
1

Commons' Journals, VII.

iv.,

26 ; Lords* Journals,

vii.,

135.

VOL.

20

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CHAP, b a r o f the lords. H e w a s c h a r g e d w i t h treason i n a t t e m p t i n g * t o c h a n g e t h e r e l i g i o n a n d t h e f u n d a m e n t a l laws o f E n g l a n d . T h e t r i a l was d r a w n out u n t i l O c t o b e r , y e t i t c o u l d n o t be p r o v e d t h a t L a u d h a d c o m m i t t e d a n y t r e a s o n k n o w n to t h e law. A s i n Strafford's case, t h e peers seemed doubtful w h a t j u d g m e n t t o g i v e a n d the e n e m i e s o f t h e accused h a d recourse to p o p u l a r pressure. T h e y p r e s e n t e d t o the c o m m o n s a p e t i t i o n for L a u d ' s e x e c u t i o n . T h e c o m m o n s t h e n resolved t o a b a n d o n the i m p e a c h m e n t f o r a n o r d i n a n c e o f attainder. T h e lords, w h o h a d s o m e sense o f t h e i r h u m i l i a t i o n , w o u l d f a i n have resisted, b u t t h e y were s h r u n k t o a m e r e r e m n a n t , powerless i n a c o n t r o v e r s y w h e r e the w h o l e p r e s b y t e r i a n a n d S c o t t i s h interest as w e l l as t h e sects w e r e a r r a y e d o n the side o f t h e c o m m o n s . After a conference w i t h t h e o t h e r house t h e y g a v e w a y a n d passed the o r d i n a n c e o f a t t a i n d e r o n J a n u a r y 4J ^45* L a u d prod u c e d a p a r d o n f r o m t h e k i n g sealed i n A p r i l , 1643, but i t was set aside a n d he was b e h e a d e d o n J a n u a r y 10. T o the last he preserved the firmness a n d d i g n i t y o f a m a n w h o is conscious o f his o w n rectitude. H i s enemies were e q u a l l y assured that t h e y h a d b r o u g h t a g r e a t c r i m i n a l to justice. At the present d a y , those w h o c a n least a p p r o v e the p o l i c y o r t h e t e m p e r o f the a r c h b i s h o p w i l l be r e v o l t e d b y the rancour o f the house o f c o m m o n s .
X I V 1

W i t h i n three weeks after h i s e x e c u t i o n the c o m m i s s i o n e r s to treat for a peace m e t at U x b r i d g e . T h e parliamentary commissioners were i n s t r u c t e d t o d e m a n d a p r e s b y t e r i a n reformation of the Church, the permanent control of the militia a n d the n a v y b y the p a r l i a m e n t s o f E n g l a n d a n d S c o t l a n d , t h e annulling of the Irish cessation, a n d full freedom to carry on the w a r i n I r e l a n d . T h e k i n g ' s c o m m i s s i o n e r s p r o p o u n d e d a scheme w h i c h h a d b e e n a p p r o v e d b y t h e c l e r g y at O x f o r d , a l l o w i n g a f u l l t o l e r a t i o n i n matters o f c e r e m o n y . T h i s offer, c o m p a r a t i v e l y l i b e r a l as i t w a s , o b t a i n e d n o response. There c o u l d be n o u n d e r s t a n d i n g as to r e l i g i o n , for t h e k i n g w o u l d never consent t o f o r e g o e p i s c o p a l g o v e r n m e n t i n E n g l a n d , a n d t h e S c o t s were assured that, i f t h e y d i d n o t force p r e s b y t e r i a n g o v e r n m e n t o n E n g l a n d , t h e y w o u l d n o t l o n g e n j o y i t at h o m e . N o r c o u l d t h e c o m m i s s i o n e r s agree a b o u t t h e m i l i t i a . T h e k i n g
1 r

1 Troubles and Trial of Archbishop Laud, Heylyn, Life of Laud, pp. 5*3-37*

Laud's

Works,

vols. iii. and iv.;

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3"7

offered t o e n t r u s t i t f o r three years t o a b o d y o f persons n a m e d CHAP, h a l f b y h i m s e l f a n d h a l f b y t h e p a r l i a m e n t , b u t t h i s t h e p a r l i a - ^* * m e n t c o u l d n o t d e e m enough. A b o u t I r e l a n d t h e c o m m i s s i o n e r s d i s p u t e d i n v a i n . A t last the k i n g s representatives p r o p o s e d t h a t b o t h a r m i e s s h o u l d be d i s b a n d e d , a n d that t h e k i n g s h o u l d c o m e t o W e s t m i n s t e r . T h e p r o p o s a l seems t o have b e e n a ruse a n d w a s rejected. O n F e b r u a r y 22 t h e t r e a t y o f U x b r i d g e ended i n total failure. T h e O x f o r d parliament, which h a d r e a s s e m b l e d i n J a n u a r y a n d h a d e x p r e s s e d a l o n g i n g f o r peace, was prorogued b y the k i n g early i n M a r c h .
v 1

A s t h e issue o f t h e n e g o t i a t i o n became m o r e a n d m o r e a p p a r ent, p r e s b y t e r i a n s a n d independents, E n g l i s h a n d Scots, became m o r e f r i e n d l y a n d f o r a t i m e forgot t h e i r quarrels t o prosecute t h e w a r w i t h r e n e w e d v i g o u r . T h e l o r d s d e c l a r e d themselves r e a d y to pass t h e n e w m o d e l o r d i n a n c e w i t h c e r t a i n safeguards, o f w h i c h t h e chief, t h a t a l l officers a n d soldiers s h o u l d t a k e t h e covenant, was a c c e p t e d b y t h e c o m m o n s . O n F e b r u a r y 15 t h e n e w m o d e l o r d i n a n c e passed t h e l o r d s . A t t h e same t i m e a n e w self-denyi n g o r d i n a n c e was b r o u g h t i n t o t h e c o m m o n s . I t d i s q u a l i f i e d n o m a n \ i t o n l y e n a c t e d that, w i t h i n f o r t y days, a l l m e m b e r s o f either house s h o u l d r e s i g n a n y office b e s t o w e d b y t h e e x i s t i n g p a r l i a ment. T h e l o r d s passed i t o n A p r i l 3. E s s e x , Manchester, a n d W a l l e r l a i d down their commands, a n d W a r w i c k resigned his office o f l o r d h i g h a d m i r a l . T h u s t h e o l d leaders o f t h e p a r l i a m e n t a r y forces m a d e w a y for m e n m o r e e n t i r e l y b e n t u p o n t h e w o r k i n h a n d , b u t less d e e p l y c o n c e r n e d f o r t h e s u p r e m a c y o f p a r l i a m e n t . T h e same o r d i n a n c e w h i c h ensured t h e v i c t o r y o f the houses over t h e k i n g began t h e r e v o l u t i o n w h i c h transferred p o w e r f r o m t h e houses t o a g r e a t general.
2

T h e a r m i e s o f E s s e x , M a n c h e s t e r , a n d W a l l e r h a d been so m u c h t h i n n e d that they could not furnish half the m e n required for t h e n e w m o d e l . V o l u n t e e r s b e i n g scarce, u p w a r d s o f 8,000 recruits w e r e raised b y i m p r e s s m e n t , a n d d i d n o t a l w a y s s u b m i t t o t h e i r fate w i t h o u t a struggle. D e s e r t i o n w a s for some t i m e frequent. B u t good p a y a n d strict discipline gradually i m p r o v e d t h e t o n e o f t h e privates, l o n g a n d successful service k i n d l e d t h e i r m a r t i a l ardour, a n d t h e p u r i t a n zeal c o m m o n t o m o s t o f t h e officers a n d s o m e o f t h e m e n leavened t h e w h o l e * Clarendon, History, viii., 214-52 j Whitelocke,
^ Commons Journals, iv., 88 , Lords Memorials, 3^3*

pp. I23-33*

20 *

Journals,

vii.,

308

THE

SECOND

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OF THE

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CHAP. b o d y . T h e n e w m o d e l b e c a m e s u c h a n a r m y as has never been * surpassed, perhaps never been e q u a l l e d , i n E n g l a n d . It also became the m a i n s t a y o f those sects w h i c h dreaded e q u a l l y a n A n g l i c a n or a p r e s b y t e r i a n d o m i n a t i o n . T h e r a n k a n d file were never forced t o t a k e t h e c o v e n a n t , a n d m a n y officers t o o k i t w i t h those reservations t o w h i c h t h e sternest enthusiast at t i m e s w i l l condescend. A s t h e soldiers c o u l d not o b t a i n l i b e r t y o f conscience f r o m k i n g o r p a r l i a m e n t , t h e y proceeded f r o m dem o c r a c y i n r e l i g i o n t o d e m o c r a c y i n politics. M a n y o f the doctrines w h i c h i n the f o l l o w i n g c e n t u r y shook E u r o p e a n d A m e r i c a w e r e first p r o c l a i m e d b y t h e w a r r i o r s of t h e n e w model.
X I V

T h e k i n g resolved to place at least his eldest son as f a r f r o m danger as he m i g h t . H i s w e s t e r n friends, f o l l o w i n g a precedent set b y t h e other p a r t y , h a d p l a n n e d an association o f their counties. T o encourage a n d d i r e c t their labours, y o u n g C h a r l e s was sent t o h o l d h i s c o u r t at B r i s t o l , a n d w i t h h i m as counsellors w e n t H y d e , C a p e l , C u l p e p p e r , a n d H o p t o n . They f o u n d t h a t n o t h i n g h a d been a c c o m p l i s h e d a n d t h a t G o r i n g w i t h his u n p a i d t r o o p s was m a k i n g such ravages as q u e n c h e d a l l g o o d w i l l i n the c o u n t r y p e o p l e . T h e l i k e oppression a n d t h e l i k e discontent were s p r e a d i n g t h r o u g h the rest o f the k i n g ' s territory. I n H e r e f o r d s h i r e t h e c o u n t r y m e n rose b y thousands a n d beset the c i t y o f H e r e f o r d . S u c h i r r e g u l a r musters o f w h a t were k n o w n as " c l u b m e n , " w i t h n o other a i m t h a n t h e defence o f h o m e a n d l i v e l i h o o d , often recurred i n the last p e r i o d o f the w a r . T h e k i n g h i m s e l f decided n o t to r e m a i n i n O x f o r d u n t i l he was h e m m e d i n b y superior forces, b u t to t a k e the field i n t h e h o p e o f d e a l i n g a h e a v y b l o w at s o m e w e a k point. T h e n e w m o d e l c o u l d not be m a d e r e a d y for the field before M a y . A s M o n t r o s e h a d at last effected a d i v e r s i o n i n S c o t l a n d , the S c o t s c o u l d n o t h o p e for reinforcements a n d w o u l d h a r d l y d a r e to m a r c h s o u t h w a r d s while u n c e r t a i n o f the fate o f t h e i r o w n c o u n t r y . C h a r l e s i n t e n d e d to j o i n R u p e r t , w h o was r a i s i n g fresh t r o o p s i n the v a l l e y o f the S e v e r n , a n d t h e n t o m a r c h against the S c o t s . O n h e a r i n g o f h i s design, the p a r l i a m e n t sent C r o m w e l l , w h o h a d n o t y e t surrendered his c o m m i s sion, to disable* the k i n g f r o m m o v i n g . C r o m w e l l swept r o u n d
1

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O x f o r d , r o u t i n g the r o y a l i s t s at I s l i p a n d c a r r y i n g a w a y a l l the C H A P . J Lt u r-*. ^ r * , ,1 -j XIV. o r a u g n t norses i o r a space 01 m a n y mnes, x\z t n e e n a 01 A p r i l C h a r l e s w a s still w i t h o u t t e a m s t o d r a w h i s a r t i l l e r y . H e therefore s u m m o n e d R u p e r t a n d G o r i n g t o j o i n h i m at Oxford. S i r J o h n Berkeley remained behind in Somerset to besiege T a u n t o n . T h e c o m m i t t e e o f b o t h k i n g d o m s o r d e r e d F a i r f a x to relieve T a u n t o n as s o o n as h e c o u l d m a r c h . B y t h i s false m o v e t h e r o y a l i s t s were left free t o u n i t e t h e i r forces a n d take the offensive. T o o late the c o m m i t t e e o r d e r e d F a i r f a x t o r e t u r n w i t h his m a i n b o d y , m e r e l y s e n d i n g o n a d e t a c h m e n t to relieve T a u n t o n . C h a r l e s , f i n d i n g h i s generals a t strife, a n d u n a b l e to assert h i s o w n authority, resolved to m a r c h northwards w i t h Rupert, w h i l e G o r i n g r e t u r n e d westwards t o h e l p i n m a k i n g h e a d against F a i r fax. T h u s t o d i v i d e his forces w a s t o w o o destruction, b u t h e was a g a i n s a v e d b y t h e c o m m i t t e e . M i s l e d b y information that O x f o r d w o u l d o p e n its gates at the first s u m m o n s , t h e y o r d e r e d F a i r f a x to besiege t h a t c i t y , a n d leave the S c o t s t o j o i n battle w i t h the king. T h e S c o t s c o m p l a i n e d that, w h i l e t h e i r p a y w a s i n arrear, t h e y were p u t u p o n the hardest a n d m o s t dangerous service, a n d L e v e n , i n s t e a d o f a d v a n c i n g , retreated t o w a r d s W e s t m o r l a n d , so t h a t he m i g h t t h w a r t a j u n c t i o n b e t w e e n M o n t r o s e a n d the k i n g . O n the a p p r o a c h o f C h a r l e s t h r o u g h S h r o p s h i r e , B r e r e t o n r a i s e d t h e siege o f Chester. But C h a r l e s felt s o apprehensive for O x f o r d , where supplies were l o w , t h a t h e t u r n e d eastwards f r o m M a r k e t D r a y t o n t o w a r d s L e i c e s t e r s h i r e , whence h e m i g h t m a r c h n o r t h w a r d s o r southw a r d s , as circumstances s h o u l d determine. H e raised the s p i r i t s o f h i s m e n b y the s t o r m a n d sack o f L e i c e s t e r o n M a y 31. H e s t i l l h o p e d for r e i n f o r c e m e n t s f r o m S o u t h W a l e s a n d t h e W e s t o f E n g l a n d , w h i c h n e v e r c a m e , a n d at last h e t u r n e d b a c k t o relieve O x f o r d , thus a b a n d o n i n g h i s o r i g i n a l p l a n o f campaign. O n h e a r i n g t h a t t h e k i n g h a d t a k e n L e i c e s t e r , the c o m m i t t e e o f b o t h k i n g d o m s o r d e r e d F a i r f a x t o raise t h e siege o f O x f o r d a n d m a r c h t o t h e defence o f the eastern association. T h e k i n g l e a r n t at D a v e n t r y t h a t O x f o r d was safe f o r the m o m e n t , a n d h e r e m a i n e d there c o l l e c t i n g sheep a n d cattle t o re-victual the c i t y until F a i r f a x approached. T h e commons, o n t h e p e t i t i o n o f F a i r f a x a n d t h e officers, h a d n a m e d C r o m w e l l
r

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XIV *
P

l -g l * he j o i n e d the a r m y o n J u n e 13 w i t h 600 horse. O n the same d a y the k i n g q u i t t e d D a v e n t r y , w i t h F a i r f a x i n close pursuit, a n d m a r c h e d t o w a r d s M a r k e t H a r borough. T h e r e o n the m e m o r a b l e m o r n i n g o f J u n e 14 the r o y a l a r m y was m a r s h a l l e d for the fight. W h e n t h e e n e m y d i d not appear, R u p e r t t o o k the r o a d to N a s e b y a n d soon descried t h e m retreating, he thought, i n r e a l i t y e x c h a n g i n g a w e a k e r p o s i t i o n for a stronger, as t h e y h a d learnt t h a t the k i n g was r e a d y for battle. U n a b l e t o resist the t e m p t a t i o n , R u p e r t ordered' a general advance. T h e a r m y o f the parliament, 13,600 strong, h a d f o r m e d o n the h i g h g r o u n d t o t h e n o r t h o f t h e v i l l a g e o f N a s e b y . I n the centre, u n d e r S k i p p o n , were the foot, about one-half of the w h o l e force. T h e c a v a l r y were l e d b y C r o m w e l l o n the r i g h t a n d b y I r e t o n o n the left. I n the rear was a reserve, a n d further back, near N a s e b y , the baggage g u a r d . A hedge on the left r u n n i n g at r i g h t angles to the l i n e was h e l d b y C o l o n e l O k e y s dragoons. O n the opposite verge o f the v a l l e y k n o w n as B r o a d m o o r t h e royalists, n u m b e r i n g about 7>5> drawn up in a l i k e order, the foot u n d e r A s t l e y i n the centre, R u p e r t ' s h o r s e " o n the r i g h t a n d L a n g d a l e ' s o n the left, the k i n g h i m s e l f l e a d i n g the reserve. W e a k e r t h o u g h the royalists were, t h e y t o o k the offensive, crossed the valley, a n d c h a r g e d u p the h i l l . E v e n so R u p e r t ' s onset m i g h t not be withstood. Ireton's horse were routed, I r e t o n h i m s e l f was struck d o w n , a n d R u p e r t p u s h e d as far as t h e baggage g u a r d w h i c h refused h i s summons. H e was t h e n recalled b y the course o f events elsewhere. T h e king's i n f a n t r y h a d d r i v e n b a c k the first l i n e o f t h e p a r l i a m e n t a n d h a d fallen fiercely o n the reserve. B u t o n the r i g h t C r o m w e l l h a d routed L a n g d a l e ' s horse. S e n d i n g p a r t of h i s troopers i n p u r s u i t , he t h r e w h i m s e l f w i t h the rest on the flank o f the king's infantry. T h e k i n g gave the w o r d for h i s reserve to charge \ but the n e x t m o m e n t the E a r l o f C a m w a t h w h o r o d e b y his side caught at his b r i d l e , e x c l a i m i n g , W i l l y o u go upon your death ? and some one else g a v e t h e w o r d , " M a r c h to t h e right". The w h o l e b o d y t u r n e d a n d fled a quarter o f a m i l e before i t c o u l d be halted. R u p e r t s horse h a d n o t y e t come b a c k . T h u s the i n f a n t r y were left to t h e i r fate. W i t h S k i p p o n ' s m e n r e - f o r m e d i n front, C r o m w e l l ' s h o r s e c h a r g i n g o n one flank a n d O k e y ' s dragoons p o u r i n g i n a h e a v y fire o n the other, t h e y c o u l d not
i e u t e n a n t w e r e

THE

BATTLE

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NASEBY.

1 1

l o n g h o l d t h e i r g r o u n d , b u t t h r e w d o w n t h e i r a r m s a n d were a d m i t t e d t o quarter. R u p e r t at l e n g t h r e t u r n i n g f o u n d t h a t a l l was lost a n d shared the k i n g ' s flight t o L e i c e s t e r . A t N a s e b y Charles suffered t o t a l a n d i r r e p a r a b l e defeat. H e lost 1,000 slain, n e a r l y 5,000 prisoners, a l l h i s guns, tents, a n d baggage, a n d e v e n h i s m o s t p r i v a t e papers, w h i c h were s o o n afterwards p u b l i s h e d b y t h e p a r l i a m e n t t o t h e great i n j u r y o f h i s cause. H i s o w n errors a n d those o f h i s g e n e r a l h a d w r o u g h t this r u i n . B y i n d e c i s i o n i n t h e c o n d u c t o f t h e c a m paign Charles threw away his one advantage o f time. B y r a s h l y a t t a c k i n g a superior force i n a s t r o n g p o s i t i o n R u p e r t i n v i t e d disaster. B y f a i l i n g , as o n o t h e r fields, t o r e i n u p a n d r e t u r n f r o m a successful charge, h e r e n d e r e d defeat certain. F a i r f a x t h r o u g h o u t h a d a c t e d w i t h a l l t h e zeal a n d j u d g m e n t w h i c h his masters w o u l d allow. C r o m w e l l h a d again proved h i m s e l f t h e best c a p t a i n o f h o r s e i n E n g l a n d . T h e heavy o d d s i n their f a v o u r lessened t h e g l o r y o f t h e t r o o p s a n d t h e v i c t o r y w a s defiled b y t h e m o s t b r u t a l usage o f t h e p o o r w o m e n w h o f o l l o w e d t h e k i n g ' s c a m p . A b o u t 100 o f t h e m , b e i n g I r i s h , were k n o c k e d o n t h e h e a d ; t h e E n g l i s h w o m e n w e r e g a s h e d i n t h e face.
1

CHAP. XIV.

A s Charles h a d lost t h e n o r t h b y t h e b a t t l e o f M a r s t o n M o o r , so h e l o s t t h e m i d l a n d s b y t h e battle o f N a s e b y . T h e scattered fortresses w h i c h h e s t i l l h e l d there h e c o u l d n o t k e e p save b y r a i s i n g another field a r m y . F o r t h i s purpose t h e o n l y t e r r i t o r i e s s t i l l r u l e d b y h i m , W a l e s a n d t h e west o f E n g l a n d , w e r e t o o n a r r o w , t o o poor, a n d t o o m u c h e x h a u s t e d b y frequent levies o f m e n a n d m o n e y . Thenceforwards the k i n g was a f u g i t i v e a n d a b r o k e n m a n , w h o m i g h t p r o l o n g t h e contest f o r a f e w months, b u t c o u l d n o t p r e v a i l e x c e p t b y m i r a c l e . H e c o n t i n u e d h i s flight t o w a r d s H e r e f o r d . L e i c e s t e r s u r r e n d e r e d t o F a i r f a x o n J u n e 18. L e v e n w i t h t h e Scots b e g a n h i s m a r c h s o u t h w a r d s a n d set F a i r f a x free f o r operations i n t h e w e s t , w h e r e alone t h e k i n g s t i l l h a d a n a r m y . A s F a i r f a x traversed W i l t s h i r e a n d D o r s e t , h e dealt m i l d l y b u t firmly w i t h t h e c l u b m e n w h o d e m a n d e d that t h e w a r s h o u l d cease. W h e n h e entered S o m e r s e t , G o r i n g r a i s e d t h e siege o f T a u n t o n a n d e n t r e n c h e d
1

Sprigge,

and Speeches,

Anglia Rediviva, part i., ch. v.; Carlyle, Letter xxix.; Syraonds, Diary, pp. 179-96,

CromwelVs

Letters

312

THE SECOND

PERIOD

OF THE CIVIL

WAR.

1645 Bridg-

C H \P. h i m s e l f t o t h e n o r t h o f t h e Y e o a n d t h e P arret, w i t h w a t e r f o r h i s place o f a r m s . fall w i t h honour.

B u t t h e careless, d r u n k e n G o r i n g

w a s n o t t h e m a n t o s n a t c h v i c t o r y o u t o f disaster o r even t o F a i r f a x turned his position a n d brought L a n g p o r t , where, w i t h e v e i y advantage Goring* s infantry h i m to a battle near

o f t h e g r o u n d , h e w a s b e a t e n o n J u l y 10. men.

surrendered a n d h e fell b a c k o n B r i d g w a t e r w i t h a f e w horseA l t h o u g h great hopes h a d been built o n the strength of B r i d g w a t e r , i t w a s t a k e n after a w e e k ' s siege a n d w i t h i t m a g a zines o f f o o d a n d a m m u n i t i o n w h i c h t h e r o y a l i s t s c o u l d not h o p e t o replace. F a i r f a x , r e s o l v i n g t o perfect t h e conquest i n h i s rear, t u r n e d which closed first against of the country O n his 15On Sherborne Castle i n Dorset, H e p u s h e d t h e siege o f on August

a n important line o f communication.

w a y h e i n d u c e d B a t h t o surrender.

Sherborne so b r i s k l y that i t surrendered ance.

t h e 23rd h e invested B r i s t o l , w h i c h w a s i l l p r e p a r e d f o r resistT h e lines d r a w n a r o u n d t h e c i t y b y F i e n n e s were n o it, a n d t h e y w e r e t o o R u p e r t himself was Yet stronger than when he h a d surrendered extensive t o be held b y a s m a l l garrison.

i n c o m m a n d , b u t c o u l d n o t m u s t e r a b o v e 2,000 m e n . the siege.

t h e r e w a s a f a i n t h o p e t h a t F a i r f a x m i g h t b e c o m p e l l e d t o raise I n the hope o f j o i n i n g Montrose, w h o was at this L e v e n , w h o w a s b e s i e g i n g H e r e f o r d , detached time master o f Scotland, Charles h a d pushed northwards with a b o d y o f horse. all his cavalry under D a v i d Leslie to follow the k i n g and General P o y n t z m u s t e r e d a l l t h e p a r l i a m e n t a r y forces i n Y o r k s h i r e t o bar his w a y north. to m a r c h for Scotland. retreated t o G l o u c e s t e r . W e l s h h a d lost heart. C h a r l e s g a v e u p h i s d e s i g n , b u t the r e Leslie T h e n C h a r l e s r e t u r n e d westwards, a n d C h a r l e s h o p e d t o relieve B r i s t o l n e x t , Before h e could move, F a i r f a x stormed 11, departure p o r t o f M o n t r o s e ' s c r o w n i n g v i c t o r y at K i l s y t h caused

L e v e n , w h o h a d n o c a v a l r y , r a i s e d t h e siege o f H e r e f o r d , a n d b u t h i s forces w e r e t o o w e a k a n d recruits were scarce, for t h e the lines r o u n d B r i s t o l , a n d o n t h e f o l l o w i n g d a y , S e p t e m b e r R u p e r t s u r r e n d e r e d t h e c i t y o n c o n d i t i o n o f a safe for the garrison. ^pdggc, Anglia
68.

A n g e r e d a n d d i s m a y e d at t h i s t e r r i b l e b l o w ,
RediviDd,

part ii., ch. i.-ii.; Clarendon,

History

ix.,

57

1644

MONTROSE

IN SCOTLAND.

313 CHAP.
XIV.

C h a r l e s d e p r i v e d R u p e r t o f h i s c o m m a n d a n d sent h i m a pass
, 1

.i__

t o g o b e y o n d t n e seas. Y e t a third time Charles w i t h a scanty following tried to j o i n M o n t r o s e . H e m a d e f o r Chester, w h i c h w a s besieged b y a p a r l i a m e n t a r y force u n d e r C o l o n e l M i c h a e l Jones. J o n e s d i d n o t a t t e m p t t o h i n d e r t h e k i n g ' s entrance. Poyntz, w h o came i n p u r s u i t , defeated h i s c a v a l r y o n R o w t o n H e a t h o n S e p t e m b e r 24, a n d a l m o s t at t h e same m o m e n t a s a l l y w a s r e p u l s e d b y Jones, i n sight o f the k i n g w h o watched t h e combat f r o m the city wall. Charles could neither stay i n Chester nor continue his journey to Scotland, but wandered w i t h uncertain a i m a n d d w i n d l i n g h o p e f r o m o n e t o a n o t h e r o f h i s r e m a i n i n g fortresses, u n t i l , at t h e b e g i n n i n g o f N o v e m b e r , h e s o u g h t a refuge i n Oxford, M a n y o f h i s o u t p o s t s h a d f a l l e n . T h e castle o f D e v i z e s w a s s u r r e n d e r e d o n S e p t e m b e r 23, t h e castle o f W i n chester o n O c t o b e r 5? a n d B a s i n g H o u s e w a s s t o r m e d o n t h e 14th. T h e w h o l e s o u t h o f E n g l a n d , s o f a r as t h e borders o f D e v o n , was i n t h e obedience of the parliament, a n d F a i r f a x w e n t i n t o w i n t e r quarters a r o u n d E x e t e r . T h e k i n g ' s western a r m y could neither enlarge its bounds n o r recruit itself w i t h i n the shrunken territory w h i c h it still occupied. W h i l e t h e k i n g ' s fortunes w e r e d e c l i n i n g i n E n g l a n d , a great soldier h a d waged o n his behalf a w a r i n S c o t l a n d w h i c h for a m o m e n t seemed l i k e l y t o r e g a i n a l l t h a t h a d b e e n lost i n either k i n g d o m , a l t h o u g h i t e n d e d i n a n o v e r t h r o w m o r e absolute t h a n t h e disaster o f N a s e b y . H a v i n g v a i n l y sought help from R u p e r t after t h e b a t t l e o f M a r s t o n M o o r , M o n t r o s e m a d e h i s w a y across t h e l o w l a n d s i n disguise. I n the l o y a l t y o f the h i g h l a n d e r s , a n d s t i l l m o r e i n t h e j e a l o u s y w h i c h other clans felt for the powerful a n d ambitious Campbells, who followed t h e i r c h i e f i n m a i n t a i n i n g t h e covenant, h e h o p e d t o f i n d t h e m e a n s o f e x e c u t i n g h i s project. T h e Macdonalds, wherever t h e y m i g h t be found, were t h e bitterest enemies o f t h e C a m p bells. T h e E a r l o f A n t r i m h a d sent o v e r f o r t h e k i n g ' s service a b o d y p a r t l y o f o l d Irish a n d p a r t l y o f Macdonalds settled i n Ireland, under Alaster Macdonald, w h o m Montrose summoned t o h i s a i d , thus o b t a i n i n g t h e nucleus o f a n a r m y . H e next * Sprigge, Anglia Rediviva, paxt ii., ch. iii.-iv., Carlyle, Cromwell s Letters and Speeches, Letter xxxi.; Clarendon, History, ix., 90-91. Sprigge, Anglia Rediviva, part iii., ch. i.-v.
2 2

314
C

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PERIOD

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CIVIL

WAR.

1644

* * A P . persuaded the R o b e r t s o n s , the S t u a r t s , a n d other clans o f the southern h i g h l a n d s t o espouse t h e k i n g ' s side. B u t the a l a r m h a d been g i v e n , a n d enemies were g a t h e r i n g a l l around. W h i l e L o r d E l c h o m u s t e r e d a force t o c o v e r P e r t h a n d the l o w e r v a l l e y o f the T a y , A r g y l e a n d h i s C a m p b e l l s were c o m i n g u p f r o m the west, a n d a t h i r d a r m y w a s f o r m i n g at A b e r d e e n . L o r d E l c h o was the nearest e n e m y , a n d M o n t r o s e i n s t a n t l y m a r c h e d f r o m B l a i r A t h o l l t o h i s encounter. T h e y m e t at T i p p e r m u i r , three miles west o f P e r t h . M o n t r o s e h a d ^ooo i l l - a r m e d foot, E l c h o 7,000 foot, joo horse a n d a t r a i n o f artillery \ but M o n t r o s e ' s m e n h a d been t r a i n e d to w a r f r o m b o y h o o d , a n d E l c h o ' s m e n were a r a w m i l i t i a . A t t h e first onset t h e y b r o k e a n d fled, the h i g h l a n d e r s d o i n g t e r r i b l e e x e cution i n t h e p u r s u i t . O n the s a m e d a y , September 1, 1644, M o n t r o s e entered P e r t h . N o general ever u n d e r s t o o d better t h a n M o n t r o s e t h e v a l u e o f time. T h r e e d a y s after the battle o f T i p p e r m u i r h e was o n the m a r c h for A b e r d e e n . M a n y o f his h i g h l a n d e r s h a d left h i m t o put their spoils i n safety, b u t s o m e recruits came i n f r o m F o r f a r a n d K i n c a r d i n e , a l t h o u g h t h e great r o y a l i s t c l a n o f G o r d o n s t i l l h e l d aloof. O n t h e 13th h e f o u n d 2,500 c o v e n anters u n d e r L o r d B a l f o u r o f B u r l e i g h w e l l posted o u t s i d e the c i t y . M o n t r o s e h a d b a r e l y 1,500, b u t h i s o w n s k i l l a n d the steadiness o f A l a s t e r s m e n g a i n e d a c o m p l e t e v i c t o r y . A b e r d e e n c o u l d offer n o resistance a n d w a s s a c k e d w i t h o u t m e r c y . Only A r g y l e ' s a r m y r e m a i n e d t o the g o v e r n m e n t . Montrose finding his n u m b e r s , as usual, t h i n n e d b y v i c t o r y , s h o w e d h i m s e l f as p r u d e n t as he h a d been b o l d , a n d l e d h i s e n e m y o n a l o n g a n d v a i n p u r s u i t t h r o u g h the m o u n t a i n s , u n t i l A r g y l e , w o r n out b y forced marches a n d f o u l weather, gave u p a hopeless task, dismissed his clansmen, a n d resigned h i s c o m m a n d . A l t h o u g h i t was t h e n m i d w i n t e r , M o n t r o s e w o u l d g l a d l y have i n v a d e d t h e a l m o s t defenceless l o w l a n d s . B u t the chieftains a r o u n d h i m , h e r e d i t a r y foes o f the house o f C a m p b e l l , w h o were m o r e concerned t o h u m b l e t h e i r m i g h t y neighbour t h a n t o restore t h e k i n g ' s a u t h o r i t y at E d i n b u r g h , persuaded M o n t r o s e to i n v a d e A r g y l e s h i r e . A s the C a m p bells d e e m e d t h e i r c o u n t r y inaccessible, the passes were u n g u a r d e d save b y the s n o w d r i f t s . T h e i n v a d e r s g l u t t e d t h e i r rage b y b u r n i n g every house a n d s l a y i n g m a n a n d beast. A f t e r

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YTff.

3^-5

a m o n t h spent m this havoc, M o n t r o s e m a r c h e d n o r t h w a r d s i n t o t n e great g l e n n o w traversed, b y tne C a l e d o n i a n C a n a l . O n c e m o r e he f o u n d h i m s e l f enclosed between h o s t i l e a r m i e s . T h e E a r l o f S e a f o r t h w i t h $,ooo m e n h a d t a k e n p o s t o n L o c h Ness. A r g y l e , w i t h t h e w h o l e p o w e r o f the C a m p b e l l s a n d t w o l o w l a n d regiments, was f o l l o w i n g i n M o n t r o s e ' s rear. As m o s t o f M o n t r o s e ' s m e n h a d g o n e h o m e t o store t h e i r spoils, h e w a s s c a r c e l y 1,500 s t r o n g , y e t h e c o n t e m n e d A r g y l e so t h o r o u g h l y t h a t he o n l y feared lest t h e C a m p b e l l s s h o u l d escape. O n F e b r u a r y 2, 1645? ^ fell f u r i o u s l y u p o n the e n e m y at I n v e r l o c h y . A r g y l e t o o k t h e e x c u s e o f a recent h u r t to resign the c o m m a n d to his k i n s m a n , S i r D u n c a n C a m p b e l l of Auchinbreck. T h e l o w l a n d e r s fled, t h e C a m p b e l l s were m o s t l y c u t to pieces, a n d 1,700 corpses s t r e w e d t h e field. F r o m I n v e r l o c h y M o n t r o s e m a r c h e d against S e a f o r t h , w h o d i d n o t d a r e t o a w a i t h i s c o m i n g . F o r several m o n t h s h e c o n tinued to wage w i t h surpassing skill and valour that desultory w a r f a r e t o w h i c h h e w a s c o n f i n e d b y the u n s t a b l e character o f h i s forces. H e surprised D u n d e e i n A p r i l , b u t was forced t o r e g a i n t h e m o u n t a i n s . I n M a y h e defeated one c o v e n a n t i n g force u n d e r C o l o n e l H u r r y at A u l d e a r n , n o t far f r o m E l g i n . In July h e defeated a n o t h e r u n d e r G e n e r a l B a i l l i e n e a r t h e v i l l a g e o f A l f o r d o n the D o n . A w e e k later the S c o t t i s h p a r l i a m e n t a s s e m b l e d at S t i r l i n g . T h e y still undervalued their enemy so m u c h t h a t t h e y w o u l d r e c a l l n o t r o o p s f r o m E n g l a n d , b u t r a i s e d a n e w a r m y i n t h e s o u t h e r n counties. B a i l l i e r e m a i n e d g e n e r a l u n d e r a s u p e r v i s i n g c o m m i t t e e o f nobles, w h o m i g h t i n d e e d h a v e l e a r n t w i s d o m b y e x p e r i e n c e , for a m o n g t h e m sat E l c h o , A r g y l e , and Balfour of Burleigh. I n order to prevent a j u n c t i o n between Baillie a n d the E a r l of L a n a r k w h o was b r i n g i n g troops f r o m t h e west, M o n t r o s e t o o k post at K i l s y t h , m i d w a y between S t i r l i n g a n d Glasgow. B a i l l i e was forced t o f o l l o w lest L a n a r k ' s t r o o p s s h o u l d b e d e s t r o y e d a n d t h e c o m m i t t e e w e r e eager t o fight lest M o n t r o s e s h o u l d escape. On A u g u s t 15 t h e t w o a r m i e s met. M o n t r o s e h a d a b o u t 5>oco m e n , t h e covenanters a b o u t 7>ooo. I n o r d e r t o cut off M o n t r o s e s retreat, t h e y b e g a n a flank m a r c h across h i s f r o n t . F o r t h w i t h M a c d o n a l d d a s h e d at t h e i r e x t e n d e d l i n e a n d t h e i r w h o l e a r m y b r o k e up i n confusion. N o quarter was given, a n d i t i s s a i d t h a t 6,000 c o v e n a n t e r s fell. T h e few s u r v i v o r s

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CHAP, scattered i n a l l d i r e c t i o n s a n d S c o t l a n d
XIV. Tiyr j . _

l a y a t t h e feet o f

lYJLontrose.

Montrose then exchanged the part o f the conqueror for that o f t h e statesman. A s the k i n g ' s lieutenant, h e s u m m o n e d a p a r l i a m e n t t o meet at G l a s g o w i n O c t o b e r . H e trusted soon to enter E n g l a n d w i t h s u c h a n a r m y as m i g h t restore h i s master's s i n k i n g cause. B u t never perhaps i n history d i d hero e n j o y a briefer t i m e o f success. I n o r d e r t o c o m p l e t e h i s task, Montrose h a d to keep the goodwill o f the highlanders a n d gain the g o o d w i l l o f t h e l o w l a n d e r s . I t w a s difficult, a l m o s t i m possible t o d o either. X h e mountaineers h a d f o l l o w e d h i m , n o t f r o m d e v o t i o n t o a n y p o l i t i c a l o r ecclesiastical system, b u t for the j o y o f b a t t l e a n d t h e sweets o f p l u n d e r w h i c h h e c o u l d n o l o n g e r bestow. X h e y were d i s p l e a s e d t h a t h e s h o u l d save G l a s g o w f r o m t h e p r o m i s e d pillage, a n d t h e y m e l t e d a w a y t o t h e i r glens, a l t h o u g h t h e y u n d e r t o o k t o r e t u r n a t need. X h e lowlanders were incensed, n o t m e r e l y b y defeat, b u t b y t h e ferocity o f the victors. A l t h o u g h M o n t r o s e himself was far f r o m cruel, h e h a d n o t t h e means o f c o n t r o l l i n g h i s f o l l o w e r s as a regular a r m y is c o n t r o l l e d b y i t s chief, a n d t h e y h a d m a r k e d h i s p a t h w i t h r a p i n e a n d slaughter. X h e lowlanders s t i l l h e l d b y t h e c o v e n a n t a n d were i l l - d i s p o s e d t o t r u s t C h a r l e s w i t h t h e future o f p r e s b y t e r i a n i s m . S o m e o f t h e r o y a l i s t nobles b o r e a g r u d g e t o M o n t r o s e as a n e q u a l w h o h a d b e c o m e t h e i r master. W h e n D a v i d L e s l i e recrossed t h e b o r d e r , M o n t r o s e c o u l d m u s t e r a t K e l s o n o m o r e t h a n 1,200 g e n t l e m e n o n horseb a c k a n d 500 I r i s h foot, the s u r v i v o r s o f A l a s t e r M a c d o n a l d ' s b a n d . A f e w d a y s afterwards h i s c a m p o n P h i l i p h a u g h , beside t h e E t t r i c k ATVater, w a s startled b y t h e o n - r u s h o f \,ooo horse, a n d h i s m e n i n a b r i e f space w e r e scattered o r slain. Some f e w were a d m i t t e d t o quarter, b u t t h e c l e r g y a l l o w e d L e s l i e n o quiet u n t i l t h e y w e r e massacred. X h e w o m e n a n d c h i l d r e n found i n the c a m p s h a r e d t h e s a m e fate. X w e n t y - n i n e d a y s after t h e rout o f K i l s y t h h a d g i v e n S c o t l a n d t o M o n t r o s e , the covenanters h a d regained t h e k i n g d o m , a n d h e b e c a m e a f u g i t i v e u n d e r t h e ban of C h u r c h a n d State. Charles learnt the extinction o f his S c o t t i s h hopes s o o n after h i s o w n discomfiture o n R o w t o n H e a t h . M a n y o f h i s followers saw that a l l was over \ b u t the For the campaigns of Montrose see Wishart, Deeds of Montrose i Patrick Gordon, A Short Account of Britain'$ Distemper,
1 1

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k i n g s t i l l n u r s e d the h o p e of a i d f r o m I r e l a n d or f r o m t h e con- C H A P . , i XIV. t m e n t a i powers. I n J u l y , 1644, Charles empowered O r m o n d , w h o m he had m a d e l o r d - l i e u t e n a n t , t o resume negotiations w i t h t h e s u p r e m e c o u n c i l , a n d i n S e p t e m b e r the I r i s h stated t h e i r d e m a n d s . T h e y r e q u i r e d n o t o n l y f r e e d o m o f w o r s h i p , b u t also r e p e a l o f t h e statutes a b r o g a t i n g p a p a l j u r i s d i c t i o n . C h a r l e s c o u l d n o t g o so far w i t h o u t r a i s i n g a l l B r i t a i n a g a i n s t h i m s e l f At t h a t v e r y t i m e t h e t e m p e r o f t h e p a r l i a m e n t was s h o w n b y a n o r d i n a n c e r e f u s i n g q u a r t e r t o I r i s h soldiers t a k e n i n E n g l a n d or a t sea. Y e t the course o f events m a d e h i m m o r e a n d m o r e i m p a t i e n t for that I r i s h succour w h i c h c o u l d be o b t a i n e d o n l y b y a delicate a n d h a z a r d o u s n e g o t i a t i o n . F o r this purpose h e e m p l o y e d L o r d H e r b e r t , a c a t h o l i c , whose f i d e l i t y he h a d p r o v e d , a n d w h o m he h a d r a i s e d to be E a r l o f G l a m o r g a n , a n d chosen t o c o m m a n d the I r i s h a r m y , w h e n i t s h o u l d appear i n E n g l a n d . G l a m o r g a n r e c e i v e d instructions o f s t u d i e d vagueness, e m p o w e r i n g h i m t o act i n m a t t e r s where t h e lord-lieutenant w a s n o t w i l l i n g t o b e seen a n d w h i c h t h e k i n g c o u l d n o t c o n veniently acknowledge. V a r i o u s causes d e l a y e d h i s a r r i v a l i n D u b l i n u n t i l A u g u s t , 1645$ w h e n t h e k i n g ' s affairs w e r e fast g o i n g t o ruin.^ H e f o u n d t h a t the I r i s h , e s p e c i a l l y t h e clergy, h a d raised their demands. T h e y required that all the churches a c t u a l l y i n the possession o f catholics s h o u l d be c o n f i r m e d to t h e m , a n d t h a t catholics s h o u l d be f r e e d f r o m a l l ecclesiastical j u r i s d i c t i o n save that o f their own clergy. G l a m o r g a n was i n d u c e d t o sign, o n A u g u s t 2 5 , a secret t r e a t y g r a n t i n g a l l t h e points i n dispute. T h e supreme council then invited O r m o n d t o t a k e t h e f i e l d w i t h t h e m against t h e S c o t s i n U l s t e r . O r m o n d d e c l i n e d , a n d i n m a t t e r s o f r e l i g i o n w o u l d n o t swerve f r o m h i s i n s t r u c t i o n s , w h i c h fell far s h o r t o f a u t h o r i s i n g the a g r e e m e n t m a d e b y G l a m o r g a n . A b o u t t h e s a m e t i m e the n u n c i o sent b y I n n o c e n t X . to t h e I r i s h confederates, G i o v a n n i B a t t i s t a R i n u c c i n i , A r c h b i s h o p o f F e r m o , l a n d e d at K e n m a r e a n d p r o c e e d e d to K i l k e n n y , bringing a supply of money, arms, and ammunition w h i c h h e i g h t e n e d the influence o f h i s sacred character. R i n u c c i n i , w h o h a d n o t h i n g to consider b u t t h e interests o f R o m e , w a s n o t d i s p o s e d t o l e t a heretical p r i n c e h a v e o r t h o d o x h e l p at a l o w rate. H e d r e w G l a m o r g a n i n t o p r o m i s i n g the v i r t u a l r e - e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f Catholicism i n I r e l a n d . Glamorgan

3i8
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returned t o D u b l i n , where he f o u n d a c h i l l reception, for the secret treaty h a d a l r e a d y been d i v u l g e d b y a c c i d e n t . A c o p y was f o u n d o n the c a t h o l i c a r c h b i s h o p o f T u a m , w h o , w h i l e t a k i n g part i n the siege o f S l i g o , h a d been k i l l e d i n a s a l l y o f the garrison. L o r d D i g b y , the k i n g ' s secretary, w h o h a d recently c o m e t o D u b l i n , saw the danger a n d d e n o u n c e d the treaty. T h e council p u t G l a m o r g a n u n d e r arrest a n d s o u g h t for t h e k i n g s d i r e c t i o n . A b o u t the s a m e t i m e t h e p a r l i a m e n t , h a v i n g got possession o f the secret t r e a t y a n d o t h e r d o c u m e n t s , o r d e r e d t h e m t o be p u b l i s h e d . T h e t e r r i b l e effect was l i t t l e i m p a i r e d b y the k i n g ' s d i s a v o w a l o r e v e n b y h i s shameless d e c l a r a t i o n that he h a d resolved o n l e a v i n g I r i s h affairs w h o l l y t o t h e p a r l i a m e n t . W i t h o u t o b t a i n i n g one soldier f r o m I r e l a n d he h a d i n c u r r e d u n s p e a k a b l e distrust i n E n g l a n d . T h e endeavours o f C h a r l e s a n d h i s q u e e n t o get h e l p f r o m abroad were equally vain. H e n r i e t t a M a r i a reached Paris i n N o v e m b e r , 1644. T h e F r e n c h , w h o w e r e at w a r w i t h S p a i n a n d t h e e m p i r e , c o u l d n o t afford t o d i v i d e t h e i r s t r e n g t h o r m u l t i p l y t h e i r foes. C a r d i n a l M a z a r i n , w h o t h e n g u i d e d t h e state, w i s h e d to k e e p t h e E n g l i s h b u s y at h o m e , a n d w i t h t h a t object p r o m i s e d m o n e y t o t h e I r i s h confederates, b u t h e steadf a s t l y refused to interfere i n E n g l a n d . T h e j o i n t b o d y o f E n g l i s h a n d I r i s h catholics i n P a r i s sent S i r K e n e l m D i g b y t o s o l i c i t a i d f r o m the pope. W f i e n h e h e l d out hopes that, i f t h e k i n g w e r e restored b y c a t h o l i c succour, h e m i g h t r e t u r n w i t h his p e o p l e t o t h e R o m a n f o l d , h e was a s k e d w h a t c r e d e n t i a l s he b o r e f r o m t h e k i n g , a n d , as h e c o u l d s h o w none, h e was p u t off w i t h a p r o m i s e o f 20,000 crowns. T h e queen t r i e d t o engage C h a r l e s , t h e e x i l e d D u k e o f L o r r a i n e , w h o h a d t u r n e d soldier o f f o r t u n e a n d h a d formed an a r m y of adventurers in the t h i r t y years' war. She h i n t e d to the P r i n c e o f O r a n g e t h a t t h e P r i n c e o f W a l e s w o u l d be m a r r i e d t o his d a u g h t e r i f h e w o u l d persuade the S t a t e s G e n e r a l t o p r o v i d e s h i p p i n g for t h e d u k e ' s forces. T h e duke a n d the p r i n c e were r e a d y t o do w h a t was d e s i r e d o f t h e m , b u t t h e States G e n e r a l w o u l d n o t h e a r o f t h e scheme, w h i c h f a i l e d
1

T h e history of Glamorgan's mission remains obscure a n d the authenticity See in Historical Review,

of the powers under w h i c h he professed to act has been called i n question. *' Charles I. a n d the E a r l of G l a m o r g a n " b y Gardiner, English Peerage and Family History. 1887, and " Charles I. a n d L o r d G l a m o r g a n " i n M r . J . H . Round's Studies

1646

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OF TORRINGTON.

3*9

accordingly. T h r o u g h o u t these transactions t h e k i n g a n d queen CHAP, m a d e t h e m i s t a k e o f s u p p o s i n g that f o r e i g n g o v e r n m e n t s w o u l d g i v e assistance where n o t h i n g w a s g a i n e d i n r e t u r n . T h e y also p r o v e d their ignorance o f E n g l i s h a n d Scottish feeling. N o h e l p that the pope could give was w o r t h the discredit of intriguing with Rome. N o h o r d e o f ruffians f r o m u n h a p p y G e r m a n y but w o u l d have been annihilated b y the uprising o f a l l m e n o f a l l parties t o defend t h e i r g o o d s , t h e i r lives, a n d t h e h o n o u r o f their women. I t r e m a i n e d t o fight out t h e w a r . O n l y i n t h e south-west d i d t h e k i n g possess e v e n t h e s e m b l a n c e o f a n a r m y . Goring h a d resigned h i s c o m m a n d i n N o v e m b e r a n d r e t i r e d t o F r a n c e . T h e officer n e x t i n consequence, S i r R i c h a r d G r e n v i l l e , w a s t h e i n f a m y o f h i s h e r o i c l i n e . T h e r a n k a n d file w e r e u n n e r v e d b y i n d i s c i p l i n e , a n d b y frequent defeat. T h e country people were alienated f r o m the k i n g b y ill-treatment for w h i c h t h e y c o u l d g e t n o redress. I n J a n u a r y , 1646, t h e P r i n c e o f W a l e s a n d his councillors n a m e d H o p t o n commander-in-chief, a n d resolved to attempt the relief of E x e t e r . When Hopton r e a c h e d T o r n n g t o n w i t h 9,000 m e n , h e h e a r d t h a t F a i r f a x w a s approaching. H e determined to hold Torrington, closed the eastern e n d s o f t h e streets w i t h e a r t h w o r k s , a n d d r e w m o s t o f h i s h o r s e o u t o f t h e t o w n i n readiness t o f a l l o n t h e f l a n k o f t h e assailants. O n t h e afternoon o f F e b r u a r y 16 a s k i r m i s h o f outposts g r e w i n t o a g e n e r a l a c t i o n . T h e r o y a l i s t s , a l t h o u g h p u s h e d b a c k s t e p b y step, m a i n t a i n e d t h e fight u n t i l t h e i r r e serve s t o c k o f p o w d e r w a s b l o w n u p b y a c c i d e n t , w h e n t h e y w e r e d r i v e n o u t of T o r r i n g t o n w i t h h e a v y loss. H o p t o n ret r e a t e d t h r o u g h C o r n w a l l w i t h forces d w i n d l i n g e v e r y d a y u n t i l o n M a r c h 14 h e surrendered t o F a i r f a x at T r e s s i l i a n b r i d g e n e a r Truro. P r i n c e Charles h a d a l r e a d y " e m b a r k e d f o r t h e S c i l l y Isles. F a i r f a x t h e n t u r n e d b a c k u p o n E x e t e r , a n d t h e g o v e r n o r , S i r J o h n B e r k e l e y , hopeless o f r e l i e f b y sea o r l a n d , s u r r e n d e r e d t h e c i t y o n A p r i l 9. A l l t h e r e m a i n i n g fortresses o f t h e w e s t save P e n d e n n i s C a s t l e m a d e t h e i r submission, a n d t h e c o u n t r y p e o p l e y i e l d e d g l a d l y t o a p o w e r w h i c h c o u l d protect life a n d property.
1

Charles d i d n o t y e t despair o f help from Sprigge,

passim. Anglia Rediviva,

Ireland or the
History,

part iv., ch, i.-v. ; Clarendon,

ix.,

3$o

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CHAP, continent. G l a m o r g a n h a d been released f r o m prison o n J a n u a r y 21, a n d i m m e d i a t e l y r e t u r n e d to K i l k e n n y , w n e r e ne swore u n reserved obedience t o t h e n u n c i o . T h e nuncio, whatever d i s trust h e m i g h t feel, r e l a x e d s o m e w h a t h i s r i g i d b e a r i n g . The supreme c o u n c i l came t o t e r m s w i t h O r m o n d , a n d the p o l i t i c a l treaty w a s signed o n M a r c h 28, t h e religious articles b e i n g l a i d aside u n t i l the k i n g ' s pleasure was k n o w n . T h e I r i s h p r o m i s e d to assist h i m w i t h a n a r m y o f 10,000 m e n . I t was too late, f o r every p o r t i n W a l e s a n d E n g l a n d w a s h e l d b y the p a r l i a m e n t , a n d the I r i s h soldiers refused t o r u n u p o n certain d e s t r u c t i o n . L e t t e r s f r o m t h e queen a n d h e r favourite J e r m y n h a v i n g persuaded t h e k i n g t h a t a F r e n c h force w o u l d soon l a n d i n K e n t or Sussex, he resolved t o muster e v e r y available m a n a n d b r e a k o u t f r o m O x f o r d to j o i n these a u x i l i a r i e s . I n obedience to h i s orders A s t l e y d r e w 3,000 m e n f r o m the r e m a i n i n g garrisons i n the r e g i o n o f the S e v e r n , a n d m a r c h e d f o r O x f o r d . B u t near S t o w o n the W o l d he was met a n d defeated b y a p a r l i a m e n t a r y force, a n d his m e n s u r r e n d e r e d i n a mass one w e e k after H o p t o n ' s c a p i t u l a t i o n . T h e k i n g was t h e n d r i v e n t o consult for personal safety a n d f r e e d o m . I n t h e previous a u t u m n t h e S c o t t i s h c o m m i s s i o n e r s , t h r o u g h the F r e n c h e n v o y M o n t r e u i l , h a d offered t o d o a l l i n t h e i r power towards restoring t h e k i n g i f he w o u l d accept the p r e s b y t e r i a n settlement. T h e queen w o u l d h a v e closed w i t h t h e Scots, for, c a r i n g little b y w h a t r o a d o r u n d e r w h a t d i r e c t i o n heretics travelled to t h e i r a p p o i n t e d place, she w a s r e a d y t o redeem t h e c r o w n b y e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e p r e s b y t e r i a n d i s c i p l i n e . C h a r l e s felt v e r y differently, y e t h e c o n t i n u e d to intrigue w i t h the presbyterians, a n d even t o suggest the p o s s i b i l i t y o f h i s conversion, w h i l e p l a y i n g u p o n t h e fears o f the independents a n d p r o m i s i n g the catholics a f u l l toleration i f t h e y w o u l d a r m i n h i s behalf. M o n t r e u i l still e n d e a v o u r e d t o effect a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g between C h a r l e s a n d t h e Scots, b u t c o u l d not overc o m e the difference o f o p i n i o n respecting the C h u r c h . At l e n g t h the a p p r o a c h o f F a i r f a x f o r c e d the k i n g to a d e c i s i o n . H e resolved to flee, a l t h o u g h d o u b t f u l w h e t h e r he s h o u l d go t o the Scots, w h o were t h e n besieging N e w a r k , o r to L o n d o n , o r seek a refuge a b r o a d . O n the e v e n i n g o f A p r i l 26 h e t o l d h i s c o u n c i l t h a t he was g o i n g t o L o n d o n a n d authorised t h e m t o surrender t h e c i t y i f t h e y d i d n o t h e a r o f h i m i n three weeks.

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N e x t m o r n i n g he rode out o f O x f o r d i n t h e g u i s e o f a servant C H A P . i n a t t e n d a n c e o n M r . A s h b u r n h a m , one o f h i s g e n t l e m e n , a n d * D r . H u d s o n , one o f his c h a p l a i n s . T h e y t o o k t h e L o n d o n r o a d , b u t w h e n t h e y r e a c h e d H i l H n g d o n i n M i d d l e s e x , t h e k i n g after s o m e h e s i t a t i o n t u r n e d n o r t h w a r d s a n d sent H u d s o n t o M o n t r e u i l , w h o w a s t h e n s t a y i n g at S o u t h w e l l , w i t h t h e request t h a t h e w o u l d o b t a i n s a t i s f a c t o r y w r i t t e n assurances f r o m t h e S c o t s . P e n d i n g a n answer, the k i n g c o n t i n u e d h i s j o u r n e y to L y n n , w h e r e at t h e w o r s t h e m i g h t h o p e to e m b a r k f o r t h e c o n t i n e n t . T h e S c o t s w o u l d d o n o m o r e t h a n g i v e a v e r b a l consent t o t e r m s put i n w r i t i n g b y M o n t r e u i l . T h e y p r o m i s e d t o secure t h e k i n g i n h i s p e r s o n a n d h o n o u r a n d respect his conscience. T h e y also p r o m i s e d t h a t i f t h e p a r l i a m e n t , u p o n a m e s s a g e f r o m t h e k i n g , s h o u l d refuse t o restore the k i n g t o h i s r i g h t s a n d prerogatives, t h e y w o u l d d e c l a r e for h i m a n d p r o t e c t h i s f r i e n d s . W e d o n o t k n o w w h a t message was m e a n t , but i t m a y h a v e b e e n a declaration i n f a v o u r o f p r e s b y t e r y . They may h a v e b e e n w i l f u l l y v a g u e because t h e y w e r e eager t o secure t h e k i n g ' s person, so v a l u a b l e i n t h e i r n e g o t i a t i o n s w i t h t h e E n g l i s h . I n h i s d i r e necessity C h a r l e s t o o k t h e i r offer. E a r l y on M a y 5 h e r e a c h e d S o u t h w e l l , a n d t h e n c e f o r w a r d s h e was r e a l l y p r i s o n e r to t h e S c o t s .
x r v

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T H E S E C O N D C I V I L W A R A N D T H E E X E C U T I O N O F C H A R L E S I.

CHAP.

I N s p i t e o f one o r t w o cruel deeds t h e c i v i l w a r h a d been c o n d u c t e d w i t h a h u m a n i t y rare i n t h a t age a n d h o n o u r a b l e t o the n a t i o n a l character. Y e t a severe s t r u g g l e w h i c h l a s t e d a l m o s t suffering. f o u r y e a r s c o u l d n o t fail t o inflict m u c h loss a n d

M a n y thousands o f m e n h a d been w i t h d r a w n f r o m profitable labour, h e a v y t a x a t i o n h a d b e e n i m p o s e d , a n d v a r i o u s t o w n s a n d districts h a d b e e n p i l l a g e d . B o t h parties a n d a l l classes m u s t h a v e felt t h e d i s o r g a n i s a t i o n o f trade a n d i n d u s t r y , b u t t h e royalists, as the v a n q u i s h e d side, suffered most, a n d a m o n g the r o y a l i s t s the g e n t r y a n d the c l e r g y were the heaviest losers. W h e r e v e r the p a r l i a m e n t p r e v a i l e d , the l a n d o w n e r s w h o had t a k e n service w i t h t h e k i n g w e r e t r e a t e d as d e l i n q u e n t s a n d i n c u r r e d i n s o m e cases forfeiture, i n m o s t cases sequestration. W h e r e a n estate w a s m e r e l y sequestered, one-fifth o f t h e rents a n d profits was reserved for t h e m a i n t e n a n c e o f t h e culprit's wife a n d c h i l d r e n , a n d he w a s a l l o w e d to c o m p o u n d for h i s offence, but he was required t o t a k e the covenant The and the were n e g a t i v e o a t h , t h a t is, a n o a t h t h a t he w o u l d n e v e r a g a i n b e a r a r m s against the p a r l i a m e n t . episcopalian clergy e v i c t e d f r o m t h e i r l i v i n g s , a l t h o u g h here also one-fifth o f the i n c o m e was reserved for t h e i r f a m i l i e s . c o n t r o l l e d b y a l l rulers. T h e universities, as t h e severely the places o f e d u c a t i o n for t h e c l e r g y , w e r e i n t h a t age

A n o r d i n a n c e for the v i s i t a t i o n o f

C a m b r i d g e , a d o p t e d i n J a n u a r y , 1644-5 &nd e x e c u t e d b y heads a n d f e l l o w s w h o w o u l d n o t t a k e t h e covenant.

E a r l of Manchester, resulted i n the expulsion of a c r o w d of Oxford At c o u l d n o t b e treated i n l i k e f a s h i o n u n t i l the w a r w a s over.

the t i m e when Charles gave himself up to the Scots, a l l m e n f e r v e n t l y desired peace, regular g o v e r n m e n t , a n d l i g h t e r t a x e s ,
322

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C

b u t as t h e y were n o t agreed o n first p r i n c i p l e s these b l e s s i n g s were b e y o n d their reach. T h e p a r l i a m e n t c a n n o t be b l a m e d for i n s i s t i n g o n r i g o r o u s l i m i t a t i o n o f t h e p r e r o g a t i v e before i t restored t h e k i n g . V^e m a y w i t h m o r e reason regret i t s i n c a p a c i t y t o t a k e a l a r g e v i e w o f ecclesiastical questions. A s a s t r o n g m a j o r i t y i n b o t h houses w e r e p r e s b y t e r i a n s w h o refused even t o t o l e r a t e e p i s c o p a c y a n d were, m o r e o v e r , fettered b y t h e S o l e m n L e a g u e a n d C o v e n a n t , t h e p a r l i a m e n t r e q u i r e d t h a t t h e p r e s b y t e r i a n s y s t e m s h o u l d be established i n E n g l a n d and Ireland. T h e independents, w h o w e r e w i l l i n g t o t o l e r a t e t h e e p i s c o p a l i a n s a n d even t h e R o m a n c a t h o l i c s , w e r e so m u c h i n f e r i o r i n n u m b e r s , rank, a n d influence, a n d so m u c h i n a d v a n c e o f o r d i n a r y p u b l i c o p i n i o n t h a t t h e y c o u l d p r e v a i l o n l y b y u s i n g t h e a r m y t o coerce t h e p a r l i a m e n t , thus m a k i n g a n e w r e v o l u t i o n a n d s e t t i n g a g a i n s t t h e m s e l v e s a l l w h o d i s l i k e d t h e r u l e o f t h e s w o r d as w e l l as the S c o t s w h o c a r e d for n o t h i n g b u t t h e i r ecclesiastical p o l i t y . T h e k i n g s o u g h t t o r e g a i n f r e e d o m a n d a u t h o r i t y a n d restore t h e o l d ecclesiastical order b y m a k i n g advances to each p a r t y i n t u r n i n the hope of eluding fulfilment to any. B u t a captive who would p l a y t h e g a m e o f i n t r i g u e w i t h a d v a n t a g e , needs a p l i a n c y o f m i n d , a g r a s p o f facts, a p e n e t r a t i o n i n t o o t h e r m e n s t h o u g h t s , a n d a f r e e d o m f r o m scruples o f h i s o w n , w h i c h C h a r l e s d i d n o t possess. ^/Vith e v e r y w i s h t o m i s l e a d others h e c o u l d n o t h i d e his conviction that episcopacy a n d m o n a r c h y were ordained o f G o d , o r h i s i n t e n t i o n t o restore t h e m i n t h e i r p l e n i t u d e i f h e were allowed. A t l e n g t h h i s t o r t u o u s p o l i c y left o n e p a r t y a m o n g h i s o p p o n e n t s masters o f k i n g a n d k i n g d o m a n d c o n v i n c e d , n o t o n l y t h a t t h e y c o u l d n e v e r b i n d h i m b y a n y pact, but that they m i g h t righteously put h i m to death. B y so d o i n g t h e y e n a b l e d C h a r l e s t o close his u n h a p p y r e i g n w i t h h o n o u r \ f o r i t i s easier t o d i e w e l l t h a n t o g o v e r n w i s e l y , a n d i n h i s strange character a r e a l f a i t h a n d seriousness u n d e r l y i n g m u c h t h a t was w e a k a n d e v e n i g n o b l e , r a i s e d h i m a t t h e supreme m o m e n t into a purer atmosphere and illumined his scaffold w i t h s o m e t h i n g o f the b r i g h t n e s s o f m a r t y r d o m . T h e k i n g had put himself i n the hands of the Scots w i t h n o assurance f r o m t h e r u l i n g a u t h o r i t y at E d i n b u r g h , a n d t h e y showed very little regard to the terms w h i c h the commissioners h a d offered b y w o r d o f m o u t h . A t the request o f t h e S c o t s he

^ P .

21 *

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CHAP, gave o r d e r s f o r the s u r r e n d e r o f N e w a r k . B u t w h e n he refused t o s i g n t h e covenant a n d e s t a b l i s h t h e p r e s b y t e r i a n g o v e r n m e n t i n E n g l a n d a n d I r e l a n d , t h e y set a g u a r d u p o n h i m a n d b e g a n t h e i r retreat t o w a r d s N e w c a s t l e i n o r d e r to place t h e i r c a p t i v e i n greater s e c u r i t y \ for the p a r l i a m e n t was jealous o f the Scots, whose f o r m e r i n t r i g u e s w i t h t h e k i n g h a d c o m e t o l i g h t , a n d v o t e d t h a t t h e i r a r m y s h o u l d be p a i d off as n o l o n g e r useful. X o please t h e p a r l i a m e n t C h a r l e s g a v e orders for t h e s u r r e n d e r o f O x f o r d , w h i c h o p e n e d its gates o n J u n e 20. H i s second son, J a m e s , D u k e o f Y o r k , thus fell i n t o the p o w e r o f t h e houses. T o please t h e S c o t s C h a r l e s ordered M o n t r o s e to d i s b a n d h i s forces a n d q u i t t h e k i n g d o m . A s the k i n g w o u l d n o t r e n o u n c e episcopacy, t h e S c o t s a d o p t e d the d r a f t t e r m s o f peace w h i c h t h e p a r l i a m e n t l a i d before h i m i n t h e b e g i n n i n g of August. T h e p r i n c i p a l d e m a n d s were t h a t he s h o u l d t a k e the c o v e n a n t a n d accept the p r e s b y t e r i a n s y s t e m ; t h a t t h e m i l i t i a a n d the fleet s h o u l d be c o n t r o l l e d b y p a r l i a m e n t f o r t w e n t y years a n d o n l y r e t u r n t o t h e c r o w n u n d e r c o n d i t i o n s fixed b y p a r l i a m e n t \ that a n u m b e r o f the k i n g ' s f o l l o w e r s s h o u l d be e x c l u d e d f r o m p a r d o n j t h a t the I r i s h cessation s h o u l d be a n n u l l e d a n d the w a r i n I r e l a n d prosecuted i n s u c h a m a n n e r as the houses s h o u l d d e t e r m i n e . These terms became celebrated as the p r o p o s i t i o n s o f Newcastle."
1

Charles could not stomach such h a r d conditions. T h e queen w i s h e d h i m to r e t a i n t h e p o w e r o f the s w o r d , b u t to y i e l d o n C h u r c h g o v e r n m e n t , since t h e p r e s b y t e r i a n s , once s u p r e m e , w o u l d find their m o r t a l foes i n t h e independents. H e tried to g a i n t i m e a n d a s k e d t h a t he m i g h t c o m e to L o n d o n f o r further conference. T h e o n l y result w a s a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g bet w e e n the S c o t s a n d the E n g l i s h . T h e S c o t s offered to r e t i r e o n p a y m e n t o f t h e i r expenses, a n d t o consult w i t h the p a r l i a m e n t h o w t h e y s h o u l d dispose o f t h e k i n g . B y S e p t e m b e r 1 i t w a s agreed t h a t t h e S c o t s s h o u l d receive ^400,000, h a l f t o be p a i d before t h e y left t h e k i n g d o m , t h e rest at a later t i m e . T h e independents, w h o feared t o b e left at the m e r c y o f t h e i r rivals, a p p r o a c h e d t h e k i n g , o f f e r i n g h i m a qualified e p i s c o p a c y w h e n the S c o t s were gone, a n d m i l d t r e a t m e n t for h i s followers, but t h e y f o u n d n o response. B y the end of September Charles * Rushwcrth, vi., 209.

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finished a c o u n t e r - p r o p o s i t i o n o f h i s o w n . T h e p r e s b y t e r i a n C H A P , s y s t e m w a s t o r e m a i n i n force f o r three years. M e a n t i m e a *%N* c o m m i t t e e o f b o t h houses w a s t o confer w i t h s i x t y d i v i n e s , o n e t h i r d p r e s b y t e r i a n s , o n e - t h i r d i n d e p e n d e n t s , a n d o n e - t h i r d chosen b y himself. A f t e r this discussion t h e k i n g a n d t h e p a r l i a m e n t w e r e t o d e t e r m i n e t h e ecclesiastical s y s t e m f o r t h e future. C h a r l e s offered t o surrender t h e m i l i t i a f o r t e n years, o r e v e n for life, o n t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a t i t s h o u l d afterwards r e v e r t to the c r o w n . H e found that the Scottish commissioners i n L o n d o n w o u l d n o t assent t o h i s p r o p o s a l s w h e t h e r as r e g a r d e d the C h u r c h o r as r e g a r d e d t h e m i l i t i a .
1

A r g y l e a n d h i s f r i e n d s were d e t e r m i n e d t h a t C h a r l e s s h o u l d not come t o E d i n b u r g h , where he w o u l d unite a n d inspirit a l l m a l c o n t e n t parties. T h e y persuaded the Scottish parliament t o d e c i d e that, u n t i l t h e k i n g a c c e p t e d t h e p r o p o s i t i o n s o f N e w castle, i t w o u l d d o n o t h i n g f o r h i m n o r receive h i m i n S c o t l a n d . S i n c e i t w a s n o t t h o u g h t safe t o a l l o w h i m a free d e p a r t u r e , i t f o l l o w e d t h a t h e m u s t be g i v e n o v e r t o t h e E n g l i s h . T h u s a d a n g e r o u s difference between t h e n a t i o n s w a s q u i e t l y r e m o v e d . F o r t h e E n g l i s h p a r l i a m e n t asserted a r i g h t t o dispose o f t h e king's person, which the Scots h a d hitherto challenged o n the g r o u n d t h a t h e was K i n g o f S c o t l a n d as w e l l as o f E n g l a n d . T h e royalists twitted the Scots w i t h selling their k i n g j but h o w e v e r t h e i r a c t m a y be j u d g e d , t h e i r m o t i v e w a s n o t so m u c h g a i n as p o l i c y . O n J a n u a r y 30, 1647, the first ; 100,000 was p a i d t o t h e Scots, a n d t h e y surrendered N e w c a s t l e . O n F e b r u a r y 3 a second ^"100,000 w a s p a i d , a n d t h e S c o t s g a v e u p w h a t o t h e r fortresses t h e y h e l d a n d recrossed t h e b o r d e r , at the s a m e t i m e d e l i v e r i n g C h a r l e s t o c o m m i s s i o n e r s a p p o i n t e d b y the E n g l i s h parliament, w h o took h i m t o H o l m b y H o u s e i n N o r t h a m p t o n s h i r e . A l t h o u g h h e w a s a prisoner, h i s j o u r n e y r e s e m b l e d a r o y a l progress. T h e g e n t r y c a m e t o escort h i m , t h e c o m m o n people t h r o n g e d t o see h i m pass, t h e c h u r c h bells w e r e r u n g , a n d c a n n o n fired salutes. A sentiment w h i c h h a d been g r o w i n g for a thousand years could n o t be killed b y one m a n ' s faults o r misfortunes. T o the multitude the king's ret u r n s y m b o l i s e d t h e r e t u r n o f p e a c e a n d freedom f r o m e x a c t i o n . T h e result w a s u n f o r t u n a t e f o r C h a r l e s , since i t s t r e n g t h e n e d h i s belief that m e n could not d o without h i m a n d that he could
1

Clarendon MS.

2333,

quoted by Gardiner, History

of the Civil War,

ch. xlv.

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d o as h e l i k e d w i t h t h e m .

X h e p a r l i a m e n t d i d not, i t is true,

show m u c h s k i l l i n s o o t h i n g its c a p t i v e . X h e c o m m o n s ordered that t h e c o m m u n i o n plate o f t h e c h a p e l r o y a l s h o u l d be m e l t e d d o w n t o m a k e the k i n g a d i n n e r service, a n d the l o r d s refused his desire f o r t h e m i n i s t r a t i o n s o f h i s o w n chaplains. I n I r e l a n d the k i n g was as u n f o r t u n a t e as elsewhere. Under pressure f r o m the S c o t s he h a d c o m m a n d e d O r m o n d t o treat n o further w i t h t h e rebels, b u t t h e i n j u n c t i o n was o n l y a ruse, as he k n e w t h a t a t r e a t y h a d a l r e a d y been m a d e . On J u n e 5 1646, O w e n R o e O ' N e i l l defeated a n d a l m o s t de> s t r o y e d t h e S c o t t i s h a r m y u n d e r M o n r o i n the b a t t l e o f B e n burb. X h e n t h e p a r l i a m e n t a r y c o m m i s s i o n e r s i n the n o r t h o f I r e l a n d c a l l e d o n O r m o n d for succour w h i l e the supreme c o u n c i l a s k e d h i m t o p u b l i s h t h e peace. A g a i n s t t h e wishes o f his o w n c o u n c i l O r m o n d c o m p l i e d , a n d p r o c l a i m e d the peace i n D u b l i n o n J u l y 30. B u t w i t h the v i c t o r y o f B e n b u r b p o w e r h a d passed f r o m t h e s u p r e m e c o u n c i l t o the c l e r g y h e a d e d b y the nuncio, a n d t h e y c o n d e m n e d the t r e a t y as a f f o r d i n g n o satisfaction t o c a t h o l i c claims. O r m o n d resolved to save t h e places w h i c h he s t i l l h e l d a n d w h i c h m u s t otherwise f a l l i n t o t h e h a n d s o f the n u n c i o b y s u r r e n d e r i n g t h e m to^ the E n g l i s h p a r l i a m e n t . I n f o r m e d of this resolution, R i n u c c i n i m a d e t h e c l e r g y choose a n e w s u p r e m e council, w i t h h i m s e l f as president, a n d s u m m o n e d O ' N e i l l t o h i s aid. A few d a y s afterwards t h e E n g l i s h p a r l i a m e n t accepted O r m o n d ' s surrender o f D u b l i n a n d h i s other fortresses. When its c o m m i s s i o n e r s a r r i v e d , O r m o n d refused t o y i e l d D u b l i n , o n the g r o u n d that the p a r l i a m e n t h a d refused t o f o r w a r d his letter a s k i n g for the k i n g ' s sanction. Charles, w h o h a d n o t h o u g h t o f g i v i n g such a n order, enjoined O r m o n d t o renew his n e g o t i a t i o n w i t h the Irish. B u t O r m o n d , w h o h a d less t h a n 1,500 m e n , c o u l d n o t hope t o m a i n t a i n a n i n d e p e n d e n t p o s i t i o n . On F e b r u a r y 6, 1647, he renewed h i s offer to the E n g l i s h p a r l i a ment without requiring the king's authority. X h u s , at the v e r y t i m e w h e n t h e p a r l i a m e n t o b t a i n e d possession o f the k i n g , i t o b t a i n e d t h e e x c l u s i v e c o n d u c t o f t h e I r i s h war. J e a l o u s o f the a r m y a n d desirous t o relieve t h e n a t i o n , the p a r l i a m e n t resolved t o k e e p i n E n g l a n d 6,600 horse a n d dragoons, but n o i n f a n t r y save i n g a r r i s o n s ; t o send 4,200 horse a n d dragoons w i t h 8,400 i n f a n t r y t o I r e l a n d , a n d t o d i s 1
1

Lords

Journals, ix., 29.

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b a n d the 6,000 i n f a n t r y r e m a i n i n g . E x c e p t t h e L o r d - G e n e r a l F a i r f a x , t h e r e was t o be n o officer a b o v e t h e r a n k o f c o l o n e l \ n o m e m b e r o f the house o f c o m m o n s w a s t o h o l d a n y c o m m a n d i n E n g l a n d j a n d e v e r y officer was to t a k e t h e c o v e n a n t \ r e s o l u t i o n s p r o m p t e d perhaps b y fear o f C r o m w e l l . B u t t h e a r m y w a s u n w i l l i n g t o be d i m i n i s h e d a n d dispersed u n t i l its p u b l i c and* p r i v a t e r e q u i r e m e n t s h a d been satisfied. T h e devout a m o n g t h e soldiers w a n t e d a n assurance t h a t t h e y w o u l d be a l l o w e d t o e n j o y t h a t l i b e r t y o f conscience f o r w h i c h t h e y h a d f o u g h t , a n d t h e d e v o u t a n d the p r o f a n e a l i k e w a n t e d t o receive i n f u l l t h e i r p a y , w h i c h w a s m a n y w e e k s o r even m o n t h s i n arrear, as w e l l as a n i n d e m n i t y for i l l e g a l acts d o n e i n t h e course o f the war. T h e i r discontent broke forth when a deputation f r o m the house o f c o m m o n s c a m e d o w n t o S a f f r o n W a l d e n i n E s s e x , w h e r e F a i r f a x h a d h i s headquarters, t o i n v i t e v o l u n teers for service i n I r e l a n d . A t a conference w h i c h t h e y h e l d w i t h F a i r f a x a n d h i s officers o n M a r c h 21, n o n e o f the officers w o u l d v o l u n t e e r u n t i l t h e y h a d s o m e assurance o f s a t i s f a c t i o n . A t a second conference the officers agreed t o d r a w u p a p e t i t i o n . T h e soldiers resolved t o f o l l o w t h e i r e x a m p l e . T h e houses c o n d e m n e d t h e p e t i t i o n , d e n o u n c e d its p r o m o t e r s as e n e m i e s o f t h e state, a n d chose S k i p p o n a n d M a s s e y , i n f l e x i b l e p r e s b y t e r i a n s , to be respectively general a n d lieutenant-general of the Irish a r m y . A . second d e p u t a t i o n t o S a f f r o n W a l d e n f o r volunteers p r o v e d unsuccessful. I n s p i t e o f the t h r e a t e n i n g aspect o f affairs, t h e p a r l i a m e n t w o u l d o n l y v o t e t h a t s i x weeks' p a y , a m e r e f r a c t i o n o f the arrears due, s h o u l d be g i v e n t o the soldiers on disbandment. T h e r e ensued a f o r m i d a b l e i n n o v a t i o n . L e d b y t h e c a v a l r y , w h o w e r e m e n o f better s t a n d i n g a n d e d u c a t i o n t h a n t h e i n f a n t r y , t h e soldiers o r g a n i s e d themselves for p o l i t i c a l purposes. E i g h t out o f the ten c a v a l r y r e g i m e n t s chose each t w o representatives, at first s t y l e d c o m m i s s i o n e r s , b u t afterwards k n o w n as agitators, t h a t is t o say, agents. T h e agitators addressed t o e a c h o f the three generals, F a i r f a x , C r o m w e l l , a n d S k i p p o n , a l e t t e r c o m p l a i n i n g t h a t the p r o p o s a l o f s e n d i n g t r o o p s t o I r e l a n d was a m e r e device t o r u i n t h e a r m y a n d b r e a k i t i n pieces. T h i s letter b e c a m e k n o w n t o the houses a n d caused m u c h alarm. A t h i r d d e p u t a t i o n , c o m p o s e d o f officers w h o w e r e
1

* Lords Journals,

ix., 164*

328 CHAP,
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also m e m b e r s o f the c o m m o n s , C r o m w e l l , I r e t o n , F l e e t w o o d , a n d S k i p p o n , was sent t o quiet t h e soldiers b y p r o m i s i n g a n i n d e m n i t y f o r acts d o n e i n the course o f the war, speedy p a y m e n t o f a large p a r t o f t h e arrears, a n d s i g n e d debentures for t h e balance. W f i e n this d e p u t a t i o n r e a c h e d S a f f r o n W a l d e n i t f o u n d t h a t the i n f a n t r y h a d f o l l o w e d t h e e x a m p l e o f the c a v a l r y a n d t h a t e v e r y r e g i m e n t h a d c h o s e n agitators. T h e officers supported the agitators w i t h a declaration, recounting all the grievances o f t h e m e n a n d a d o p t i n g t h e i r d e m a n d s . T h e deputation quieted t h e t r o o p s for t h e m o m e n t b y a n n o u n c i n g the f a v o u r a b l e resolutions o f p a r l i a m e n t , a n d sent b a c k C r o m w e l l to r e p o r t o n t h e state o f t h e a r m y . C r o m w e l l d e c l a r e d i n the house t h a t the a r m y w o u l d disband, although it w o u l d not go to Ireland, a n d t h e c o m m o n s ratified t h e concessions m a d e i n t h e i r n a m e . T h e danger of a breach between the a r m y and the parliam e n t seemed over, b u t the i l l - w i l l between presbyterians a n d i n d e p e n d e n t s was n o t abated, a n d either p a r t y sought e v e r y w e a p o n against the other. A s t h e L o n d o n e r s w e r e zealous presbyterians, the p a r l i a m e n t a d o p t e d a n o r d i n a n c e g i v i n g t h e c i t y c o n t r o l o f its o w n m i l i t i a . T h e p r e s b y t e r i a n leaders f o u n d allies i n t h e n e w c o m m i s s i o n e r s sent b y the S c o t t i s h c o m m i t t e e o f estates w i t h w h o m t h e y p r o j e c t e d a n o t h e r S c o t t i s h i n v a s i o n o f E n g l a n d . P r o p o s a l s f o r a settlement c l o s e l y r e s e m b l i n g those w h i c h the k i n g h a d offered a t N e w c a s t l e were m a d e t o t h e k i n g a n d accepted b y h i m . O n M a y 20 the l o r d s i n v i t e d h i m t o reside at O a t l a n d s near L o n d o n . A few d a y s afterw a r d s t h e houses resolved t h a t e a c h r e g i m e n t s h o u l d be d r a w n t o a separate rendezvous a n d d i s b a n d e d f o r t h w i t h . T h e n the officers, t h e agitators, a n d t h e m e n w h o h a d chosen t h e m g a v e clear i n t i m a t i o n s that t h e a r m y w o u l d n o t d i s b a n d u n t i l i t h a d been satisfied. F a i r f a x was i n d u c e d to order a g e n e r a l rendezvous o f a l l t h e t r o o p s at N e w m a r k e t , a n d a m e e t i n g o f officers a t C r o m w e l l ' s house i n L o n d o n resolved t h a t C o r n e t J o y c e w i t h a p a r t y o f horse s h o u l d g o to H o l m b y a n d p r e v e n t a n y a t t e m p t t o r e m o v e C h a r l e s . A r r i v i n g o n J u n e 3, J o y c e c a m e t o the c o n c l u s i o n t h a t h e w o u l d best fulfil h i s trust b y c a r r y i n g
1

t h e k i n g a w a y t o t h e a r m y . A t n i g h t h e entered t h e k i n g ' s c h a m b e r a n d r e q u i r e d h i m t o leave H o l m b y . C h a r l e s at l e n g t h

Commons Journals, v., 183 5 Lords Journals, ix., 207.

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assented o n the p r o m i s e o f h o n o u r a b l e usage. B u t i n t h e m o r n - C H A P . i n g w h e n a b o u t to depart, he a s k e d J o y c e for h i s c o m m i s s i o n , a n * e m b a r r a s s i n g d e m a n d , since J o y c e h a d n o e x p r e s s o r d e r for w h a t he w a s d o i n g . " H e r e , " said J o y c e , p o i n t i n g t o the troopers, " here is m y c o m m i s s i o n . ' " I t is as fair a c o m m i s s i o n , " r e p l i e d t h e k i n g , " a n d as w e l l w r i t t e n as I h a v e seen a c o m m i s s i o n w r i t t e n i n m y lite ; a n d w i t h o u t m o r e a d o he a c c o m p a n i e d J o y c e towards Newmarket. A t the s a m e t i m e h e sent a message t o p a r l i a m e n t t h a t h e h a d been t a k e n a w a y f r o m H o l m b y b y f o r c e a n d e x p e c t e d i t t o assert its o w n h o n o u r a n d the l a w s o f the land. Y e t w h e n F a i r f a x , w h o h a d n o t been p r i v y t o h i s r e m o v a l , o r d e r e d C o l o n e l W h a l l e y t o escort h i m b a c k , C h a r l e s refused t o r e t u r n .
x v 1

T h e d i s p u t e between t h e a r m y a n d t h e p a r l i a m e n t was t h u s e n l a r g e d i n t o a p o l i t i c a l c o n f l i c t between i n d e p e n d e n t s a n d presbyterians. I n this conflict C r o m w e l l r a p i d l y b e c a m e the leader of the independents. H i t h e r t o , although an industrious m e m b e r o f p a r l i a m e n t , h e h a d b e e n d i s t i n g u i s h e d chiefly as a s o l d i e r j t h e second i n c o m m a n d a n d perhaps t h e first i n m e r i t . B u t t h e c o m m a n d e r - i n - c h i e f , b y h i s virtues a n d f a i l i n g s a l i k e , w a s u n f i t t e d to g u i d e a r e v o l u t i o n . F a i r f a x was a b r a v e a n d skilful general, but outside his profession he was mediocre. W i t h u p r i g h t i n t e n t i o n s , love o f freedom, a n d respect for l a w , h e h a d n e i t h e r clear i n s i g h t n o r s t r o n g w i l l . I n r e l i g i o n he was a l m o s t n e u t r a l as b e t w e e n p r e s b y t e r i a n a n d i n d e p e n d e n t ; b u t t h i s c i r c u m s t a n c e , w h i c h m i g h t h a v e b e e n h e l p f u l to a statesm a n , o n l y a d d e d t o his w e a k n e s s a n d i r r e s o l u t i o n . H e felt for t h e w r o n g s o f the soldiers w h o m h e h a d so often l e d t o v i c t o r y , a n d therefore w o u l d n o t f o r s a k e t h e m , a n d r e m a i n e d t h e i r n o m i n a l c h i e f ; b u t he was i l l a t ease i n o p p o s i n g t h e p a r l i a m e n t a n d d i d little more t h a n execute what m e n of keener m i n d s h a d determined. C r o m w e l l r a r e l y s a w far i n t o the future a n d often was s l o w t o resolve, b u t h i s j u d g m e n t o f t h i n g s n e a r was u s u a l l y w i s e a n d h i s r e s o l u t i o n a l w a y s formidable. R e l i g i o n g a v e h i m a fixed a i m i n p o l i t i c s . A s a n i n d e p e n d e n t h e w a s r e s o l v e d that, c o m e w h a t m i g h t , t h e spiritual freedom w h i c h he a n d his brethren h a d w o n w i t h t h e i r b l o o d s h o u l d n o t b e reft f r o m t h e m . W h a t e v e r p o l i t i c a l c h a n g e m i g h t be n e c e s s a r y for t h i s purpose, h e w a s r e a d y t o
1

True

and Impartial Narration 5

concerning the Army s Preservation

1

of the

King,

Rushworth, vi.,

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m a k e , a n d w h a t e v e r force s u c h c h a n g e m i g h t i n v o l v e he w a s ready to exert. I n o t h e r t h i n g s h e w a s careless o f g e n e r a l m a x i m s a n d ready t o accept compromise. T o o late the p a r l i a m e n t s a w w i t h d i s m a y w h a t a dangerous and uncontrollable power it h a d called into action. It tried to appease t h e soldiers b y p r o m i s i n g t h a t t h e i r arrears s h o u l d be p a i d i n f u l l a n d t h e o r d i n a n c e o f i n d e m n i t y pressed f o r w a r d . I t sent d o w n c o m m i s s i o n e r s w i t h offers t o the troops t h e n m u s t e r e d at T r i p l o e H e a t h , near C a m b r i d g e . W h e n t h e y were c o l d l y received, i t p r e p a r e d f o r defence, a n d t r i e d to w e a k e n the a r m y b y e n c o u r a g i n g desertion. B u t i t c o u l d n o t e x t e m p o r i s e a force c a p a b l e o f e n c o u n t e r i n g 20,000 veterans. T h e parliam e n t r e s o l v e d o n s e n d i n g a n o t h e r c o m m i s s i o n t o negotiate, w h i l e t h e c i t y requested i n f r i e n d l y t e r m s t h a t the a r m y w o u l d n o t a p p r o a c h nearer t h a n t h i r t y m i l e s . T h e headquarters h a d b y that t i m e been m o v e d t o S t . A l b a n ' s , a n d the agitators h a d been j o i n e d w i t h a select n u m b e r o f officers t o f o r m the c o u n c i l o f t h e a r m y . O n J u n e 15 the c o u n c i l r e p l i e d t o the p a r l i a m e n t a r y commissioners w i t h the D e c l a r a t i o n of the A r m y . It asked t h a t the house o f c o m m o n s s h o u l d b e p u r g e d o f o f f e n d i n g m e m b e r s a n d t h e date o f d i s s o l u t i o n f i x e d \ t h a t p a r l i a m e n t s i n future s h o u l d n o t last b e y o n d a c e r t a i n t i m e \ t h a t t h e r i g h t o f p e t i t i o n s h o u l d be r e c o g n i s e d , offences p u n i s h e d a c c o r d i n g t o law, n o t at the d i s c r e t i o n o f t h e houses j the accounts o f n a t i o n a l e x p e n d i t u r e p u b l i s h e d ; a n d w i t h s o m e few e x c e p t i o n s a n a m n e s t y passed f o r a l l offenders. T h e s e requests were i n the m a i n fair a n d reasonable. T h e n a n d afterwards the soldiers protested w i t h t r u t h t h a t t h e y w e r e n o m e r e mercenaries, b u t honest E n g l i s h m e n , w h o w a n t e d assurance o f those liberties w h i c h t h e y h a d so d e a r l y b o u g h t . T h e y r e g a r d e d themselves as m a i n t a i n i n g t h e c o m m o n interest a g a i n s t a u s u r p i n g ass e m b l y w h i c h c o u l d n o t l a w f u l l y be d i s s o l v e d a n d w h i c h refused t o d i s s o l v e itself.
1

T h e a r m y followed u p its declaration w i t h a charge against eleven m e m b e r s o f t h e house o f c o m m o n s , leaders o f the presbyterian party. A m o n g t h e m were m e n w h o had rendered n o t a b l e s e r v i c e M a y n a r d , o n e o f t h e m a n a g e r s i n the i m p e a c h m e n t o f S t r a f f o r d ; H o l i e s , one o f t h e five m e m b e r s so r a s h l y i m p e a c h e d b y t h e k i n g ; M a s s e y , the defender o f G l o u c e s t e r ; * Rushworth, vi., 5^4*

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a n d W a l l e r , l o n g the best g e n e r a l o f the p a r l i a m e n t . T h e y C H A P , w e r e accused o f c o n s p i r i n g a g a i n s t t h e l i b e r t y o f the subject, o f s e t t i n g t h e p a r l i a m e n t against t h e a r m y , a n d o f t r y i n g t o k i n d l e a new civil war. T h e houses r e t o r t e d b y o r d e r i n g F a i r f a x t o s e n d t h e k i n g t o R i c h m o n d a n d r e t i r e f o r t y miles f r o m L o n d o n . F a i r f a x w o u l d n o t retire n o r g i v e u p possession o f t h e k i n g . T h e c o u n c i l o f the a r m y p u t f o r t h a s h a r p r e m o n s t r a n c e dem a n d i n g the suspension o f the eleven m e m b e r s , the d i s b a n d m e n t o f forces l a t e l y raised, a n d a d e l a y i n t h e k i n g ' s r e m o v a l t o R i c h m o n d . T h e houses felt u n a b l e to resist, t h e e l e v e n m e m b e r s w i t h d r e w f r o m attendance, other concessions f o l l o w e d , a n d t h e a r m y f e l l b a c k as far as R e a d i n g . T h e a r m y treated C h a r l e s w i t h a c o n s i d e r a t i o n w h i c h the parliament had not shown. H e was a l l o w e d t o enjoy the society o f his m o s t f a i t h f u l f r i e n d , the D u k e o f R i c h m o n d , a n d t h e ministrations of his own chaplains. H o p i n g that h e w o u l d c o m e t o a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g w i t h t h e m , the officers h a d recourse to S i r J o h n B e r k e l e y , sometime governor of E x e t e r , w h o f e l t satisfied t h a t t h e y w e r e i n earnest. T h e king, who c o u l d n o t b e l i e v e t h a t a n y o f h i s adversaries was a n honest m a n , t o l d B e r k e l e y t h a t he d i d n o t trust t h e officers, because none o f t h e m h a d a s k e d h i m for a n y favour. T h e q u a r r e l b e t w e e n the a r m y a n d t h e p a r l i a m e n t filled h i m w i t h h o p e s w h i c h h e c o u l d not conceal. " S i r , " said C o m m i s s a r y - G e n e r a l Ireton, C r o m well's s o n - i n - l a w a n d confidant, y o u h a v e a n i n t e n t i o n t o be t h e a r b i t r a t o r b e t w e e n t h e p a r l i a m e n t a n d u s ; a n d w e m e a n to be i t b e t w e e n y o u r m a j e s t y a n d t h e p a r l i a m e n t . "
1 (<

W i t h t h i s d e s i g n I r e t o n d r a f t e d a s c h e m e f o r t h e settlem e n t o f t h e k i n g d o m w h i c h , after r e v i s i o n b y t h e a r m y council, b e c a m e k n o w n as the H e a d s o f t h e P r o p o s a l s , a n d offered a r e m a r k a b l e c o n t r a s t to the p r o p o s i t i o n s o f N e w c a s t l e . The p a r l i a m e n t was to e n d w i t h i n a year, a n d the d u r a t i o n o f subsequent p a r l i a m e n t s was n o t t o e x c e e d t w o years. A p a r l i a m e n t w a s t o sit at least 120 d a y s , unless adj o u r n e d o r d i s s o l v e d sooner b y its o w n consent. S e a t s w e r e t o be d i s t r i b u t e d acc o r d i n g to some rule o f equality or proportion. A council of state w a s t o t a k e t h e place o f the ancient p r i v y c o u n c i l . Its m e m b e r s w e r e t o b e a p p o i n t e d f o r a t e r m o f seven y e a r s \ t h e first b y agreement, t h e i r successors p r o b a b l y b y t h e k i n g , as n o
1

Rushworth, vi., $70.

33^
CHAP,
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m o d e o f choice was specified.

T h e houses were t o h a v e the

m i l i t i a a n d t h e n a v y a n d the a p p o i n t m e n t o f the great officers o f state for t e n years. T h e clauses c o n c e r n i n g r e l i g i o n b r e a t h e d t h e spirit o f a large tolerance. N o m a n was t o be forced t o t a k e the c o v e n a n t or p u n i s h e d for n o t u s i n g t h e P r a y e r B o o k , o r subjected t o c i v i l penalties b y a n y ecclesiastical a u t h o r i t y whatsoever. L e n i t y w a s s h o w n to t h e k i n g ' s f o l l o w e r s , o f w h o m o n l y five were e x c l u d e d f r o m c o m p o u n d i n g . T h e cess a t i o n i n I r e l a n d was t o be d e c l a r e d v o i d a n d the p r o s e c u t i o n o f the I r i s h w a r left t o t h e houses. T h e s e t e r m s were t h e m o s t f a v o u r a b l e ever offered t o Charles. I f t h e y retrenched h i s prerogative, t h e y a l l o w e d h i m t o enjoy h i s o w n religion, a n d t h e y dealt m e r c i f u l l y w i t h h i s friends. H e preferred, h o w e v e r , to p l a y his dangerous game, f o r the p r e s b y t e r i a n s i n the p a r l i a m e n t a n d t h e c i t y g a v e s i g n s of revolt. T h e charge against the eleven members h a d been d e s i g n e d , n o t so m u c h for t h e i r p u n i s h m e n t , as t o f r i g h t e n t h e m out o f p u b l i c life a n d therefore was n o t p r e s s e d h o m e . The eleven t o o k courage a n d d e m a n d e d a t r i a l . T h e a r m y t h e n presented t h e articles o f i m p e a c h m e n t . T h e eleven a s k e d leave t o g o b e y o n d t h e seas, m a n y o t h e r p r e s b y t e r i a n m e m b e r s ceased t h e i r attendance, a n d w h a t was left o f t h e house o f c o m m o n s v o t e d t o d i s b a n d a l l deserters f r o m t h e a r m y a n d g i v e F a i r f a x the c o m m a n d o f a l l t h e forces i n E n g l a n d a n d W a l e s . The s u b m i s s i o n o f t h e p r e s b y t e r i a n s was, h o w e v e r , m o m e n t a r y . O n e of the new Scottish commissioners, the E a r l of L a u d e r d a l e , cheered t h e eleven w i t h t h e h o p e o f a S c o t t i s h a r m y , a n d t h e m o b o f t h e c i t y f o r c e d t h e c o m m o n s t o pass a r e s o l u t i o n i n viting the k i n g to L o n d o n . T h e n F a i r f a x marched on L o n d o n a n d the c o m m o n c o u n c i l p r e p a r e d for resistance. T h e speakers o f the houses, M a n c h e s t e r a n d L e n t h a l l , w i t h eight peers a n d
1

fifty-seven c o m m o n e r s , q u i t t e d L o n d o n t o place t h e m s e l v e s under the protection of the a r m y , leaving the presbyterians to choose n e w speakers, r e c a l l t h e eleven m e m b e r s , a n d p r o h i b i t t h e a p p r o a c h o f F a i r f a x . F a i r f a x c o n t i n u e d h i s advance, o c c u p i e d T i l b u r y F o r t , sent a d e t a c h m e n t r o u n d b y t h e s o u t h t o Gravesend, a n d threatened to intercept the commerce of L o n d o n . T h e c o m m o n c o u n c i l m a d e its s u b m i s s i o n , a n d o n A u g u s t 6 * Rushworth, vii., 73

1647

THE

RISE

OF THE

LEVELLERS.

333 CHAP,

the a r m y escorted M a n c h e s t e r a n d L e n t h a l l a n d their friends back to Westminster. It then marched through the city, and a c o u p l e o f r e g i m e n t s r e m a i n e d at W e s t m i n s t e r a n d i n t h e T o w e r . T h e k i n g was b r o u g h t t o H a m p t o n C o u r t a n d F a i r f a x m a d e P u t n e y h i s headquarters. T h e presbyterians were subdued, but their revolt h a d conf i r m e d t h e k i n g i n his i l l u s i o n s . W h e n the H e a d s of the P r o p o s a l s w e r e t e n d e r e d t o h i m , h e r e q u i r e d better t e r m s f o r h i s f r i e n d s a n d t h e C h u r c h , r e p e a t i n g , Y o u c a n n o t be w i t h o u t me "; Y o u w i l l f a l l t o r u i n i f I d o n o t sustain y o u Since i t w a s e x p e d i e n t t o p a c i f y t h e S c o t s , the c o m m o n s once m o r e tendered the propositions of Newcastle. C h a r l e s trifled w i t h t h e p r o p o s i t i o n s , b u t at l e n g t h i n t i m a t e d h i s preference f o r t h e H e a d s o f the P r o p o s a l s a n d a s k e d for a p e r s o n a l t r e a t y . Cromw e l l a n d Ireton, V a n e a n d St. J o h n were i n favour of granting h i s request, b u t t h e y c o u l d n o t p r e v a i l w i t h the house, a n d s o m e m e m b e r s agreed w i t h M a r t e n t h a t t h e y s h o u l d m a k e n o m o r e addresses t o t h e k i n g . H i s evident w i s h to gain t i m e a n d the g r o w i n g fear o f a S c o t t i s h i n v a s i o n h a d b r o u g h t m a n y t o d e m a n d a settlement i n w h i c h he s h o u l d have no place. T h i s new p a r t y , r e v o l u t i o n a r y a n d d e m o c r a t i c i n t h e h i g h e s t degree, s o o n b e c a m e k n o w n as t h e levellers. W e a k i n t h e n a t i o n at large, it was strong i n the army, especially i n certain regiments w h i c h d e p o s e d t h e i r o l d a g i t a t o r s as n o t g o i n g far e n o u g h a n d elected n e w ones. T h e y d r e w u p t h e first m a n i f e s t o o f t h e levellers, T h e C a s e o f the A r m y T r u l y S t a t e d , w h i c h t h e y t e n d e r e d to F a i r f a x o n O c t o b e r 18. P a r l i a m e n t was to b e p u r g e d at once a n d dissolved in a year. A l a w p a r a m o u n t , a statute b e y o n d t h e c o m p e t e n c e o f p a r l i a m e n t t o a l t e r , w a s t o vest p o w e r i n p a r l i a m e n t s chosen b y m a n h o o d suffrage a n d l i m i t e d to a p e r i o d o f t w o years. N o t h i n g was s a i d about a k i n g o r house o f l o r d s . A l l p o w e r , the C a s e o f the A r m y asserted, is i n the w h o l e b o d y o f t h e people, a n d t h e i r free c o n s e n t is t h e o n l y f o u n d a t i o n o f a l l just government. T h e s e p r i n c i p l e s were d e v e l o p e d i n a s e c o n d manifesto, T h e A g r e e m e n t o f t h e P e o p l e . T h e army, w h i c h h a d to c o n t e n d w i t h t h e greater p a r t o f t h e n a t i o n , w a s thus t h r e a t e n e d w i t h a n e w a n d m o s t perilous d i v i s i o n w i t h i n itself. C r o m w e l l a n d I r e t o n s a w t h e d a n g e r a n d strove to restore h a r m o n y . T h e r e f o l l o w e d several conferences b e t w e e n t h e officers
c t
1

Memoirs of Sir JoTun Berkeley, p.

35.

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CHAP, a n d t h e s p o k e s m e n o f t h e levellers, i n w h i c h n o definite c o n c l u s i o n w a s reached. A t l e n g t h o n C r o m w e l l ' s m o t i o n a c o m m i t t e e w a s a p p o i n t e d t o f r a m e y e t a n o t h e r draft c o n s t i t u t i o n o u t o f the H e a d s o f the Proposals a n d the A g r e e m e n t of the People. T h e S c o t t i s h c o m m i s s i o n e r s p r o m i s e d C h a r l e s that, i f h e w o u l d g i v e satisfaction i n matters o f r e l i g i o n , t h e S c o t s w o u l d restore h i m t o t h e t h r o n e , a n d u r g e d h i m t o m a k e h i s escape. H e d e c l i n e d i m m e d i a t e f l i g h t o n t h e g r o u n d that he h a d g i v e n his parole, b u t h e w o u l d n o t r e n e w h i s . p a r o l e w h e n a s k e d t o d o so. T h i s c i r c u m s t a n c e q u i c k e n e d s u s p i c i o n a n d a l a r m . T h e c o m m o n s passed a v o t e t h a t t h e k i n g w a s b o u n d to accept a l l l a w s t e n d e r e d t o h i m b y t h e houses. I n the a r m y council m e n were h e a r d t o d e n o u n c e a n y further t a m p e r i n g w i t h t h e enemies o f G o d , a n d t o declare the k i n g accountable f o r a l l t h e b l o o d s h e d o f the recent w a r . T h e k i n g w a s a d v i s e d t h a t some o f the m o r e fanatical levellers w e r e p l a n n i n g h i s m u r d e r . H e then resolved t o f l y i n the hope that, w h e n once h e w a s at large, t h e a r m y a n d the Scots w o u l d c o m p e t e f o r h i s favour, a n d t h a t h e c o u l d escape to F r a n c e i f things came to the worst. O n the advice of A s h b u r n h a m , w h o h a d l a t e l y r e t u r n e d w i t h messages f r o m t h e queen, h e selected the Isle o f W i g h t as h i s place o f retreat, because t h e g o v e r n o r , C o l o n e l H a m m o n d , w h o h a d f a m i l y ties w i t h b o t h parties, w a s b e l i e v e d t o d i s l i k e t h e l a t e proceedings o f t h e soldiers. L a t e on N o v e m b e r 11 C h a r l e s s l i p p e d out before t h e g u a r d s w e r e set f o r t h e n i g h t , a n d left H a m p t o n C o u r t . A t t e n d e d b y A s h b u r n h a m , Berkeley, and Colonel L e g g e , he made for L o r d S o u t h a m p t o n ' s house a t T i t c h f i e l d , n o t far f r o m t h e sea. O n a r r i v i n g there h e sent B e r k e l e y a n d A s h b u r n h a m f o r w a r d t o t r y H a m m o n d . T h e y found h i m , a n d a s k e d t h a t h e w o u l d either g i v e t h e k i n g shelter o r let h i m d e p a r t i n safety. Hamm o n d , w h o s h r a n k f r o m the t h o u g h t o f c o n f l i c t i n g duties, b e g g e d t h a t t h e k i n g m i g h t n o t come, b u t c o u l d o n l y p r o m i s e t o a c t t o w a r d s h i m as a p e r s o n o f h o n o u r a n d honesty. Ashburnham, against B e r k e l e y ' s w i s h , t h e n b r o u g h t H a m m o n d t o t h e k i n g , w h o was d e e p l y v e x e d , for, i n default o f satisfactory assurances, h e h a d resolved t o g o a b r o a d , a n d h a d a c t u a l l y e n g a g e d a vessel. A s H a m m o n d h a d c o m e a n d t h e vessel d i d n o t appear, C h a r l e s u n w i l l i n g l y f o l l o w e d h i m t o C a r i s b r o o k e Castle, H a m m o n d ' s official residence, a n d a g a i n b e c a m e a v i r t u a l p r i s o n e r .
1 2

^ Clarke Papers, i., 226-410.

^ Berkeley, Memoirs, pp. 50-65; King Charles the First, ii., 112-13.

Ashburnham,

Narrative

of Attendance

on

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I n t h e i r rage at the k i n g s f l i g h t the levellers seized the occa- C H A P , s i o n o f a r e n d e z v o u s o f several r e g i m e n t s a t C o r k b u s h f i e l d , n e a r W a r e , for a dangerous m u t i n y , w h i c h w a s o n l y q u e l l e d b y v i g o r o u s measures. Before quitting H a m p t o n Court, Charles h a d addressed a letter t o t h e p a r l i a m e n t , e x p l a i n i n g t h a t h e fled m e r e l y t o save h i s life, a n d s t i l l d e s i r e d to restore p e a c e a n d d o j u s t i c e to a l l parties. H e r e n e w e d the offers w h i c h h e h a d m a d e a t N e w c a s t l e , a n d desired t o treat p e r s o n a l l y i n L o n d o n . T h e S c o t s f a v o u r e d h i s request, b u t the houses a n d t h e a r m y s h o w e d themselves c o l d a n d suspicious. T h e l o r d s a d o p t e d as a basis o f n e g o t i a t i o n four o f t h e p r o p o s i t i o n s f o r m e r l y t e n d e r e d at N e w c a s t l e . P a r l i a m e n t was t o have t h e m i l i t i a f o r t w e n t y y e a r s a n d to d e t e r m i n e t h e c o n d i t i o n s o n w h i c h t h e c r o w n s h o u l d h a v e i t afterwards \ t h e k i n g was t o r e v o k e a l l d e c l a r a t i o n s against the p a r l i a m e n t , a n d to a n n u l the honours w h i c h h e h a d g r a n t e d since t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e w a r ; a n d the p a r l i a m e n t was to have the power o f adjourning itself to a n y place w h i c h i t t h o u g h t desirable. T h e c o m m o n s a c c e p t e d these p r o p o s i t i o n s f r o m the lords, a n d converted t h e m into bills w h i c h the k i n g w o u l d h a v e to accept o r reject as t h e y s t o o d . W h e n the k i n g a p p l i e d t o the officers for t h e i r h e l p i n o b t a i n i n g a p e r s o n a l t r e a t y , F a i r f a x refused, a n d C r o m w e l l w a r n e d B e r k e l e y t h a t h e m u s t n o t be e x p e c t e d t o p e r i s h for t h e k i n g ' s sake. There is r e a s o n t o b e l i e v e t h a t he h a d l e a r n t f r o m i n t e r c e p t e d letters t h e k i n g s preference f o r t h e S c o t s a n d h i s i n t e n t i o n n o t t o o b serve a n y promises m a d e u n d e r c o m p u l s i o n .
1

T h e S c o t t i s h c o m m i s s i o n e r s entered a p r o t e s t a g a i n s t t h e a c t i o n o f t h e p a r l i a m e n t a n d t h e a r m y , a n d r e q u i r e d t h a t the k i n g s h o u l d be a d m i t t e d t o a personal^ t r e a t y . T h e y dem a n d e d t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f p r e s b y t e r i a n i s m a n d t h e restorat i o n o f t h e p o l i t i c a l powers o f t h e c r o w n . T h e houses t o o k n o h e e d , b u t t e n d e r e d the four b i l l s t o C h a r l e s , a l l o w i n g h i m f o u r d a y s f o r h i s answer. T h e Scottish commissioners visited the k i n g at C a r i s b r o o k e i n o r d e r t o r e a c h a separate u n d e r s t a n d i n g , a n d h e p r e f e r r e d t o treat w i t h those w h o w o u l d leave h i m a l l t h e a u t h o r i t y b y w h i c h h e c o u l d afterwards o r d e r C h u r c h a n d S t a t e as h e t h o u g h t p r o p e r . O n D e c e m b e r 26 h e s i g n e d t h e t r e a t y k n o w n as t h e E n g a g e m e n t . H e u n d e r t o o k t o c o n f i r m t h e c o v e n a n t b y statute, t o p r o t e c t those w h o h a d t a k e n i t
1

Old ParlicLtnefttdyy History

vi., 4 5 0*

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CHAP, a n d t o a l l o w a p r e s b y t e r i a n e s t a b l i s h m e n t f o r three y e a r s o n condition that the C h u r c h should be finally regulated b y himself a n d t h e houses. A l l heresies were t o b e s t r i c t l y repressed. I n return the Scots undertook t o support his demand for a personal t r e a t y a n d t h e d i s b a n d m e n t o f a l l armies. I f t h i s were refused, t h e S c o t s were t o p u b l i s h a d e c l a r a t i o n i n f a v o u r o f t h e k i n g ' s a u t h o r i t y a n d t o i n v a d e E n g l a n d . W h e n peace w a s r e s t o r e d , there w a s t o b e a n act o f o b l i v i o n a n d a c o m p l e t e u n i o n o f t h e t w o k i n g d o m s , o r a t least c o m p l e t e f r e e d o m o f t r a d e . Charles t h e n rejected t h e four b i l l s .
1

I m m i n e n t danger united a l l , whether independents or presbyterians, w h o w e r e u n w i l l i n g t o lose t h e fruits o f t h e c i v i l w a r and dreaded the Scottish yoke. T h e m i l i t a r y factions w a i v e d a l l disputes. T h e b o n d b e t w e e n t h e chiefs o f t h e a r m y a n d t h e chiefs o f t h e c o m m o n s w a s d r a w n closer. C h a r l e s , w h o h a d p l a n n e d t o escape f r o m C a r i s b r o o k e , w a s p l a c e d i n s t r i c t e r confinement. I t w a s e v e n p r o p o s e d i n t h e c o m m o n s t h a t h e s h o u l d b e i m p e a c h e d a n d t h e k i n g d o m settled w i t h o u t h i m . T h e houses r e s o l v e d t h a t t h e y w o u l d m a k e n o m o r e addresses to C h a r l e s n o r receive a n y m o r e o f h i s messages, T h e y diss o l v e d t h e c o m m i t t e e o f b o t h k i n g d o m s a n d vested i t s p o w e r s in the E n g l i s h members. T h e lords, although not forward i n these resolutions, y i e l d e d t o t h e fear o f m i l i t a r y c o n s t r a i n t . T h e c o m m o n s , i n F e b r u a r y , 1648, a g r e e d u p o n a d e c l a r a t i o n to b e p u b l i s h e d i n defence o f t h e v o t e o f n o addresses. A t the same t i m e t h e m i l i t a r y p r e p a r a t i o n s w e r e p u s h e d f o r w a r d .
2

T h e S c o t t i s h c o m m i s s i o n e r s , w h o left E n g l a n d i n J a n u a r y , found t h e i r c o u n t r y m e n d e e p l y d i v i d e d . Scotsmen saw that the S o l e m n L e a g u e a n d C o v e n a n t h a d n o t been fulfilled i n t h e i r sense. T h e r e f o r m a t i o n o f t h e E n g l i s h C h u r c h o n t h e m o d e l o f t h e K i r k w a s s t i l l i m p e r f e c t a n d d i d n o t seem l i k e l y t o b e finished. H e r e s y continued to flourish i n E n g l a n d , w a s supreme i n the a r m y a n d powerful i n the parliament. T h e king, whose secular p r e r o g a t i v e t h e y h a d s w o r n t o m a i n t a i n , w a s a prisoner a n d w o u l d o n l y b e restored t o t h e t h r o n e u n d e r t h e most rigorous l i m i t a t i o n s . T h e s e reasons p r o m p t e d t o w a r ; but o t h e r reasons, e q u a l l y cogent, r e c o m m e n d e d peace. T h e malcontents w h o longed t o break t h e d o m i n a t i o n o f the K i r k
1

Printed from Clarendon MSS.

Old Parliamentary History, xvi.,

2685, 2686, ed,). 4^9-

by Gardiner,

Select Documents

of the Puritan Revolution, p. 347 (2nd

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a n d A r g y l e w o u l d receive fresh life f r o m a u n i o n w i t h the C H A P . E n g l i s h royalists a n d a n t i - p u i i t a n s . X h e m i n i s t e r s , m u c h as t h e y h a t e d a n d feared the i n d e p e n d e n t s , c o n d e m n e d t a k i n g u p a r m s for a k i n g w h o refused t h e covenant. ^A/hen a n e w p a r l i a m e n t met, o n M a r c h 2, H a m i l t o n b e c a m e t h e l e a d e r o f t h e warlike faction. H i s conduct i n not opposing the S o l e m n L e a g u e a n d C o v e n a n t h a d e x c i t e d so m u c h s u s p i c i o n t h a t h e w a s arrested o n v i s i t i n g O x f o r d i n D e c e m b e r , 1643, 3 rem a i n e d a p r i s o n e r u n t i l t h e e n d o f the c i v i l war. A t N e w c a s t l e h e h a d u r g e d the k i n g to g r a n t t h e S c o t t i s h d e m a n d s . B u t he w a s r o y a l i s t as far as p r u d e n c e w o u l d a l l o w j h e h a d n o zeal for t h e K i r k a n d h e felt jealous o f A r g y l e w h o s e p o w e r c o u l d o n l y be overthrown b y a political revolution. T h e commons were e q u a l l y d i v i d e d , b u t t h e greater p a r t o f t h e n o b l e s s u p p o r t e d H a m i l t o n , w h o t h u s p r e v a i l e d , a l t h o u g h w i t h difficulty, o v e r Argyle. I t was r e s o l v e d t o prepare for war. A number of E n g l i s h cavaliers c a m e t o E d i n b u r g h . T h e S c o t t i s h c o m m i s sioners, before r e t u r n i n g h o m e , h a d a r r a n g e d i n s u r r e c t i o n s i n t h e eastern counties a n d i n o t h e r p a r t s o f E n g l a n d . Blots w e r e l a i d f o r t h e k i n g ' s escape f r o m C a r i s b r o o k e , a n d a r o y a l i s t agent, C o l o n e l B a m f i e l d , succeeded i n c a r r y i n g t h e D u k e o f Y o r k out o f E n g l a n d .
a n <

T h e first overt acts o f r e b e l l i o n against t h e p a r l i a m e n t c a m e f r o m officers a n d soldiers i n its service, a l t h o u g h n o t i n c l u d e d i n the n e w m o d e l . O n F e b r u a r y 22 C o l o n e l P o y e r , g o v e r n o r o f P e m b r o k e Castle, refused t o m a k e r o o m f o r h i s successor, A d j u t a n t - G e n e r a l F l e m i n g , o n t h e p r e t e x t t h a t his arrears h a d n o t been p a i d . A b o d y o f t r o o p s u n d e r C o l o n e l L a u g h a r n e , w h i c h h a d d o n e g o o d service i n S o u t h W a l e s , b u t was to be disbanded, joined P o y e r . F l e m i n g was defeated a n d k i l l e d , a n d a l l S o u t h W a l e s rose i n r e v o l t . T h e parliament sent d o w n C o l o n e l H o r t o n , w h o defeated t h e W e l s h rebels at S t F a g a n ' s , n e a r L l a n d a f f , o n M a y 8. W h e n C r o m w e l l c a m e t o h i s h e l p w i t h t w o r e g i m e n t s o f horse a n d three o f foot t h e y r e g a i n e d t h e o p e n c o u n t r y a n d shut the r o y a l i s t s u p i n t h e castles o f P e m b r o k e , T e n b y , a n d C h e p s t o w . Chepstow and T e n b y w e r e s o o n t a k e n , b u t P e m b r o k e , where P o y e r h i m s e l f c o m m a n d e d , h e l d out u n t i l J u l y 11, a n d detained C r o m w e l l i n W a l e s d u r i n g the t i m e o f greatest p e r i l . T o h e a d t h e E n g l i s h i n s u r r e c t i o n , t h e queen a n d t h e P r i n c e
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o f W a l e s h a d chosen the E a r l o f H o l l a n d . I n K e n t the leaders, w h o w i s h e d t o w a i t u n t i l t h e S c o t s s h o u l d have entered E n g l a n d a n d the w h o l e a r m y s h o u l d h a v e been d r a w n n o r t h w a r d s , were forestalled b y a p o p u l a r r i s i n g o n M a y 21. T h e insurgents o c c u p i e d D a r t f o r d a n d D e p t f o r d , a n d threatened L o n d o n . H o l l a n d gave t h e m f o r a g e n e r a l t h e o l d E a r l of N o r w i c h , w h o , l i k e himself, was m o r e a c o u r t i e r t h a n a soldier. T h e crews o f several w a r s h i p s i n t h e D o w n s , incensed b y default i n the p a y m e n t o f wages, a n d b y t h e r e m o v a l o f V i c e - A d m i r a l B a t t e n , declared for the k i n g a n d seized the castles o f D e a l , S a n d o w n , a n d W a l m e r . F a i r f a x m a r c h e d w i t h 8,000 m e n i n t o K e n t , a n d o n J u n e 1 defeated the insurgents at M a i d s t o n e , w h e r e u p o n most o f t h e m dispersed to t h e i r h o m e s . W i t h 3?ooo m e n N o r w i c h retreated t o Rochester, crossed the M e d w a y a n d m a r c h e d towards L o n d o n , h o p i n g to raise the citizens. A s t h e y d i d n o t stir a n d it w a s r u m o u r e d t h a t E s s e x h a d risen, t h e earl a n d s o m e h u n d r e d s o f his followers m a d e t h e i r w a y thither. S i r C h a r l e s L u c a s , a veteran o f the c i v i l w a r w h o h e l d a c o m m i s s i o n f r o m the prince, took the lead o f t h e E s s e x m e n a n d j o i n e d N o r w i c h . T h e y resolved t o pass i n t o S u f f o l k a n d N o r f o l k , w h e r e t h e y h a d m a n y friends, but i n the h o p e o f f i n d i n g recruits t h e y t u r n e d aside t o Colchester. F a i r f a x , w h o h a d crossed the T h a m e s at T i l b u r y , m a r c h e d s w i f t l y u p o n the t o w n , enclosed it w i t h lines o f c i r c u m v a l l a t i o n , a n d sat d o w n to w a i t u n t i l its s c a n t y store o f p r o v i s i o n s s h o u l d h a v e been consumed. H o l l a n d h i m s e l f was forced i n t o u n t i m e l y action b y the disc o v e r y that a l l his measures were r e p o r t e d t o the g o v e r n m e n t . E a r l y i n J u l y he left L o n d o n f o r K i n g s t o n , where he a s s e m b l e d a few h u n d r e d horse a n d foot. H e t r i e d t o seize R e i g a t e Castle, failed, a n d fled n o r t h w a r d s , b u t was surprised a n d t a k e n at S t . N e o t s i n H u n t i n g d o n s h i r e . A l t h o u g h the r o y a l i s t i n s u r r e c t i o n h a d thus i d l y f l i c k e r e d out, t h e d a n g e r o f the p a r l i a m e n t was n o t over. T h e a r m y o f F a i r f a x was d e t a i n e d before Colchester. N i n e r e v o l t e d ships passed o v e r to the D u t c h coast, a n d the P r i n c e o f W a l e s left C a l a i s f o r the H a g u e t o i n s p i r i t the m e n . A s the t e m p e r o f t h e crews w h i c h s t i l l adhered to the p a r l i a m e n t was u n c e r t a i n , i t m i g h t lose the c o m m a n d of the sea a n d be i n v a d e d f r o m the c o n t i n e n t w h i l e the S c o t s assailed i t f r o m the n o r t h . O n A p r i l 11 the S c o t t i s h p a r l i a m e n t r e s o l v e d t h a t the t r e a t y

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b e t w e e n the t w o k i n g d o m s h a d been b r o k e n a n d t h a t t h e E n g - C H A P , l i s h s h o u l d be r e q u i r e d t o establish p r e s b y t e r i a n i s m a n d repress heresy. A t the e n d o f the m o n t h S i r M a r m a d u k e L a n g d a l e s u r p r i s e d B e r w i c k a n d other E n g l i s h r o y a l i s t s surprised C a r l i s l e . A n u l t i m a t u m f r o m the S c o t t i s h p a r l i a m e n t r e a c h e d Westm i n s t e r o n M a y 30, a n d the E n g l i s h p a r l i a m e n t r e p l i e d w i t h a n offer t o j o i n the S c o t s i n t e n d e r i n g once m o r e the p r o p o s i t i o n s offered t o the k i n g at H a m p t o n C o u r t . X h e offer w a s d i s regarded and H a m i l t o n was n a m e d commander-in-chief w i t h t h e E a r l o f C a l l a n d e r as lieutenant-general. X h e ill-will of t h e c l e r g y h i n d e r e d r e c r u i t i n g , a n d effective c o n c e r t w i t h t h e E n g l i s h cavaliers was i m p o s s i b l e , as t h e y w o u l d n o t t a k e the covenant. A t the muster o n J u l y 4? the d a y f i x e d for the i n v a s i o n o f E n g l a n d , H a m i l t o n f o u n d , instead o f the 3 0 , 0 0 0 m e n o n w h o m he h a d calculated, 1 0 , 5 0 0 ; b u t h e crossed the b o r d e r o n t h e 8th, e x p e c t i n g t o b e j o i n e d b y r e i n f o r c e m e n t s f r o m h o m e , b y L a n g d a l e w i t h 3>oo E n g l i s h m e n , a n d b y S i r G e o r g e M o n r o w i t h 3*000 S c o t s f r o m U l s t e r . Colonel Lambert, comm a n d i n g for t h e p a r l i a m e n t i n t h e n o r t h , fell b a c k towards Knaresborough. H a m i l t o n w a s so m u c h d e l a y e d b y w a i t i n g f o r reinforcements, b y b a d weather, a n d b y w a n t o f d r a u g h t a n i m a l s t h a t he d i d n o t r e a c h H o r n b y i n L a n c a s h i r e u n t i l A u g u s t 9. F o u r d a y s later, C r o m w e l l , w h o h a d been m a r c h i n g at h i s best speed f r o m S o u t h W a l e s , effected his j u n c t i o n w i t h L a m b e r t near W e t h e r b y . A l t h o u g h t h e u n i t e d force d i d n o t a m o u n t to 9,000 m e n , C r o m w e l l i n s t a n t l y set f o r t h w e s t w a r d s . W i t h 2 4 , 0 0 0 m e n H a m i l t o n w a s m o v i n g s l o w l y southwards, i n h o p e s t o raise L a n c a s h i r e a n d N o r t h W a l e s for the k i n g . He l e d the S c o t t i s h i n f a n t r y i n p e r s o n ; L a n g d a l e m a r c h e d o n h i s l e f t ; C a l l a n d e r w i t h t h e horse pushed far a h e a d to f o r a g e ; w h i l e S i r G e o r g e M u s g r a v e w i t h a n o t h e r b o d y o f E n g l i s h troops a n d M o n r o w i t h t h e U l s t e r S c o t s f o l l o w e d a t a considerable d i s tance. X h u s the invaders straggled a l o n g a line of m a n y miles f r o m n o r t h to south, offering e v e r y a d v a n t a g e t o a flank attack. O n t h e m o r n i n g o f A u g u s t 17 C r o m w e l l , m a r c h i n g d o w n t h e n o r t h b a n k of t h e K i b b l e , burst w i t h a l l his force u p o n L a n g d a l e a n d h i s m e n , w h o h a d t a k e n their p o s i t i o n i n s o m e enclosed fields h a r d b y P r e s t o n . H a m i l t o n supported them, but o n l y w i t h a d e t a c h m e n t , s e n d i n g f o r w a r d the rest o f h i s f o o t to meet t h e horse w h o h a d been s u m m o n e d to r e t u r n so t h a t t h e u n i t e d 22 *
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CHAP, mass m i g h t crush t h e e n e m y . A f t e r a g a l l a n t resistance L a n g dale's m e n were d r i v e n b a c k i n t o t h e t o w n a n d n e a r l y a l l c a p tured. X h e northern bank o f the R i b b l e at Preston commands the southern. ^vVith l i t t l e loss t h e p a r l i a m e n t a r i a n s swept t h e bridge, d r o v e t h e S c o t s across t h e D a r w e n a n d m a d e g o o d t h a t b r i d g e also. X h e r o y a l i s t s l o s t 1,000 d e a d a n d 4,000 prisoners, a n d , m o r e disastrous still, t h e i r a r m y w a s c u t i n t w a i n , the m a j o r part w i t h n o h o p e o f r e t u r n t o S c o t l a n d . X h e S c o t t i s h c a v a l r y h a d n o t come b a c k i n t i m e t o s u p p o r t the foot, a n d a l t h o u g h t h e S c o t s s t i l l o u t n u m b e r e d the v i c t o r s , t h e soldiers were out o f heart a n d t h e chiefs d i v i d e d . A t last i t w a s resolved t o m a r c h southw a r d s u n d e r c o v e r o f t h e n i g h t . A s there were n o d r a u g h t animals, t h e soldiers c o u l d t a k e o n l y t h e p o w d e r i n t h e i r flasks. X h e rest o f the a m m u n i t i o n w a s t o h a v e been b l o w n u p , b u t a l l fell i n t o C r o m w e l l ' s hands. W h e n C r o m w e l l found that H a m i l t o n had slipped away, he left C o l o n e l A s h t o n w i t h 4*000 m e n t o g u a r d P r e s t o n a g a i n s t M o n r o , a n d started i n pursuit. X h e S c o t t i s h c a v a l r y s o f a r h e l d h i m b a c k that their i n f a n t r y m a n a g e d t o reach W i g a n . Driven farther a n d farther f r o m t h e i r base, wet, weary, a n d h u n g r y , t h e Scots m a d e another n i g h t m a r c h t o g a i n t h e b r i d g e over t h e M e r s e y a t W a r r i n g t o n j b u t C r o m w e l l f o l l o w e d so h a r d t h a t t h e y were forced t o fight a t ^vVinwick, a n d were a g a i n defeated w i t h the loss o f 2,000 prisoners a n d 1,000 dead. A s t h e y fled t o wards W a r r i n g t o n m a n y t h r e w a w a y t h e i r arms, w h i c h w e r e indeed useless f o r w a n t o f p o w d e r . S o m i s e r a b l e was the p l i g h t o f the i n f a n t r y t h a t b y H a m i l t o n ' s o r d e r i t surrendered a t discret i o n , a n d 4,000 m o r e Scots b e c a m e prisoners i n W a r r i n g t o n . C r o m w e l l t h o u g h t that h e m i g h t safely t u r n back t o disperse M o n r o s force, a n d leave L a m b e r t t o pursue H a m i l t o n . After a last a t t e m p t t o reach t h e f r i e n d l y W e l s h borders H a m i l t o n t u r n e d eastwards, h o p i n g t o r e g a i n S c o t l a n d b y a detour. So l o n g a m a r c h t h r o u g h a hostile c o u n t r y was b e y o n d t h e s t r e n g t h o f m e n a n d horses w o r n o u t b y t o i l , hunger, a n d f o u l weather. A t U t t o x e t e r , i n Staffordshire, t h e c a v a l r y w o u l d g o n o f a r t h e r a n d o n t h e 25th H a m i l t o n surrendered t o L a m b e r t . I n less than a fortnight C r o m w e l l h a d well-nigh destroyed the i n v a d i n g a r m y a n d h a d c o n f o u n d e d t h e hopes o f t h e r o y a l i s t s i n b o t h kingdoms.
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X h e S c o t s w h o h a d been pressed for t h e service w e r e a l l o w e d

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t o r e t u r n h o m e o n p r o m i s i n g never t o t a k e p a r t i n a n o t h e r i n v a s i o n . X h o s e w h o h a d f r e e l y enlisted w e r e s h i p p e d o f f t o forced l a b o u r i n B a r b a d o s o r t o t h e service o f t h e V e n e t i a n r e p u b l i c . X h e g a r r i s o n o f C o l c h e s t e r , after e n d u r i n g t h e e x t r e m i t y o f hunger, surrendered o n A u g u s t 27. X h e c o m m o n soldiers were t o h a v e quarter, b u t t h e l o r d s , g e n t l e m e n , a n d s u p e r i o r officers w e r e t o be at t h e d i s c r e t i o n o f F a i r f a x . A c o u n c i l o f w a r t h e n selected L u c a s , a n d t w o o t h e r officers, S i r G e o r g e L i s l e a n d S i r B e r n a r d G a s c o i g n e , for i m m e d i a t e e x e c u t i o n . Lucas and Lisle d i e d w i t h u n s h r i n k i n g courage. Gascoigne was respited at the last m o m e n t . X h e o t h e r n o b l e s a n d officers w e r e c o m m i t t e d t o prison u n t i l parliament should pronounce their doom. X h e comm o n m e n s h a r e d t h e fate o f t h e S c o t t i s h p r i s o n e r s , a n d a c o n tribution was levied upon the town. X h i s treatment of the conquered, a n d especially the execution o f L u c a s a n d Lisle, was b i t t e r l y d e n o u n c e d b y t h e r o y a l i s t s . X h e p a r l i a m e n t a r i a n s r e p l i e d that, as a g a r r i s o n p e r s e v e r i n g i n a hopeless defence was, b y t h e received l a w s o f war, l i a b l e t o be p u t t o t h e s w o r d , t h e e x e c u t i o n o f t w o o f t h e leaders w a s c o m p a r a t i v e l e n i t y . It is t h e n a t u r e o f c i v i l w a r t o g r o w m o r e c r u e l t h e l o n g e r i t lasts. A t the time when H a m i l t o n was preparing for w a r he i n vited the Prince of W a l e s to Scotland, but the prince would not c o m e unless h e w e r e a l l o w e d t o use t h e P r a y e r B o o k . Wnen w a r h a d b e g u n L a u d e r d a l e w a s sent w i t h a p u b l i c i n v i t a t i o n t o t h e p r i n c e . B e f o r e h e c a m e t h e p r i n c e w e n t a b o a r d t h e fleet a n d sailed f o r t h e E n g l i s h coast. I f the royalists h a d waged t h e w a r b y l a n d o n a n y r e a s o n a b l e scheme, t h e fleet w o u l d h a v e b e e n m o s t useful i n c o n n e c t i n g a n d s u p p o r t i n g t h e i r o p e r a t i o n s a n d h a r a s s i n g those o f t h e e n e m y ; b u t i n t h e a c t u a l course o f e v e n t s i t p r o v e d a l m o s t useless. Lauderdale arrived, a n d o n the eve o f the battle o f P r e s t o n Charles accepted the Scottish i n v i t a t i o n , a b a r r e n sacrifice. W^ant o f w a t e r a n d p r o v i s i o n s e n forced a return t o D u t c h waters at the beginning o f September, a n d the fall o f S a n d o w n Castle ended the w a r i n the south. A revolution i n Scotland completed the puritan victory. O n C r o m w e l l ' s a p p r o a c h M o n r o beat a retreat a n d t h e terrified c o m m i t t e e o f estates g a v e o r d e r s t h a t n o E n g l i s h m a n w h o h a d See Mcnioivs of the Duchess of Newcastle, edited by Professor Firth, Appendix, for a discussion of this question.
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CHAP, fought i n t h e i r a r m y s h o u l d b e a d m i t t e d i n t o S c o t l a n d . T h e * m i n i s t e r s everywhere d e n o u n c e d t h e c o m m i t t e e , A r g y l e s u m m o n e d his c l a n s m e n t o a r m s , a n d t h e w e s t - c o u n t r y covenanters rose u n d e r L o r d E g l i n t o n a n d seized E d i n b u r g h . T h e c o m m i t t e e surrendered i t s powers a n d agreed t h a t a l l w h o h a d t a k e n t h e s a m e side s h o u l d r e s i g n t h e i r offices, thus l e a v i n g A r g y l e a n d his friends supreme. C r o m w e l l crossed t h e T w e e d , a n d c a m e t o a full u n d e r s t a n d i n g w i t h A r g y l e . Berwick and C a r l i s l e were restored t o t h e E n g l i s h , a n d L a m b e r t w i t h a s t r o n g b o d y o f horse a n d d r a g o o n s o c c u p i e d E d i n b u r g h , where the c o v e n a n t i n g chiefs p r e s u m e d t o a c t as a c o m m i t t e e o f estates. I n a v i s i t t o E d i n b u r g h , C r o m w e l l o b t a i n e d a n assurance t h a t t h e u p h o l d e r s o f t h e e n g a g e m e n t w o u l d b e e x c l u d e d f r o m office. A l t h o u g h there c o u l d b e n o true c o r d i a l i t y b e tween t h e S c o t t i s h K i r k a n d t h e E n g l i s h independents, t h e y h a d c o m m o n foes a n d c o u l d render m u t u a l services. "When C r o m w e l l r e t u r n e d t o E n g l a n d , h e left L a m b e r t a n d t w o r e g i ments t o protect A r g y l e a n d h i s colleagues against a n y desperate followers o f H a m i l t o n o r M o n t r o s e ,
x v 1

A t t h e m o m e n t w h e n t h e k i n g ' s hopes i n S c o t l a n d were e x t i n g u i s h e d , h e f o u n d n e w hopes i n I r e l a n d . A f t e r O r m o n d ' s surrender t o t h e E n g l i s h p a r l i a m e n t i n F e b r u a r y , 1647, there f o l l o w e d a c r i t i c a l season w h i c h t h e I r i s h wasted f o r l a c k o f unity. I n J u n e C o l o n e l M i c h a e l J o n e s a r r i v e d w i t h a force o f p a r l i a m e n t a r y troops, a n d i n J u l y O r m o n d l a i d d o w n his office. P r e s t o n threatened D u b l i n , b u t o n A u g u s t 8 J o n e s defeated h i m w i t h great slaughter a t D u n g a n H i l l . Monk, who had j o i n e d t h e p a r l i a m e n t a n d w a s sent t o c o m m a n d i n U l s t e r , also t o o k t h e offensive w i t h v i g o u r a n d success, w h i l e L o r d I n c h i q u i n , t h e president o f M u n s t e r , pressed t h e confederates h a r d i n t h e south. T h e s e disasters shook R i n u c c i n i ' s i n f l u ence, a n d t h e m e m b e r s o f t h e s u p r e m e c o u n c i l w h o m h e h a d deposed r e g a i n e d power, a n d sent c o m m i s s i o n e r s t o t h e queen with a n invitation for the Prince o f Wales. I n M a r c h , 1648, I n c h i q u i n d e c l a r e d f o r t h e k i n g a n d t h e Scots. ^With t h e e x p e c t a t i o n o f e s t a b l i s h i n g i n I r e l a n d a r o y a l i s t p a r t y able t o c o n t r o l the n u n c i o , t h e queen received the c o m m i s s i o n e r s f a v o u r a b l y a n d n a m e d O r m o n d l o r d lieutenant. B u t the nuncio was enraged, n o t s u b d u e d ; a n d O ' N e i l l a d h e r e d t o h i m , as t h e A n g l o * Caxlyle,
CrotnweW's Letters and Speeches,

Letters Ixx.-lxxrx.

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I r i s h nobles d i d t o the s u p r e m e c o u n c i l . T h u s the o p p o r t u n i t y a f f o r d e d i n the s u m m e r o f 1648 was lost. O r m o n d d i d n o t p r o ceed to Ireland until October. It was intended that the prince should winter i n Jersey and that Rupert, who had lately taken c o m m a n d o f t h e fleet, s h o u l d k e e p o p e n a c o m m u n i c a t i o n w i t h Ireland. W h e n asked to disavow O r m o n d Charles replied that h e h a d c o m m i t t e d t h e sole m a n a g e m e n t o f t h e I r i s h w a r t o t h e houses a n d therefore s h o u l d be pressed n o further. W h i l e t h e p a r l i a m e n t was c o n t e n d i n g against t h e r o y a l i s t r e a c t i o n , t h e o l d s c h i s m , for o n e m o m e n t h e a l e d , r e o p e n e d bet w e e n its supporters. A l t h o u g h t h e p r e s b y t e r i a n s w e r e so far h o s t i l e t o the S c o t s t h a t t h e y c o u l d n o t bear t o r e s i g n a l l the p o l i t i c a l liberties g a i n e d i n t h e c i v i l w a r , t h e y were a l m o s t as hostile to the a r m y , where republican a n d levelling principles were proclaimed more a n d more loudly. T h e y wanted a k i n g u p o n their o w n conditions, above all a k i n g b o u n d to u p h o l d presbytery a n d extirpate heresy a n d schism, a n d they still fancied that they might find such a k i n g i n Charles. When the approach of war h a d w i t h d r a w n the troops f r o m L o n d o n a n d W e s t m i n s t e r , t h e p r e s b y t e r i a n s a g a i n r a i s e d t h e i r heads i n the c i t y a n d the parliament. I n M a y t h e y passed a n o r d i n a n c e m a k i n g h e r e s y a n d b l a s p h e m y c a p i t a l c r i m e s . O n A u g u s t 24 t h e houses r e p e a l e d the v o t e o f n o addresses, a n d o n S e p t e m b e r 18 a fresh n e g o t i a t i o n w a s b e g u n a t N e w p o r t i n t h e Isle o f W i g h t . I t was t o last f o r t y d a y s , a n d t h e k i n g , after g i v i n g h i s p a r o l e , w a s a l l o w e d t o reside i n t h e t o w n . F i f t e e n c o m m i s s i o n e r s , i n c l u d i n g independents like V a n e a n d L o r d Saye, tendered h i m o n c e m o r e the p r o p o s i t i o n s o f H a m p t o n C o u r t . C h a r l e s def e n d e d h i s p o s i t i o n step b y step w i t h s p i r i t a n d a b i l i t y , b u t w i t h a strange blindness to his extreme danger. W i t h equal blindness the presbyterians required h i m to establish their form o f C h u r c h g o v e r n m e n t , t o t a k e t h e c o v e n a n t h i m s e l f a n d cause e v e r y b o d y t o d o l i k e w i s e . T h e i n d e p e n d e n t m e m b e r s o f the c o m m i s s i o n w o u l d w i l l i n g l y h a v e g o n e b a c k to t h e p r i n c i p l e o f t o l e r a t i o n adopted i n the H e a d s of the Proposals. T h e k i n g repeated his o l d offers, a n d e v e n e n l a r g e d t h e m i n t h e h o p e o f g a i n i n g t i m e f o r flight. H i s s c h e m e f o r t h e settlement o f t h e C h u r c h w a s r e j e c t e d b y the house o f c o m m o n s o n O c t o b e r 27, a n d , a l t h o u g h t h e n e g o t i a t i o n w a s n o t d r o p p e d , i t h a d n o m o r e c h a n c e o f success.
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S i n c e the previous y e a r a n u m b e r o f persons i n the a r m y h a d b e e n c o n v i n c e d t h a t the k i n g o u g h t n o t to be restored o n a n y terms whatever, but b r o u g h t t o t r i a l a n d deposed as a p u b l i c enemy. T h e events o f 1648 s t r e n g t h e n e d this p a r t y a n d gave the a r m y power to execute a n y r e s o l u t i o n o n w h i c h i t m i g h t agree. Ireton d r e w u p the R e m o n s t r a n c e o f the A r m y , i n w h i c h he argued t h a t i t was impossible to f r a m e terms w h i c h w o u l d b i n d the k i n g , a n d just t o e x e c u t e h i m as a traitor for his a t t e m p t t o t u r n a l i m i t e d i n t o a n absolute m o n a r c h y . H e also d e m a n d e d t h a t the P r i n c e o f W a l e s a n d D u k e o f Y o r k s h o u l d be s u m m o n e d t o s t a n d t h e i r t r i a l , a n d i n default be declared i n c a p a b l e o f g o v e r n i n g a n d sentenced t o death. A c e r t a i n n u m b e r o f the k i n g ' s adherents, he a d d e d , should suffer t h e same p e n a l t y . P r o b a b l y o n Ireton's m o t i o n , F a i r f a x s u m m o n e d a c o u n c i l o f officers t o meet at S t . A l b a n ' s o n N o v e m b e r 7> b u t instead o f a d o p t i n g Ireton's views, i t resolved t o break i n u p o n the t r e a t y o f N e w p o r t b y t e n d e r i n g t o the k i n g certain proposals w h i c h h e eluded. T h e n the c o u n c i l o f officers a d o p t e d the R e m o n s t r a n c e a n d presented it t o the house o f c o m m o n s . T h e p r e s b y t e r i a n m e m b e r s i g n o r e d it, a n d tried to g a i n the k i n g b y m e r e l y b a n i s h i n g t h e leaders i n t h e second c i v i l w a r . A l t h o u g h C h a r l e s w o u l d m a k e n o m o r e ecclesiastical concessions, t h e y p r o l o n g e d the t i m e o f the treaty. B u t the time of their o w n power h a d a l m o s t e x p i r e d . C r o m w e l l h a d at l e n g t h accepted the conclusions set f o r t h i n the R e m o n s t r a n c e , a n d w i t h h i s h e l p its partisans b e c a m e masters o f the a r m y , f o r F a i r f a x , whose r a n k a n d services alone c o u l d counterpoise C r o m w e l l s, was m o r e t h a n ever p e r p l e x e d a n d uncertain.
1

T h e c o u n c i l o f officers decided first to secure the k i n g ' s person b y r e m o v i n g h i m to H u r s t Castle, situated at the e n d o f a l o n g s p i t o f l a n d w h i c h half-closes t h e western entrance o f the S o l e n t . A t d a y b r e a k o n D e c e m b e r 1 Charles was t a k e n thither a n d there he r e m a i n e d for eighteen fateful days. In the house o f c o m m o n s N o v e m b e r 27 h a d been a p p o i n t e d for a debate o n the R e m o n s t r a n c e , b u t the subject was odious t o m o s t o f the m e m b e r s a n d the debate was adjourned. T h e n t h e officers resolved t h a t the a r m y s h o u l d enter L o n d o n t o put c o n straint u p o n the houses. I n a p u b l i c d e c l a r a t i o n t h e y appealed
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f r o m the e x i s t i n g p a r l i a m e n t " u n t o the e x t r a o r d i n a r y j u d g m e n t of G o d and good people'. T h e y a n n o u n c e d its a p p r o a c h i n g d i s s o l u t i o n a n d the election o f a n e w p a r l i a m e n t . Meantime t h e m e m b e r s , f a i t h f u l t o t h e i r trust, w e r e i n v i t e d t o seek the p r o t e c t i o n o f the a r m y w h i c h w o u l d u p h o l d t h e i r a u t h o r i t y . O n D e c e m b e r 2 t h e a r m y o c c u p i e d L o n d o n . T h r e e d a y s later the presbyterian members carried a resolution that the k i n g h a d been r e m o v e d t o H u r s t C a s t l e w i t h o u t t h e k n o w l e d g e o r c o n s e n t o f the house, a n d a n o t h e r r e s o l u t i o n t h a t t h e k i n g ' s answers t o the late p r o p o s i t i o n s were g r o u n d s f o r t h e settlem e n t of the k i n g d o m . T h i s defiance o f t h e a r m y b y t h e c o m m o n s left the m i l i t a r y chiefs n o a l t e r n a t i v e b u t t o dissolve o r to p u r g e the p a r l i a m e n t . A s t h o s e m e m b e r s w h o s u p p o r t e d t h e m w e r e adverse t o a d i s solution a n d it was probable that a general election w o u l d r e t u r n a house o f c o m m o n s e v e n m o r e hostile, t h e y r e s o l v e d t o p u r g e r a t h e r t h a n dissolve. ^/Vithout orders f r o m F a i r f a x t h e a p p r o a c h e s o f t h e house w e r e o c c u p i e d b y soldiers e a r l y o n the m o r n i n g o f the 6th. C o l o n e l P r i d e was i n c o m m a n d , a n d L o r d G r e y of G r o b y pointed out the obnoxious members, w h o w e r e t u r n e d b a c k , a n d , i f t h e y resisted, w e r e p u t u n d e r arrest. I n t h e a f t e r n o o n the p r i s o n e r s w e r e r e m o v e d t o a n a d j o i n i n g t a v e r n , k n o w n as H e l l , w h e r e t h e y spent the n i g h t i n s o m e discomfort. O n the s a m e d a y C r o m w e l l a r r i v e d i n L o n d o n a n d d e c l a r e d his a p p r o v a l o f w h a t h a d been done. The next m o r n i n g h e t o o k h i s seat a n d received t h e t h a n k s o f t h e house f o r h i s victories. Y e t t h e r e s t i l l were s o m e w h o w i n c e d u n d e r t h e c o n s t r a i n t o f m i l i t a r y p o w e r , a n d o n t h e 8th t h e c o m m o n s a d j o u r n e d f o r a few days. I n all, forty-seven members h a d b e e n arrested a n d n i n e t y - s i x h a d b e e n t u r n e d b a c k , a n d , after t h e a d j o u r n m e n t , others s t a y e d a w a y o f t h e i r o w n accord. At t h i s p o i n t t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e l o n g p a r l i a m e n t m a y b e s a i d to close. T h e r e m n a n t , the r u m p , as i t was afterwards c a l l e d , d i d n o t represent t h e n a t i o n ; i t w a s a m e r e g r o u p o f p u b l i c m e n d e p e n d i n g for p o w e r a n d e v e n f o r safety u p o n t h e soldiers. T h e house once m o r e e x p e l l e d a l l t h a t were left o f the eleven m e m b e r s , r e a f f i r m e d t h e v o t e o f n o addresses, a n d repealed the votes a u t h o r i s i n g t h e t r e a t y o f N e w p o r t a n d a l l o w i n g H a m i l t o n a n d other leaders i n the second c i v i l w a r t o a t o n e for t h e i r offence b y fine o r b a n i s h m e n t . T h e officers sent M a j o r

I >

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H a r r i s o n , a stern, u n w a v e r i n g enthusiast, t o b r i n g the k i n g t o Windsor. E v e n t h e n t h e y w e r e i n d o u b t h o w t o act, for, w h a t ever t h e y m i g h t t h i n k o f t h e k i n g ' s g u i l t , t h e y k n e w t h a t the nation w o u l d not approve his punishment a n d that m a n y of t h e i r o w n friends w i s h e d t o spare his life. X h e y m a d e a last overture t h r o u g h L o r d D e n b i g h , b u t t h e k i n g w o u l d n o t even g r a n t h i m a n i n t e r v i e w . T h u s e n d e d t h e l o n g series o f n e g o t i a tions between C h a r l e s a n d his conquerors. Orders were at once g i v e n t o reduce the k i n g ' s a t t e n d a n t s a n d forbear the c e r e m o n i a l w h i c h even to t h a t t i m e h a d been m a i n t a i n e d a r o u n d h i m . T h e c o m m o n s a d o p t e d a r e s o l u t i o n that, b y the f u n d a m e n t a l laws o f this k i n g d o m , i t is treason i n the K i n g o f E n g l a n d for t h e t i m e b e i n g t o l e v y w a r against t h e p a r l i a m e n t a n d k i n g d o m o f E n g l a n d . T h e y passed o n J a n u a r y 1, 1649? a n o r d i n a n c e e r e c t i n g a h i g h c o u r t o f justice for the k i n g ' s trial. T h e v e r y few peers w h o s t i l l sat rejected the o r d i n ance a n d resolution, a n d a d j o u r n e d f o r a w e e k i n the h o p e o f g i v i n g pause t o the l o w e r house. T h e c o m m o n s reaffirmed their resolution a n d passed a n e w a n d s l i g h t l y different o r d i n a n c e , w h i c h n a m e d 135 c o m m i s s i o n e r s t o t r y the k i n g . N e x t d a y t h e y passed three m o r e resolutions * " T h a t t h e people are, u n d e r G o d , t h e o r i g i n a l o f a l l just p o w e r , t h a t the c o m m o n s o f E n g l a n d , i n p a r l i a m e n t assembled, b e i n g chosen b y a n d r e p r e s e n t i n g the people, h a v e t h e s u p r e m e p o w e r i n t h i s n a t i o n j t h a t whatsoever is e n a c t e d o r d e c l a r e d for l a w b y the c o m m o n s i n p a r l i a m e n t assembled, h a t h the force o f l a w a n d a l l the people o f t h i s n a t i o n are c o n c l u d e d thereby, a l t h o u g h t h e consent a n d c o n c u r r e n c e o f the k i n g o r house o f peers be n o t h a d t h e r e u n t o . " C o n f o r m a b l y w i t h these resolutions t h e t e r m o r d i n a n c e w a s discarded a n d t h e act e r e c t i n g a h i g h c o u r t was passed o n J a n u a r y 6. I t n a m e d a m o n g t h e c o m m i s s i o n e r s a l m o s t e v e r y pers o n o f account, c i v i l o r m i l i t a r y , w h o c o u l d be t h o u g h t w i l l i n g to accept t h e dangerous h o n o u r o f a seat o n this u n p r e c e d e n t e d t r i b u n a l ; y e t so w i d e s p r e a d a n d so p o w e r f u l w a s the s e n t i m e n t against b r i n g i n g a s o v e r e i g n t o t r i a l , a n d s u c h w e r e the d o u b t s a n d scruples even o f those w h o h a d b o r n e p a r t i n the latest revolution, t h a t w h e n the h i g h c o u r t o f justice first assembled, o n J a n u a r y 8, o n l y f i f t y - t w o o f the c o m m i s s i o n e r s a n s w e r e d t o
1

^ St cite Trials,

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t h e i r names. S o m e w h o appeared then, l i k e F a i r f a x , appeared C H A P , n o m o r e . W h e n the court m e t a s e c o n d t i m e , o n the 10th, i t chose S e r g e a n t B r a d s h a w , a respectable lawyer, as president, a n d a n o t h e r l a w y e r , J o h n C o o k , as s o l i c i t o r t o the c o m m o n w e a l t h . A few d a y s w e r e spent i n s e t t l i n g t h e p r o c e d u r e , a n d i n p r e p a r i n g t h e c h a r g e against the k i n g , w h o was b r o u g h t f r o m W i n d s o r t o S t . James's Palace. O r d e r was g i v e n t h a t t h e t r i a l s h o u l d be h e l d i n W e s t m i n s t e r H a l l , a n d t h a t d u r i n g its p r o gress t h e k i n g s h o u l d be l o d g e d i n C o t t o n H o u s e , n o t far d i s t a n t , p r o b a b l y lest his frequent p a s s i n g to a n d fro s h o u l d heighten that popular compassion which, impotent though it was, e x p r e s s e d itself l o u d l y i n a l l quarters. J a n u a r y 20 was a p p o i n t e d for t h e first d a y o f t h e trial* E v e n i n the h a l l the v o i c e o f protest was raised, for w h e n t h e c l e r k c a l l i n g the r o l l o f - the c o m m i s s i o n e r s p r o n o u n c e d t h e n a m e o f F a i r f a x , a l a d y a n s w e r e d f r o m the g a l l e r y , " H e has m o r e w i t t h a n t o be here S i x t y - e i g h t commissioners, oneh a l f of the whole body, answered to the call. T h e k i n g was b r o u g h t t o a c r i m s o n c h a i r i n f r o n t o f t h e bar, w h e r e h e sat d o w n , careless a n d u n m o v e d , r e f r a i n i n g f r o m a n y act w h i c h might i m p l y recognition of the tribunal. B e h i n d h i m were r a n g e d C o l o n e l H a c k e r ' s m e n , t o w h o m the g u a r d o f his p e r s o n was c o m m i t t e d . Colonel A x t e l l w i t h a strong detachment held b a c k t h e c r o w d w h i c h was a d m i t t e d to the farther e n d o f t h e hall. C o o k read t h e charge, w h i c h set f o r t h t h a t C h a r l e s S t u a r t , b e i n g a d m i t t e d K i n g o f E n g l a n d w i t h a l i m i t e d power, o u t o f a w i c k e d d e s i g n t o erect a n u n l i m i t e d p o w e r , h a d t r a i t o r o u s l y l e v i e d w a r against t h e p a r l i a m e n t a n d people o f E n g l a n d , t h e r e b y c a u s i n g t h e d e a t h o f m a n y thousands, a n d h a d repeated a n d p e r severed i n his offence. O n these g r o u n d s h e i m p e a c h e d C h a r l e s S t u a r t as a t y r a n t , traitor, m u r d e r e r , a n d a p u b l i c a n d i m p l a c a b l e e n e m y o f the c o m m o n w e a l t h o f E n g l a n d . T h e n B r a d s h a w , i n t h e n a m e o f t h e g o o d people o f E n g l a n d , r e q u i r e d t h e k i n g t o a n s w e r t h e charge. I t is a l i e , " c r i e d the same voice, " n o t a h a l f n o r a quarter o f the p e o p l e o f E n g l a n d . " A x t e l l w o u l d h a v e h a d his m e n fire i n t o t h e g a l l e r y , b u t t h e y forbore, a n d o n i n q u i r y L a d y F a i r f a x was f o u n d t o h a v e u t t e r e d those d a r i n g words. W^hen she h a d w i t h d r a w n t h e k i n g a s k e d b y w h a t a u t h o r i t y h e was c a l l e d t o answer. B r a d s h a w r e p l i e d b y t h e
1 c<

* Rushworth, vii., 139^*

348 CHAP,

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a u t h o r i t y o f t h e people w h i c h h a d elected h i m k i n g . C h a r l e s r e p l i e d t h a t he was k i n g b y i n h e r i t a n c e a n d m i g h t n o t a n s w e r save to l a w f u l a u t h o r i t y . A s he persisted i n his refusal, h e was remanded to Cotton House. O n the n e x t d a y but one the k i n g was a g a i n b r o u g h t t o the bar. W h e n he w o u l d h a v e u r g e d a g a i n his reasons for d e n y i n g the j u r i s d i c t i o n o f the court, h e was i n t e r r u p t e d b y B r a d s h a w , w h o at last o r d e r e d the guards t o t a k e a w a y the prisoner. O n the f o l l o w i n g d a y the k i n g was b r o u g h t t o the bar for the t h i r d t i m e a n d C o o k d e m a n d e d j u d g m e n t . Again B r a d s h a w r e q u i r e d h i m to answer, a g a i n the k i n g d e c l a r e d t h a t he s t o o d f o r t h e l i b e r t y o f the people o f E n g l a n d , w h i c h w o u l d suffer i f h e a c k n o w l e d g e d a n u n l a w f u l j u r i s d i c t i o n . A f t e r s o m e v a i n a l t e r c a t i o n B r a d s h a w o r d e r e d the c l e r k to r e c o r d the default, a n d the k i n g was r e m o v e d f r o m the h a l l . Sentence against C h a r l e s as contumacious s h o u l d h a v e f o l l o w e d , b u t the judges were n o t u n a n i m o u s . S o m e s c r u p l e d to p r o n o u n c e the irrevocable d o o m o r t r e m b l e d a t t h e t h o u g h t o f a l l t h e enemies t h a t d o o m must m a k e . T h e p e o p l e at l a r g e w e r e k n o w n to p i t y the k i n g ; t h e l o r d g e n e r a l m i g h t i n t e r v e n e b y f o r c e ; the S c o t t i s h c o m m i s s i o n e r s h a d protested t h r i c e against the a r r a i g n m e n t o f a K i n g o f S c o t l a n d before a n E n g l i s h t r i b u n a l . P e r h a p s w i t h the hope of g a i n i n g t i m e to c o m p o s e the dissensions between its m e m b e r s , the c o u r t spent t w o d a y s i n t a k i n g evidence o f the acts c h a r g e d against t h e k i n g . D u r i n g this i n t e r v a l C r o m w e l l , I r e t o n , a n d other i n f l e x i b l e m e n s o l i c i t e d t h e i r w a v e r i n g colleagues s o effectually t h a t the c o u r t at l e n g t h resolved t o pass sentence, a n d the death-warrant was a c t u a l l y d r a w n u p a n d s i g n e d b y s o m e o f the judges. W h e n Charles was b r o u g h t t o the b a r o n J a n u a r y 27, h e d e s i r e d that sentence m i g h t n o t be g i v e n u n t i l h e h a d been h e a r d before the l o r d s and commons i n the painted chamber. T h e judges withdrew to consider this request, w h i c h , after s o m e debate, was refused. W h e n t h e y h a d once m o r e t a k e n their seats i n the h a l l , B r a d shaw justified t h e i r d e c i s i o n at l e n g t h a n d o r d e r e d the c l e r k t o read the sentence. C h a r l e s , s t i l l p r o t e s t i n g , w a s l e d out a m i d cries of " J u s t i c e " a n d " E x e c u t i o n , " a n d was t a k e n to W h i t e h a l l a n d thence to S t . James's P a l a c e .
1
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E v e n a m o n g those m e m b e r s o f the h i g h c o u r t w h o h a d C H A P , j o i n e d i n p a s s i n g sentence s o m e hesitated l o n g before t h e y * signed the death-warrant. I t w a s f i n a l l y s i g n e d b y fifty-eight o f t h e judges, a m o n g w h o m C r o m w e l l a n d I r e t o n , L u d l o w a n d M a r t e n , H u t c h i n s o n a n d H a r r i s o n were the m o s t d i s t i n g u i s h e d . E x e c u t i o n was to be d o n e on J a n u a r y 30 a n d i n t h e o p e n street before the b a n q u e t i n g house of W h i t e h a l l , the o n l y f i n i s h e d p a r t o f t h a t vast a n d s u m p t u o u s palace w h i c h J a m e s a n d C h a r l e s h a d designed to replace the W h i t e h a l l o f the Tudors. E f f o r t s w e r e s t i l l m a d e to save the k i n g . T h e ass e m b l y o f d i v i n e s p e t i t i o n e d for h i s life, the a m b a s s a d o r s o f the S t a t e s G e n e r a l offered their intercession, the P r i n c e o f W a l e s sent a b l a n k sheet o f paper b e a r i n g h i s a r m s a n d s u b s c r i p t i o n w h i c h t h e p a r l i a m e n t m i g h t f i l l w i t h w h a t t e r m s i t pleased i n r e t u r n f o r s p a r i n g h i s father. T h e s t e m masters o f E n g l a n d , w h o b e l i e v e d themselves t o be d o i n g a s o l e m n act o f p u b l i c justice, w e r e n o t thus to be s h a k e n i n t h e i r purpose. Charles h i m s e l f banished idle hope a n d w i t h the help of J u x o n , B i s h o p o f L o n d o n , spent a l l his h o u r s i n d e v o u t p r e p a r a t i o n for death. H e was a l l o w e d to t a k e f a r e w e l l o f t h e P r i n c e s s E l i z a b e t h a n d o f H e n r y , D u k e o f Gloucester, w h o alone a m o n g h i s c h i l d r e n remained in England.
x v

O n t h e m o r n i n g o f T u e s d a y , J a n u a r y 30, C h a r l e s rose e a r l y and continued in prayer and meditation until Colonel H a c k e r k n o c k e d at the door. T h e n , a c c o m p a n i e d b y J u x o n , a g u a r d o f h a l b e r d i e r s before a n d b e h i n d , h e w a l k e d across t h e p a r k b e t w e e n t h e l o n g lines o f i n f a n t r y w h i l e t h e d e a f e n i n g r o l l o f m a n y drums shook the frosty air. A t W h i t e h a l l h e h a d to wait for some time. A b o u t two o'clock C o l o n e l H a c k e r called h i m forth, and J u x o n followed. O n t h e scaffold s t o o d C o l o n e l H a c k e r a n d a n o t h e r officer a n d t w o m e n d i s g u i s e d w i t h m a s k s . A r o u n d i t w e r e r a n g e d dense masses o f horse a n d foot, a n d bey o n d t h e m was a m i g h t y multitude w h i c h had come i n m i n g l e d c u r i o s i t y a n d s o r r o w t o b e h o l d a sight as y e t u n p a r a l l e l e d i n t h e history of E n g l a n d and of Christendom. F i n d i n g that his voice c o u l d n o t r e a c h the people, C h a r l e s addressed a few w o r d s t o those w h o s t o o d about h i m . H e d i s c l a i m e d the g u i l t o f the c i v i l w a r , b u t o w n e d that, f o r a n u n j u s t sentence w h i c h he h a d suffered t o t a k e effect, he was p u n i s h e d b y a n unjust sentence u p o n h i m self. H e w a r n e d h i s hearers t h a t t h e y were out o f t h e l a w f u l

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CHAP, w a y a n d c o u l d n o t p r o s p e r u n t i l t h e y g a v e w h a t was d u e t o * G o d , t h e k i n g a n d the people. " F o r t h e people, t r u l y I desire t h e i r l i b e r t y a n d f r e e d o m as m u c h as a n y b o d y whosoever, b u t I m u s t t e l l y o u t h a t t h e i r l i b e r t y a n d t h e i r freedom consists i n h a v i n g o f g o v e r n m e n t those laws b y w h i c h t h e i r life a n d t h e i r goods m a y be m o s t t h e i r o w n . I t is n o t f o r h a v i n g share i n government, sirs, t h a t is n o t h i n g p e r t a i n i n g t o t h e m , a subject a n d a sovereign a r e c l e a n different things, a n d therefore u n t i l y o u d o that, I m e a n t h a t y o u d o p u t t h e p e o p l e i n that l i b e r t y as I say, c e r t a i n l y t h e y w i l l never e n j o y t h e m s e l v e s . "
x v 1

A f t e r m a k i n g a last profession o f f a i t h , C h a r l e s gathered his h a i r u n d e r a cap, t o o k off h i s c l o a k a n d h i s G e o r g e w h i c h he gave t o J u x o n , w i t h the o n e w o r d " R e m e m b e r , " a n d l a i d h i m s e l f d o w n u p o n t h e b l o c k . H e breathed a s h o r t p r a y e r a n d stretched f o r t h h i s hands, t h e a p p o i n t e d s i g n a l . T h e e x e c u tioner severed t h e h e a d f r o m t h e b o d y at one b l o w , a n d h e l d i t u p t o the v i e w o f the c r o w d , w h i c h answered w i t h a fearful groan. W h e n t h e b o d y h a d been e m b a l m e d a n d coffined, i t was borne to S t . James's P a l a c e a n d thence, as t h e r u l i n g p o w e r s w o u l d n o t a l l o w its i n t e r m e n t i n the c h a p e l o f H e n r y V I I . , t o S t George's C h a p e l i n W i n d s o r Castle, w h e r e i t was l a i d t o rest T h e D u k e o f R i c h m o n d a n d a f e w other nobles f o l l o w e d their master s hearse, b u t J u x o n was n o t suffered t o read t h e burial service."* T h o s e w h o j u d g e C h a r l e s w i t h c a n d o u r w i l l n o t doubt t h a t he was sincere i n h i s p o l i t i c a l a n d religious o p i n i o n s . From i n f a n c y h e h a d been taught t h a t p r e r o g a t i v e c a n n o t b e restrained b y law, a n d t h a t a k i n g s h o u l d m a k e h i s subjects c o n f o r m t o the true C h u r c h . Peaceable remonstrance, a r m e d o p p o s i t i o n , defeat a n d disaster, a p r i s o n , a n d t h e a p p r o a c h o f d e a t h c o u l d not m o d i f y these c o n v i c t i o n s . T h o s e w h o w i t h s t o o d h i m were bad subjects a n d b a d C h r i s t i a n s w h o m i t w a s his r i g h t , o r r a t h e r his d u t y , t o q u e l l even b y means r e p u g n a n t t o w o r l d l y h o n o u r , such as double intrigues o r foreign w e a p o n s . H a d C h a r l e s been restored t o the throne, i t is probable, apart f r o m t h e lassitude o f a d v a n c i n g years, t h a t h e w o u l d h a v e f o l l o w e d once m o r e t h e course w h i c h l e d t o h i s d o w n f a l l . T o o m u c h i n earnest f o r frank submission t o circumstances, a n d t o o u n t r u s t w o r t h y f o r
2

* Whitelocke, Memorials, p. 375* Sir Thomas Herbert, Memoirs, pp. 194-207 (ed. 1813).

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a n y c o m p a c t to b i n d , he exasperated enemies w h o h a d b e g u n w i t h s h o w i n g forbearance u n t i l t h e y w o u l d be content o n l y w i t h his death. T h a t his t r i a l a n d e x e c u t i o n were i l l e g a l needs n o proof, a n d t h a t t h e y s h o c k e d nine-tenths o f his subjects is certain. I t was inequitable to treat a leader i n a c i v i l w a r as a n o r d i n a r y c r i m i n a l for acts w h i c h he c o u l d not have c o m m i t t e d w i t h o u t the assent a n d help o f a great p a r t o f the n a t i o n . It was i m p o l i t i c t o p u n i s h an offending sovereign i n such a w a y as to m a k e h i m a m a r t y r a n d transfer his c l a i m s to a y o u n g m a n w h o was s t i l l innocent. Y e t , i f we a l l o w for the passions of the t i m e a n d the p r o v o c a t i o n w h i c h Charles h a d given, w e shall r e a d i l y understand h o w h o n e s t m e n m i g h t deem t h e m selves b o u n d to exact the uttermost p e n a l t y a n d b y a n a w f u l precedent establish, w h a t lawyers a n d theologians h a d so l o n g denied, that k i n g s are responsible t o their subjects.

**AP.

CHAPTER

XVI.

T H E ESTABLISHMENT OF T H E COMMONWEALTH.

CHAP.

U N T I L t h e k i n g ' s death t h e i m m e m o r i a l c o n s t i t u t i o n o f E n g l a n d h a d r e m a i n e d intact, a l t h o u g h its o p e r a t i o n h a d oeen suspended b y the d i s o r d e r o f the t i m e . N e w constitutions h a d , i n d e e d , been p r o p o s e d , b u t p a r l i a m e n t h a d d o n e n o t h i n g t o displace t h e o l d . W h e n t h e m i l i t a r y chiefs resolved u p o n t r y i n g a n d punishing the k i n g , Ireton agreed w i t h L i l b u r n e t h a t a c o m m i t t e e , p a r t l y o f soldiers, p a r t l y o f c i v i l i a n s , s h o u l d elaborate t h e m o d e l o f a n e w r e p u b l i c o n t h e basis o f the agreement o f t h e people. T h e o u t c o m e o f t h e i r w o r k was p u b l i s h e d i n D e c e m b e r , 1648, a n d w i t h s o m e a m e n d m e n t s was s u b m i t t e d b y t h e c o u n c i l o f officers t o t h e c o m m o n s . A t the t i m e o f t h e k i n g ' s t r i a l n o m a n h a d a n y t h o u g h t t o spare for legislation, a n d after his e x e c u t i o n t h e r e v i s e d a g r e e m e n t w a s found impracticable. It w o u l d have established a democratic commonwealth and insured a n early dissolution of parliament. B u t such was t h e state o f affairs w i t h i n a n d w i t h o u t , t h a t a dissolution w o u l d p r o b a b l y h a v e resulted i n a n a r c h y o r i n a s p e e d y r e t u r n to o l d i n s t i t u t i o n s . T h a t r e m n a n t o f t h e house o f c o m m o n s w h i c h w i e l d e d s o v e r e i g n t y a n d t h e officers w h o u p h e l d it w e r e content t o m a k e s u c h changes as t h e y d e e m e d essential, d e f e r r i n g the rest to a t i m e o f m o r e quiet. T h e c o m m o n s began w i t h e x c l u d i n g a l l m e m b e r s w h o h a d v o t e d t h a t the k i n g ' s latest proposals afforded a g r o u n d o f settlement, o r w h o s h o u l d refuse t o r e c o r d t h e i r d i s a p p r o v a l o f t h a t vote. T h e i r n e x t measure was t o suppress t h e house o f lords. F i v e or s i x peers, the r e m n a n t o f t h e house, w h i l e holding aloof from the trial of the k i n g a n d ignored b y the commons, h a d c o n t i n u e d t o meet a n d t r a n s a c t o r d i n a r y b u s i ness, a n d , after the k i n g ' s e x e c u t i o n , p r o p o s e d a j o i n t d i s c u s s i o n
352

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THE

NEW

CONSTITUTION.

353 CHAP,

o f t h e future g o v e r n m e n t . T h e c o m m o n s , w i t h o u t a t t e n d i n g to t h e message, r e s o l v e d that t h e house o f l o r d s was useless a n d d a n g e r o u s , a n d o u g h t to be a b o l i s h e d . O n F e b r u a r y 7 t h e y r e s o l v e d t h a t t h e office a n d p o w e r o f a k i n g were u n n e c e s s a r y , b u r d e n s o m e , a n d dangerous t o t h e l i b e r t y , safety, a n d p u b l i c interest o f t h e people, a n d o u g h t t o be a b o l i s h e d . B o t h r e solutions w e r e converted i n t o acts. A r e p u b l i c was t h u s v i r t u a l l y established, a n d i n M a y a n o t h e r act d e c l a r e d E n g l a n d t o be a free c o m m o n w e a l t h , g o v e r n e d b y the representatives o f the people i n p a r l i a m e n t . A s the first n e e d o f the n e w r e p u b l i c was a n e x e c u t i v e power, t h e c o m m o n s d e t e r m i n e d to erect a c o u n c i l o f state chosen b y t h e m s e l v e s , a n d n a m e d a c o m m i t t e e to settle t h e details. T h e c o m m i t t e e f i x e d t h e n u m b e r o f t h e c o u n c i l at f o r t y - o n e a n d its d u r a t i o n at a year, unless i t were p r e v i o u s l y e n d e d b y p a r l i a m e n t . N o p e r s o n n o m i n a t e d to t h e c o u n c i l c o u l d t a k e h i s place u n t i l he h a d d e c l a r e d h i s a p p r o v a l of the trial a n d execution of the k i n g a n d of the abolition of m o n a r c h y a n d t h e house o f l o r d s . T h e c o u n c i l was t o h a v e t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e n a v a l a n d m i l i t a r y forces, t h e c o n d u c t o f f o r e i g n affairs, t h e r i g h t o f c o n s u l t i n g o n a l l m a t t e r s o f p u b l i c interest, o f a d m i n i s t e r i n g a n o a t h , a n d o f i m p r i s o n i n g offenders against i t s a u t h o r i t y . T h e s e resolutions o f t h e c o m m i t t e e w e r e p r o m p t l y e m b o d i e d i n a n act. B u t t h e test o f a d m i s s i o n to t h e c o u n c i l p r o v e d too s t r i n g e n t , since m o s t o f t h e persons n o m i n a t e d , i n c l u d i n g F a i r f a x , refused to a p p r o v e the k i n g s trial and execution. I t was, therefore, r e s o l v e d to be sufficient i f s u c h persons w o u l d declare t h a t t h e y c o n c u r r e d i n t h e s e t t l i n g o f t h e g o v e r n m e n t for the f u t u r e i n t h e w a y o f a r e p u b l i c w i t h out k i n g o r house o f lords, a n d w o u l d p r o m i s e t o be f a i t h f u l i n t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f their t r u s t . T h e c o u n c i l chose B r a d s h a w as i t s p r e s i d e n t . I t s t o o d i n t h e closest r e l a t i o n w i t h p a r l i a m e n t , f o r t h i r t y - o n e o f the first c o u n c i l l o r s were also m e m b e r s o f t h e house, w h i c h was r e d u c e d t o about s i x t y persons.
1 2 3

N e x t t o a n e x e c u t i v e a j u d i c i a r y was i n d i s p e n s a b l e . The g r e a t seal h a d been entrusted t o c o m m i s s i o n e r s , S i r T h o m a s W i d d r i n g t o n and Bulstrode Whitelocke, who would g l a d l y have
Scobell, A Collection of Acts and Ordinances, ii., 7 and 8 ; Commons* Journals, vi., 166, 168. ^ S cob ell, ii., 30* State Papers Domestic, Interregnum, Parliamentary Order Book, i., 62 and
1 3

/*

V O L . VII.

23

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X V I

ESTABLISHMENT

OF THE

COMMONWEALTH.

1649

l a i d d o w n t h e i r office after the k i n g ' s d e a t h . A/Viddrington escaped o n the p l e a o f i l l - h e a l t h , b u t W h i t e l o c k e was o b l i g e d to c o n t i n u e his labours w i t h t w o n e w colleagues, K e b l e a n d Lisle. T h e g r e a t s e a l w a s b r o k e n a n d a n e w great seal m a d e , engraved o n one s i d e w i t h t h e a r m s o f E n g l a n d a n d I r e l a n d a n d o n the other w i t h a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f the house o f c o m mons s i t t i n g ; t h e l e g e n d In the first year of freedom by Gods blessing restored, 164.8. T h e k i n g ' s d e a t h h a v i n g v a c a t e d the c o m m i s s i o n s o f a l l t h e judges, s i x refused t o act u n d e r the new government. T h e i r places w e r e filled up, a n d the s t y l e o f king's b e n c h was c h a n g e d t o t h a t o f u p p e r bench. T h e parl i a m e n t c o u l d n o t entrust t o a n y o f t h e o r d i n a r y courts the t r i a l o f c e r t a i n leaders i n t h e s e c o n d c i v i l w a r , H a m i l t o n , H o l l a n d , N o r w i c h , L o r d C a p e l , w h o h a d t a k e n p a r t i n the defence o f C o l c h e s t e r , a n d S i r J o h n O w e n , w h o h a d t r i e d t o raise a r e b e l l i o n i n N o r t h W a l e s . F o r t h i s purpose i t establ i s h e d a n e w h i g h court o f justice. A s the facts d i d n o t a d m i t o f dispute, a l l were c o n d e m n e d t o d e a t h , for H a m i l t o n ' s p l e a t h a t h e was not a n E n g l i s h subject, b u t a S c o t a c t i n g i n obedience t o t h e S c o t t i s h p a r l i a m e n t , was over-ruled. Hamilton, H o l l a n d , a n d C a p e l were beheaded i n front o f W e s t m i n s t e r H a l l o n M a r c h 9. N o r w i c h a n d O w e n w e r e spared.
1

T h e E n g l i s h c o m m o n w e a l t h w a s i n f o r m a d e m o c r a c y as c o m p a r e d w i t h m o s t r e p u b l i c s t h e n e x i s t i n g , b u t i n substance i t was a n o l i g a r c h y , h a l f r e l i g i o u s , h a l f m i l i t a r y , r u l i n g o v e r a n i n c o m p a r a b l y greater n u m b e r o f disaffected subjects. In Engl a n d t h e R o m a n catholics, t h e A n g l i c a n s , a n d t h e presbyterians were a l l hostile to the g o v e r n m e n t , for a l l a d h e r e d to m o n a r c h y a n d h a t e d t h e sects. A l l w h o h a d f o u g h t for C h a r l e s , a n d m o r e t h a n h a l f o f those w h o h a d fought against h i m , were enemies o f the c o m m o n w e a l t h . E v e n t h a t m u l t i t u d e w h i c h cared l i t t l e f o r p o l i t i c a l o r ecclesiastical disputes was u n f r i e n d l y t o the c o m m o n w e a l t h , because i t chafed u n d e r m i l i t a r y d i c t a t i o n , h e a v y taxes, a n d interference w i t h its a c c u s t o m e d p l e a sures. A m o n g t h e m i n o r i t y w h i c h a p p r o v e d the p r i n c i p l e o f the c o m m o n w e a l t h t h e r e were m a n y differences o f o p i n i o n . S o m e , w h i l e h o p i n g t o establish i n c a l m e r times a r e a l l y free republic, u p h e l d the a c t u a l g o v e r n m e n t a s the o n l y m e a n s o f f u l f i l l i n g t h e i r i d e a l . S u c h m e n were L u d l o w , H u t c h i n s o n ,
* "Whitelocke, Memorials, pp. 3j&-%o.

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IN THE COMMONWEALTH.

355

V a n e , a n d , greatest o f a l l , J o h n M i l t o n , w h o a c c e p t e d t h e office C H A P . XVI. o f secretary for f o r e i g n tongues t o t h e c o u n c i l , a n d , n o t c o n t e n t w i t h t h e d i s c h a r g e o f p a i d d u t y , sacrificed h i s e y e s i g h t t o t h e l i t e r a r y defence o f t h e c o m m o n w e a l t h . A n u m b e r o f l o g i c a l a n d enthusiastic democrats, a m o n g w h o m J o h n L i l b u r n e w a s t h e m o s t conspicuous, w i s h e d t o a f f i r m at once t h e s o v e r e i g n t y o f t h e people, t o dissolve t h e p a r l i a m e n t , a n d t o c o n s u l t t h e n a t i o n as t o h o w i t s h o u l d be g o v e r n e d . T h e y w e r e s o o n at b i t t e r e n m i t y w i t h t h e statesmen a n d generals, w h o s a w t h a t a democratic policy would e n d i n t h e restoration of a l l that the d e m o c r a t s a b h o r r e d . A n o t h e r p a r t y o f zealots, w h o b e c a m e k n o w n as F i f t h M o n a r c h y m e n , l o o k e d for t h e s p e e d y a b o l i tion of h u m a n government throughout the world, the c o m i n g of C h r i s t , a n d t h e r e i g n o f t h e s a i n t s . A s t h e r e i g n o f t h e saints c a n never b e t h e r e i g n o f t h e m a j o r i t y , t h i s class o f m e n w a s instinctively hostile to the democrats. F o r the moment they u p h e l d t h e r u l i n g powers, b u t t h e i r allegiance t o a n y g o v e r n m e n t was uncertain. L a s t l y , there were a few inconsiderable persons w h o desired a r e n o v a t i o n o f society as d i s t i n c t f r o m g o v e r n m e n t , a n d w o u l d fain h a v e e s t a b l i s h e d a r u r a l c o m m u n i s m . B u t E n g l a n d t h e n c o n t a i n e d so m a n y p e t t y freeholders t h a t t h e y f o u n d f e w disciples, a n d t h e i r a c h i e v e m e n t s e n d e d w i t h d i g g i n g u p s o m e c o m m o n l a n d o n S t . George's H i l l s i n S u r r e y . A m i d dissensions a n d dangers t h e r e a l foundation a n d s t r e n g t h o f t h e n e w r e p u b l i c w a s i t s superb a r m y , n u m b e r i n g n e a r l y 50,000 veterans, i n v i n c i b l e i n t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f severe d i s c i p l i n e w i t h p o l i t i c a l a n d r e l i g i o u s fervour. T h a t a r m y w a s i n o n e respect less dangerous t o i t s masters t h a n o t h e r a r m i e s f o r m e d i n a t i m e o f r e v o l u t i o n . I t s r a n k a n d file were n o t m e r e swordsmen, but wished to return into the ways of order a n d peace. Y e t t h e v e r y c i r c u m s t a n c e t h a t t h e y were c i t i z e n s as w e l l as s o l d i e r s l a i d t h e m o p e n t o a l l t h e d e m o c r a t i c a n d sect a r i a n fancies o f t h e t i m e . T h e i r p a y w a s s t i l l i n arrear, a n d m a n y were loth to embark for Ireland u n t i l they h a d rec e i v e d w h a t w a s due. L i l b u r n e a n d o t h e r levellers t o o k a d v a n t a g e o f t h e i r d i s c o n t e n t a n d counselled t h e m t o a p p o i n t
1

*So called with, reference to the four kingdoms of the Book of Daniel, understood as the Assyrian, the Persian, the Macedonian, and the Roman. The Fifth Monarchy men believed that the last (then surviving as the Holy Roman Empire) was about to pass away and would be followed by the Kingdom of Christ.

23

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a g i t a t o r s a s t h e y h a d d o n e before. T h e commanders, from F a i r f a x d o w n w a r d s , were r e s o l v e d n o t t o a l l o w a n y d i v i s i o n of a u t h o r i t y , a n d d e c i d e d t h a t t h e s o l d i e r s s h o u l d present n o p e t i t i o n save t h r o u g h t h e i r officers. P a r l i a m e n t ordered t h a t L i l b u r n e s h o u l d b e p r o s e c u t e d as a t r a i t o r f o r s t i r r i n g u p m u t i n y . O n A p r i l 17 t h e r e g i m e n t s t o serve i n I r e l a n d were chosen b y lot, a n d t h e m e n w e r e g i v e n t h e choice o f g o i n g o r of q u i t t i n g t h e service. S o m e h u n d r e d s t h r e w d o w n t h e i r a r m s a n d w e r e sent h o m e . A w e e k later p a r t o f W h a l l e y ' s r e g i m e n t , w h i c h was q u a r t e r e d i n L o n d o n , b r o k e i n t o revolt. S i x were c o n d e m n e d t o d e a t h a n d one, R o b e r t L o c k y e r , was shot i n S t . Paul's churchyard. T h e L o n d o n e r s s h o w e d t h e i r feelings b y g i v i n g h i m a s t a t e l y funeral. Other mutinies took place at B a n b u r y a n d at Salisbury, w h e r e the w h o l e o f one r e g i m e n t o f h o r s e a n d the greater p a r t of another refused t o p r o c e e d t o w a r d s t h e i r p o r t o f e m b a r k a t i o n for I r e l a n d u n t i l t h e liberties o f E n g l a n d h a d been secured. T h e y s t r u c k n o r t h w a r d s f r o m S a l i s b u r y , h o p i n g t o find c o m rades w h o w o u l d t a k e p a r t w i t h t h e m . S o g r a v e was the d a n g e r t h a t F a i r f a x a n d C r o m w e l l went i n p u r s u i t w i t h t w o r e g i m e n t s of horse a n d three o f foot. T h e m u t i n e e r s crossed the T h a m e s a n d t o o k u p t h e i r quarters a t B u r f o r d i n t h e C o t s w o l d s , w h e r e t h e y d e e m e d themselves b e y o n d i m m e d i a t e d a n g e r . Making a f o r c e d m a r c h , F a i r f a x a n d C r o m w e l l fell u p o n B u r f o r d a t dead o f n i g h t , a n d w i t h l i t t l e loss c a p t u r e d o r d i s p e r s e d t h e whole body. F o u r o f the prisoners w e r e t r i e d b y c o u r t - m a r t i a l a n d three w e r e shot j t h e rest, t o t h e n u m b e r o f 400* w e r e p a r d o n e d . B y t h i s p r o m p t a n d v i g o r o u s r e p i e s s i o n the l e v e l l i n g spirit, w h i c h a t one t i m e s e e m e d l i k e l y t o infest a l l t h e troops, was a l m o s t e x t i r p a t e d . T h e s o l d i e r s r e m a i n e d r e p u b l i c a n a n d e v e n d e m o c r a t i c i n t e m p e r , b u t r a r e l y w i t h s t o o d the c o m m a n d s o f t h e i r officers o r e s s a y e d t o m e d d l e i n p o l i t i c s , a n d the c o m m o n w e a l t h was rescued f r o m t h e w o r s t o f i n t e r n a l danerers. I r e l a n d w a s a l m o s t a l l i n a r m s against t h e n e w g o v e r n m e n t . I n J a n u a r y O r m o n d h a d m a d e a t r e a t y w i t h the confederate catholics, b y w h i c h t h e y o b t a i n e d i n d e p e n d e n c e f o r t h e i r p a r l i a m e n t a n d freedom f o r t h e i r r e l i g i o n , w h i l e t h e y u n d e r t o o k to f u r n i s h h i m w i t h 15*000 foot a n d $00 horse. Ormond in1
1

See

Gardiner, History of the Cotntnouzvealth,

ch. ii* and the authorities

therein cited*

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AFFAIRS

OF IRELAND

AND

SCOTLAND.

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v i t e d the P r i n c e o f W a l e s t o j o i n h i m i n I r e l a n d , a n d R u p e r t C H A P . w i t h the r o y a l ships c a m e t o K i n s a l e . O ' N e i l l stood aloof and R i n u c c i n i was hostile \ b u t t h e n u n c i o ' s influence h a d f a l l e n so l o w t h a t h e left I r e l a n d i n F e b r u a r y . X h e execution of the k i n g assisted O r m o n d b y d i v i d i n g h i s enemies. M a n y e v e n of t h e E n g l i s h i n t h e service o f t h e p a r l i a m e n t w e r e a l i e n a t e d , a n d t h e S c o t s i n U l s t e r , l i k e t h e i r c o u n t r y m e n at h o m e , refused t o h o l d a n y correspondence w i t h a regicide r e p u b l i c . Yet O r m o n d was i n reality weak. H e w a s t r y i n g to use t h e c o n federates for the benefit o f t h e h o u s e o f S t u a r t , a n d t h e y w e r e t r y i n g to use h i m for the benefit o f t h e i r c o u n t r y a n d r e l i g i o n . I n c h i q u i n a n d his troops, w h i l e o b e y i n g O r m o n d , b o r e n o g o o d w i l l t o t h e catholics a n d d e s e r v e d n o n e f r o m t h e m . I f the U l s t e r Scots were disposed to j o i n O r m o n d , the U l s t e r I r i s h became a l l the more distrustful. I r e l a n d h a d b e e n so m u c h i m p o v e r i s h e d b y l o n g warfare t h a t O r m o n d c o u l d w i t h d i f f i c u l t y pay or equip his men. H e p r e s e n t e d , h o w e v e r , s u c h a form i d a b l e appearance that the new government o f E n g l a n d m a d e t h e c o n q u e s t o f I r e l a n d i t s p r i m a r y care. I n S c o t l a n d A r g y l e a n d h i s friends, w h e n restored t o p o w e r b y t h e defeat o f H a m i l t o n , p r o s c r i b e d t h e i r foes b y w h a t w a s k n o w n as t h e A c t o f Classes. T h o s e w h o h a d t a k e n p a r t w i t h H a m i l t o n , or had not opposed h i m , were d i v i d e d into three classes, a n d d e b a r r e d f r o m h o l d i n g office or s i t t i n g i n p a r l i a m e n t for life, or for t e n or f o r five y e a r s r e s p e c t i v e l y . A briefer exclusion imposed o n a l l who were g u i l t y of m o r a l or r e l i g i o u s offences, e n a b l e d the c o v e n a n t e r s to b a n i s h f r o m p u b l i c life a n y w h o m i g h t dislike their p o l i c y . Still unshaken i n t h e i r a t t a c h m e n t to m o n a r c h y a n d t h e house o f S t u a r t , t h e c o v e n a n t e r s were i n c e n s e d t h a t a n E n g l i s h f a c t i o n s h o u l d p r e s u m e t o t r y a n d e x e c u t e a K i n g of S c o t l a n d . T h e y adopted t h e i n s a n e course o f r e s t o r i n g t h e i r y o u n g k i n g o n t e r m s w h i c h w o u l d d e g r a d e the meanest subject, a n d o f q u a r r e l l i n g f o r h i s sake w i t h their m i g h t y neighbour, while they placed all his m o s t l o y a l followers u n d e r a b a n . T h e subtle A r g y l e s a w t h e d a n g e r , b u t he could keep his supremacy o n l y b y flattering popular sentiment W h e n the E n g l i s h w e r e p r e p a r i n g to t r y t h e i r k i n g , A r g y l e o p e n e d a correspondence w i t h H a m i l t o n ' s
1
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of Scotland, vi.,

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brother L a n a r k and w i t h Lauderdale. W h e n the k i n g ' s d e a t h b e c a m e k n o w n , y o u n g C h a r l e s was f o r t h w i t h p r o c l a i m e d K i n g of Scotland, although upon conditions. S i r Joseph Douglas was sent i n f o r m a l l y to l e a r n w h e t h e r he w o u l d q u a l i f y h i m s e l f f o r t h e exercise o f r o y a l a u t h o r i t y b y s u b s c r i b i n g the covenants, but C h a r l e s reserved h i s d e c i s i o n . A s Charles c o u l d n o t w r i n g h e l p f r o m a n y f o r e i g n power, he was f o r c e d to seek a basis o f operations i n I r e l a n d o r i n S c o t l a n d . T o r e g a i n protestant B r i t a i n w i t h the h e l p o f I r i s h catholics w a s n o h o p e f u l enterprise. T o b u y the help of the S c o t s b y p r o m i s i n g to enforce t h e S o l e m n L e a g u e a n d C o v e n a n t o n E n g l a n d a n d I r e l a n d was to i n c u r c e r t a i n d i s h o n o u r f o r d o u b t f u l profit. T h o s e c o u n c i l l o r s w h o , l i k e H y d e , a b h o r r e d presbytery, w i s h e d C h a r l e s to t r y h i s fortune i n I r e l a n d . Those w h o , l i k e C u l p e p p e r , were indifferent o n t h e p o i n t o f r e l i g i o n , t h o u g h t t h a t S c o t l a n d w o u l d be m o r e useful for h i s purpose. M o n t r o s e h o p e d to w i n S c o t l a n d b y m e a n s o f t h e S c o t t i s h royalists, a n d C h a r l e s g r a n t e d h i m a c o m m i s s i o n as g o v e r n o r a n d c a p t a i n general i n that k i n g d o m . F o r himself, C h a r l e s was disposed t o act u p o n O r m o n d ' s i n v i t a t i o n , w h i c h a r r i v e d e a r l y i n M a r c h . O n the 27th he r e c e i v e d the S c o t t i s h c o m m i s s i o n e r s c h a r g e d w i t h the f o r m a l n e g o t i a t i o n . F i n d i n g t h a t h e was expected, n o t o n l y to r a t i f y the c o v e n a n t i n S c o t l a n d b u t to impose i t o n E n g l a n d a n d I r e l a n d , C h a r l e s p r o t r a c t e d t h e negot i a t i o n as l o n g as h e m i g h t , a n d at l e n g t h d e c l a r e d i n M a y t h a t , w h i l e h e w o u l d u p h o l d the p r e s b y t e r i a n s y s t e m i n S c o t l a n d , he c o u l d do n o t h i n g i n h i s o t h e r k i n g d o m s w i t h o u t t h e consent o f their respective parliaments, a n d w o u l d n o t i n f r i n g e the t r e a t y c o n c l u d e d b y O r m o n d w i t h the confederates. It would have been w e l l for h i s fame, a n d n o worse for h i s interest, h a d C h a r l e s h e l d firmly t o that answer. T h e c o m m i s s i o n e r s took i t as a refusal a n d r e t u r n e d to S c o t l a n d . C h a r l e s , w h o w a s a l m o s t penniless, sought for r e l i e f f r o m the S p a n i s h g o v e r n o r o f t h e L o w C o u n t r i e s , f r o m K i n g P h i l i p himself, a n d even f r o m P o p e Innocent, b u t sought e v e r y w h e r e i n v a i n . T h e indifference o f f o r e i g n g o v e r n m e n t s t o E n g l i s h affairs at t h a t t i m e , so b i t t e r l y r e c o r d e d i n C l a r e n d o n ' s h i s t o r y , is n o t surprising. U n l i k e the F r e n c h revolution, the E n g l i s h revolut i o n was s t r i c t l y i n s u l a r . E n g l i s h m e n d i d n o t a t t e m p t t o m a k e p o l i t i c a l or t h e o l o g i c a l c o n v e r t s a b r o a d , a n d foreigners k n e w

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l i t t l e a n d c a r e d less about E n g l i s h p o l i t i c s o r r e l i g i o n . U n t i l t h e close o f t h e t h i r t y years' w a r i n 1648 t h e p r i n c i p a l states o f t h e c o n t i n e n t were engrossed i n t h e i r o w n q u a r r e l s . Xhe r e s t o r a t i o n o f peace t o a great p a r t of E u r o p e b y t h e treaties o f W e s t p h a l i a a l l o w e d m o r e leisure t o note t h e e x t r a o r d i n a r y e v e n t s w h i c h were p a s s i n g i n E n g l a n d , a n d t h e d e a t h o f C h a r l e s I. sent t h r o u g h t h e n e i g h b o u r i n g countries s u c h a t h r i l l o f h o r r o r as t h e m e n o f o u r t i m e c a n s c a r c e l y conceive. Yet n o n e d u r s t p r e s u m e t o relieve h i s heir, m u c h less to assail t h e regicides. C a r d i n a l M a z a r i n , who ruled France in the m i n o r i t y o f L o u i s X I V . , was a n I t a l i a n a d v e n t u r e r , b e l o v e d b y t h e q u e e n r e g e n t b u t h a t e d a n d despised b y t h e nobles, t h e l a w y e r s , a n d t h e c i t i z e n s o f P a r i s . X h e s e feelings b r o k e o u t i n t h e s i n g u l a r d i s t u r b a n c e s k n o w n as t h e F r o n d e , w h i c h w e r e n o t q u e l l e d f o r s e v e r a l years. F r a n c e was s t i l l at w a r w i t h S p a i n , a n d i n t e r n a l d i s c o r d h e l p e d t h e S p a n i a r d s so w e l l t h a t t h e F r e n c h w e r e i n n o c o n d i t i o n to challenge another enemy. X h e regent a n d the c a r d i n a l h a t e d t h e c o m m o n w e a l t h , a n d l o n g refused t o r e c o g nise it, but they w o u l d do nothing for Charles I I . X h e D u t c h r e p u b l i c w a s at t h e h e i g h t o f p o w e r a n d g l o r y , a n d t h e house o f O r a n g e , whose honours h a d been borne b y three great m e n i n succession, was also at the z e n i t h . P r i n c e W i l l i a m , t h e h e a d o f t h a t house since 1647 sifrd s o n - i n - l a w o f C h a r l e s I., w a s able, warlike, a n d ambitious, and he w o u l d gladly have m o u n t e d h i g h e r y e t b y r e s t o r i n g a K i n g o f E n g l a n d . B u t t h e peace w i t h S p a i n a n d t h e consequent r e d u c t i o n o f t h e a r m y lessened h i s p o w e r a n d s t r e n g t h e n e d h i s i n s t i n c t i v e enemies, t h e m e r c h a n t a r i s t o c r a c y , w h o i n s i s t e d o n a prudent reserve. Xhe States General, w h i l e eluding a l l recognition of the c o m m o n w e a l t h , forbore a n y h o s t i l e act. W i t h t h e object o f i m p r o v i n g n e u t r a l i t y i n t o f r i e n d s h i p , the E n g l i s h g o v e r n m e n t sent t o t h e H a g u e , as a special e n v o y , D r . D o r i s l a u s , a D u t c h m a n b y b i r t h , a l t h o u g h settled i n E n g l a n d . D o r i s l a u s , h a v i n g been c o n c e r n e d i n p r e p a r i n g t h e charge against the k i n g , w a s esteemed a r e g i c i d e b y t h e cavaliers a n d was m u r d e r e d b y s o m e S c o t t i s h e x i l e s . E i t h e r b y g o o d f o r t u n e o r b y t h e negligence o f t h e a u t h o r i t i e s t h e y a l l escaped, a n d E n g l a n d o b t a i n e d n o satisfaction b e y o n d t h e c i v i l e x c u s e s o f t h e States G e n e r a l . X h e S p a n i a r d s , w h o p i q u e d themselves o n r e l i g i o n a n d l o y a l t y , a b h o r r e d t h e E n g -

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C H A P , l i s h heretics, rebels, a n d regicides, b u t c o u l d not afford to m dulge their l o a t h i n g w n e n t n e i r u t m o s t s t r e n g t h was t a x e d b y the w a r w i t h F r a n c e a n d b y t h e effort to subdue r e v o l t e d P o r t u g a l . P h i l i p I V . even t r i e d t o profit b y the notorious i l l - w i l l o f t h e F r e n c h t o w a r d s E n g l a n d . A l t h o u g h h e w o u l d n o t recognise the c o m m o n w e a l t h , h e a l l o w e d h i s a m b a s s a d o r , A l o n z o de C a r d e n a s , t o r e m a i n i n L o n d o n a n d c o r r e s p o n d s e c r e t l y w i t h m e m b e r s o f t h e c o u n c i l o f state. Spaniards, D u t c h , and F r e n c h alike were confirmed i n their prudence b y the h a u g h t y a n d resolute t o n e o f t h e n e w rulers of E n g l a n d , w h o refused t o treat w i t h a n y state u n t i l it s h o u l d h a v e recognised the c o m m o n w e a l t h , a n d w h o s h o w e d b y the v i g o u r of t h e i r a d m i n i s t r a t i o n h o w perilous w o u l d be a n y a t t e m p t to k i n d l e r e b e l l i o n against t h e i r a u t h o r i t y . I n o r d e r t o secure t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n w i t h I r e l a n d , C o l o n e l R o b e r t B l a k e , w h o h a d w o n g r e a t h o n o u r b y h i s defence o f L y m e a n d o f T a u n t o n i n the c i v i l w a r a n d h a d been a p p o i n t e d one o f the g e n e r a l s at sea, was sent w i t h a s q u a d r o n to b l o c k ade R u p e r t i n K i n s a l e h a r b o u r . T h e I r i s h c a m p a i g n was del a y e d b y t h e difficulty of r a i s i n g m o n e y t o p a y the troops a n d t h e consequent d a n g e r o f t h e i r disaffection. Cromwell, whom the c o u n c i l o f state n a m e d to t h e c o m m a n d i n M a r c h , w o u l d not go u n t i l h e h a d assurance t h a t h i s m e n w o u l d receive w h a t was due to t h e m . O r m o n d , therefore, c o n t i n u e d t o g a i n g r o u n d , a n d i n J u n e h e e n c a m p e d close t o D u b l i n . A g a i n s t M o n k he sent I n c h i q u i n , w h o t o o k D r o g h e d a a n d D u n d a l k , w h i l e the Scots took Belfast a n d C a r r i c k f e r g u s . B u t b y that t i m e t h e p a r l i a m e n t h a d conferred o n C r o m w e l l t h e d o u b l e office o f c o m m a n d e r - i n - c h i e f a n d g o v e r n o r o f I r e l a n d for three y e a r s a n d h a d f u r n i s h e d h i m w i t h means t o t a k e the f i e l d . H e dec i d e d to reinforce Jones i n D u b l i n w i t h a p a r t o f h i s troops, a n d w i t h t h e m a i n b o d y t o assail M u n s t e r , w h e r e t h e E n g l i s h settlers w e r e t h o u g h t to be w a v e r i n g i n t h e i r allegiance to Charles. Jones, h a v i n g r e c e i v e d t h e r e i n f o r c e m e n t , b r o u g h t O r m o n d t o a b a t t l e at R a t h m i n e s n e a r D u b l i n o n A u g u s t 2, a n d defeated h i m w i t h s u c h h e a v y loss t h a t h e a b a n d o n e d a l l thought o f i n v e s t i n g t h e c i t y a n d w i t h d r e w t o a safe distance. O n the n e w s o f t h i s v i c t o r y , C r o m w e l l c h a n g e d h i s p l a n a n d sailed for D u b l i n , l e a v i n g I r e t o n t o c o m m a n d t h e M u n s t e r e x p e d i t i o n . E i t h e r because t h e w i n d p r o v e d adverse or b e c a u s e

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h e learnt t h a t the prospect i n M u n s t e r was less h o p e f u l t h a n CHAP, h e h a d believed, I r e t o n f o l l o w e d C r o m w e l l to D u b l i n , where XVI. t h e w h o l e E n g l i s h a r m y was c o n c e n t r a t e d before t h e e n d o f August. C r o m w e l l came to Ireland w i t h an inexorable determination to b r e a k t h e r o y a l i s t power, to beat d o w n t h e n a t i o n a l resistance, a n d t o avenge t h e massacre of 1641 w h i c h , i n h i s m i n d , as i n so m a n y others, assumed g i g a n t i c a n d fabulous p r o p o r t i o n s . A l t h o u g h h e s h a r e d the p u r i t a n l o a t h i n g for t h e C h u r c h o f R o m e , h e was not, elsewhere t h a n i n I r e l a n d , a n eager persecutor o f R o m a n catholics. I n I r e l a n d h e p u r s u e d Catholicism w i t h remorseless hate, because h e believed t h a t the priests h a d p r o m p t e d the massacre a n d w o u l d a l w a y s p r o m p t revolt against the E n g l i s h p o w e r . T h e I r i s h character a n d the grievances o f t h e I r i s h he f a i l e d t o c o m p r e h e n d as u t t e r l y as o t h e r E n g l i s h m e n o f that t i m e . Y e t he w o u l d n o t a l l o w purposeless devastat i o n . A s h e f o u n d t h a t the t r o o p s a l r e a d y i n I r e l a n d h a d been accustomed to rapine a n d cruelty, he published a declaration f o r b i d d i n g t h e soldiers to m o l e s t a n y p e r s o n n o t i n a r m s o r t o m e d d l e w i t h their goods, a n d p r o m i s i n g t h a t a l l w h o b r o u g h t s u p p l i e s s h o u l d be p a i d i n r e a d y m o n e y .
1

O r m o n d c o u l d n o t afford to r i s k a g e n e r a l a c t i o n u n t i l h e h a d r e c e i v e d the succours w h i c h h e e x p e c t e d f r o m different parts o f Ireland. I n order to check Cromwell's northward m a r c h , he s t r e n g t h e n e d the g a r r i s o n o f D r o g h e d a w i t h his best soldiers a n d e n t r u s t e d t h e c o m m a n d to S i r A r t h u r A s t o n , a v e t e r a n o f the E n g l i s h civil war. H e rightly divined his enemy s intention. O n S e p t e m b e r 1 C r o m w e l l t o o k t h e f i e l d w i t h 10,000 m e n , a n d t w o d a y s l a t e r h e a p p e a r e d before D r o g h e d a . A s the town lies p a r t l y o n t h e n o r t h e r n , p a r t l y o n the s o u t h e r n b a n k o f the B o y n e , a n d the t o w n b r i d g e t h e n afforded the sole means o f c r o s s i n g , C r o m w e l l c o u l d o n l y assail t h e south front. T h e g a r r i son, c o n s i s t i n g o f E n g l i s h as w e l l as I r i s h troops, was n e a r l y 3,000 s t r o n g , b u t the a n c i e n t w a l l s were unfit t o resist a r t i l l e r y . C r o m w e l l lost some t i m e i n w a i t i n g f o r h i s siege t r a i n w h i c h h a d been sent f r o m D u b l i n b y sea. O n t h e 10th h e o p e n e d fire a n d o n t h e n e x t d a y , f i n d i n g the breach p r a c t i c a b l e , h e ordered a storm. T h e defenders m a d e a b r a v e s t a n d a n d
1

Carlyle, Letters

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Cromwell.

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CHAP,
XVI.

r e p e l l e d t w o assaults, but at the t h i r d , l e d b y C r o m w e l l himself,

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t n e y Droice a n a n e a i n t o t n e t o w n , a d m i t t e d t o q u a r t e r b y h i s soldiers.

c r o m w e n g a v e oraers t o S i r E d m u n d V e r n e y , the

slay t h e m a l l , i n c l u d i n g some who, l i k e A s t o n , h a d already been c o l o n e l o f O r m o n d ' s r e g i m e n t , a n d o t h e r officers were s l a i n n e x t d a y i n c o l d b l o o d , a n d o f t h e w h o l e g a r r i s o n v e r y few escaped. S u c h priests as were f o u n d were l i k e w i s e massacred, a n d s o m e o f t h e t o w n s p e o p l e s h a r e d t h e i r d o o m ; h o w m a n y i t is i m p o s s i b l e t o say, for the e v i d e n c e o f those w h o were o n the s p o t is both vague a n d contradictory. A c c o r d i n g to t h e usage o f w a r at t h a t t i m e , q u a r t e r m i g h t be refused t o a g a r r i s o n w h i c h h a d stood an assault; a n d then a n d l o n g afterwards the storm of a t o w n was usually accompanied w i t h some butchery of the inhabitants. future.
1

C r o m w e l l j u s t i f i e d the fearful e x a m p l e m a d e at

D r o g h e d a o n t h e g r o u n d t h a t i t w o u l d save b l o o d s h e d for t h e I f is lieutenants s p e e d i l y r e c o v e r e d D u n d a l k a n d o t h e r n o r t h e r n fortresses, thus e n d i n g a l l fear lest the e n e m y s h o u l d t a k e t h e offensive f r o m t h a t q u a r t e r . C r o m w e l l himself turned southwards and open a w a y into Munster. c o u l d be r e l i e v e d b y O r m o n d . to attack Wexford a l o n g the W e x f o r d extends

spacious h a v e n f o r m e d b y t h e r i v e r S l a n e y , a n d o n t h a t s i d e A f t e r the E n g l i s h had taken R o s s l a r e F o r t at t h e m o u t h o f t h e h a r b o u r a n d t h e fleet h a d d i s e m b a r k e d t h e siege t r a i n , C r o m w e l l s u m m o n e d t h e t o w n a n d C o l o n e l S y n o t t , t h e governor, b e g a n to treat, b u t b r o k e off the negotiation on receiving a reinforcement. On October 11 C r o m w e l l b a t t e r e d t h e castle w i t h s u c h effect t h a t S y n o t t offered t o s u r r e n d e r , a n d , w h i l e C r o m w e l l was p r e p a r i n g a n answer, C a p t a i n S t a f f o r d , t h e g o v e r n o r o f the castle, t r e a c h e r o u s l y a d m i t t e d the assailants. W^hen t h i s became k n o w n , t h e defenders o f t h e n e i g h b o u r i n g w o r k s were s t r u c k w i t h panic, forsook t h e i r posts, a n d fled i n t o t h e t o w n , h o t l y p u r s u e d b y t h e C r o m w e l l i a n s . I n t h e m a r k e t - p l a c e the soldiers a n d citizens r a l l i e d a n d s t r o v e t o m a k e s o m e resistance, b u t were soon o v e r p o w e r e d a n d f o r c e d towards the river. W i t h t h e m m a y have been m i n g l e d m a n y n o n - c o m b a t a n t s , b u t n o q u a r t e r was g i v e n a n d , besides those w h o were s l a i n , s o m e 300 w e r e d r o w n e d i n t r y i n g t o escape b y boat As
1

at

D r o g h e d a , t h e priests w e r e p u t t o t h e

sword.

C r o m w e l l e s t i m a t e d t h a t o f t h e I r i s h a b o u t 2,000 p e r i s h e d a n d Carlyle, Letters and Speeches of Oliver Cromwell, Letter cv.

1649

ORMOND

AND
1

O'NEILL.

363

o f his o w n m e n not above twenty. cessful w a r o n E n g l i s h s h i p p i n g .

T h e soldiers made a T o have taken W e x f o r d

rich sucso

CHAP,

b o o t y , as the citizens, besides t h e i r c o m m e r c e , h a d w a g e d q u i c k l y a n d w i t h so l i t t l e loss was o f t h e u t m o s t wasting his a r m y .

advantage

t o C r o m w e l l , f o r t h e a u t u m n a l r a i n s h a d set i n a n d disease w a s C r o m w e l l n e x t summoned N e w Ross, which surrendered on t h e 19th. T h e E n g l i s h part of the garrison t o o k service w i t h A l r e a d y the E n g l i s h soldiers a n d Youghal citizens followed their countrymen.

i n C o r k h a d d e c l a r e d for the p a r l i a m e n t .

t h e e x a m p l e o f C o r k , a n d C r o m w e l l sent R o g e r B o y l e , L o r d B r o g h i l l , w h o w i e l d e d a s t r o n g f a m i l y influence i n M u n s t e r , t o s p r e a d t h e E n g l i s h defection. Rupert, w h o dared not remain O r m o n d purchased longer at K i n s a l e , took advantage o f a storm w h i c h drove B l a k e f r o m h i s w a t c h t o escape i n t o t h e o c e a n . O N e i l l ' s assistance b y a t r e a t y w h i c h r e s t o r e d a l l t h e forfeited l a n d s i n U l s t e r a n d secured t h e c a t h o l i c c l e r g y i n t h e possession of a l l the churches w h i c h they then h e l d \ but O'Neill, w h o h a d l o n g been i n i l l - h e a l t h , d i e d o n N o v e m b e r 6, a n d t h e Irish lost the one leader w h o c o u l d have revived their spirit. C r o m w e l l h i m s e l f p r e p a r e d t o besiege W a t e r f o r d , w h e r e c i t i z e n s refused to a d m i t Ormond's soldiers. H e was, the how-

ever, d i s a b l e d b y sickness, a n d w h e n a t last h e invested t h e t o w n , h e a v y r a i n s m a d e t h e r o a d s i m p a s s a b l e for g u n s a n d t h r e a t e n e d t h e d e s t r u c t i o n o f h i s a r m y b y fever a n d ague. O n DecemThe of b e r 2 h e r a i s e d t h e siege a n d w e n t i n t o w i n t e r quarters. w h o l e o f t h e eastern a n d m u c h o f t h e s o u t h e r n s e a b o a r d I r e l a n d w e r e i n his the antipathy possession. H e could not heal Irish, protestant and English and turned the O r m o n d g a i n e d l i t t l e b y t h i s respite. between catholic. prevent to

H a v i n g n o m o n e y t o p a y h i s soldiers, h e c o u l d n o t pillaging, which c o u n t r y people H e was forced pay to for against country warn the

t h e i r defenders a n d caused t h e l i t t l e f o o d left i n t h e be carried a w a y or concealed. unless his m a j e s t y Charles that could procure

troops, h i s c o m i n g t o I r e l a n d w o u l d b e useless. self f o u n d that t h e c a t h o l i c bishops. Carlyle, Letters

Ormond himpassing to

the remnant o f his authority was

T h e y m e t at C l o n m a c n o i s e a n d p u t f o r t h
and Speeches of Oliver Cromwell,

a d e c l a r a t i o n t o rouse t h e s p i r i t o f t h e p e o p l e , i n w h i c h t h e y
1

Letter cvii.

364

ESTABLISHMENT

OF THE

COMMONWEALTH

1649

CHAP,
X V I

asserted t h a t C r o m w e l l w a s b e n t o n e x t i r p a t i n g the c a t h o l i c r e l i g i o n , w h i c h he c o u l d n o t d o w i t h o u t m a s s a c r i n g or b a n i s h i n g t h e catholic i n h a b i t a n t s o f I r e l a n d , a n d e x h o r t e d t h e i r c o u n t r y m e n t o u n i o n a n d o b s t i n a t e resistance. C r o m w e l l t h o u g h t fit t o answer t h i s d e c l a r a t i o n w i t h one o f h i s o w n " f o r t h e u n d e c e i v i n g o f seduced a n d d e l u d e d p e o p l e " ; a curious d o c u m e n t , illustrating the c o m m o n E n g l i s h o p i n i o n o f that time about I r i s h affairs a n d t h e d e g r e e o f s o p h i s t r y t o w h i c h g r e a t m e n w i l l sometimes descend. He declared that he would not m o l e s t a n y for t h e i r t h o u g h t s as t o r e l i g i o n , b u t that he w o u l d n o t a l l o w t h e e x e r c i s e o f t h e mass i n a n y place where he h a d power. b y law.
1

"

Y e t he w o u l d not allow that this i m p l i e d e x t i r p a t i n g H i s m a n i f e s t o p r o v e d h o w i m p o s s i b l e was a n y u n -

t h e c a t h o l i c r e l i g i o n , because t h e m a s s h a d l o n g been p r o h i b i t e d derstanding between the E n g l i s h commonwealth and the Irish catholics, a n d h o w s o u n d was the a d v i c e o f t h e b i s h o p s , a l t h o u g h t h e y c o n t r i b u t e d l i t t l e t o w a r d s its e x e c u t i o n . A t t h e e n d o f J a n u a r y , 1650, Kilkenny and Tipperary. hopeless C r o m w e l l t o o k the field once to m o r e t o s u b d u e w h a t fortresses w e r e s t i l l h e l d b y the I r i s h i n H e was r e p u l s e d i n a n a t t e m p t storm the c i t y o f K i l k e n n y , but S i r W a l t e r Butler, the governor, o f relief, s u r r e n d e r e d o n c o n d i t i o n t h a t t h e soldiers s h o u l d depart u n m o l e s t e d , t a k i n g t h e c a t h o l i c c l e r g y w i t h t h e m , a n d that the townsmen should ransom their goods f r o m pillage. B r o g h i l l w a s so successful i n M u n s t e r that Inchiquin's E n g l i s h soldiers c a p i t u l a t e d for l e a v e t o g o a b r o a d o r to retire i n t o those parts o f I r e l a n d w h i c h w e r e subject t o t h e c o m m o n w e a l t h , O r m o n d w a s f o r c e d t o c o n v o k e t h e I r i s h b i s h o p s at L i m e r i c k , and they immediately attacked his authority. R o e O ' N e i l l as g e n e r a l . In Ulster Ewer Owen The M a c m a h o n , B i s h o p o f C l o g h e r , was elected t o succeed t h e i r s c r u p l e about s u b m i t t i n g t o a r e g i c i d e p a r l i a m e n t .

T h e n the Scots o f U l s t e r overcame

royalist c o m b i n a t i o n w a s t h u s b r e a k i n g i n pieces, a n d t h e r e a l l y n a t i o n a l p a r t y h a d n e i t h e r leaders, n o r d i s c i p l i n e , n o r resources equal t o t h e e m e r g e n c y . C l o n m e l , t h e last defended by Ulstermen. O n A p r i l 27 C r o m w e l l l a i d siege t o was 1,200 of Owen, with Irish stronghold in Tipperary, w h i c h

H u g h O ' N e i l l , a nephew

O n M a y 9 C r o m w e l l judged the breach

practic-

able, a n d g a v e t h e w o r d .

T h e breach was carried, but behind

Cromwell.

* Carlyle, Letters and Speeches of Oliver

1650

CHARLES

II.

AND

THE

SCOTS.

365

it
t f

O'Neill

had

raised

strong

semicircular

retrenchment.
1

CHAP. xvi.

N e v e r w a s seen so h o t a s t o r m o f so l o n g c o n t i n u a n c e a n d At night

so g a l l a n t l y defended, n e i t h e r i n E n g l a n d n o r i n I r e l a n d . " the I r i s h h a d spent all their a m m u n i t i o n . T h e same

l e n g t h t h e E n g l i s h w e r e d r i v e n b a c k w i t h i m m e n s e loss, b u t O ' N e i l l marched out towards W a t e r f o r d , a n d i n the m o r n i n g t h e m a y o r s u r r e n d e r e d t h e t o w n o n c o n d i t i o n o f s a f e t y f o r the l i v e s a n d estates o f the c i t i z e n s . S o o n afterwards Cromwell w a s r e c a l l e d t o E n g l a n d , a n d left I r e t o n d e p u t y . remained to conquer. Charles waited long i n Jersey for tidings w h i c h should justify his going to Ireland. M e a n t i m e A r g y l e a n d his friends parliament As he H e h a d de-

c i d e d t h e issue o f t h e I r i s h w a r , a l t h o u g h o n e - h a l f o f I r e l a n d

decided to renew their invitation, a n d the S c o t t i s h

c h o s e G e o r g e W ' i n r a m t o bear its offers t o C h a r l e s . able, h i s efforts w e r e f o r a l o n g t i m e fruitless. land, he still tried to temporise. w i t h t h e i r e n v o y s at B r e d a . M o n t r o s e p r o m i s i n g to At Even

was c h a r g e d t o i n s i s t o n t h e t e r m s a l r e a d y f o u n d so u n a c c e p t when Charles h a d given u p the hope o f achieving a n y t h i n g i n IreI n J a n u a r y , 1 6 5 0 , he w r o t e the same time he wrote to which garter t o t h e c o m m i t t e e o f estates t h a t h e w o u l d be r e a d y t o c o n f e r d o n o t h i n g d u r i n g the t r e a t y

w o u l d i m p a i r his c o m m i s s i o n and bestowing o n h i m the as a f r e s h p r o o f o f confidence. further negotiation. C h a r l e s left

W h e n t h i s letter b e c a m e k n o w n

t o t h e c o m m i t t e e o f estates, s e v e r a l m e m b e r s d e m u r r e d t o a n y F i n a l l y the committee resolved to negotiIn February secure, a n d i n ate, b u t to i m p o s e c o n d i t i o n s e v e n m o r e s t r i n g e n t J e r s e y , w h e r e h e n o l o n g e r felt M a r c h h e m e t the S c o t t i s h c o m m i s s i o n e r s .

S t i l l h o p i n g t o raise

forces o n t h e c o n t i n e n t a n d t o be h e l p e d b y a n i n s u r r e c t i o n i n E n g l a n d , he w o u l d fain have e l u d e d the S c o t t i s h demands, and it w a s n o t u n t i l M a y 1 t h a t h e s i g n e d t h e t r e a t y o f B r e d a . F o r m a n y m o n t h s M o n t r o s e h a d been l a b o u r i n g t o c o l l e c t the means for h i s expedition. He resolved to Lord make the O r k n e y s his place o f arms, a n d sent t h i t h e r He sought for assistance Sweden, from the Kinnoull

a n d s o m e f o r e i g n officers to r a i s e a n d d i s c i p l i n e t h e i s l e s m e n . rulers of Brandenburg, A Scottish Denmark, and but to little purpose.

p. 457*

merchant of G o t h e n b u r g made h i m a n advance, w h i c h enabled

1

W^hitelocke, McMOtidls,

366

ESTABLISHMENT

OF THE

COMMONWEALTH

1650

CHAP, h i m t o collect a few h u n d r e d m e n , c h i e f l y D a n e s a n d G e r m a n s , H e d e s p a t c h e d t h e m t o O r k n e y e a r l y i n 1650, himself in March, to find l a n d i n g , a n d that n o t h i n g was ready. After and followed after the that K i n n o u l l h a d died soon concluding

t r e a t y o f B r e d a , C h a r l e s sent S i r W i l l i a m F l e m i n g t o counterm a n d the e x p e d i t i o n , b u t h i s l e t t e r n e v e r reached a n d s u c h r e c r u i t s as he h a d raised i n t h e O r k n e y s . on a widespread insurrection i n the H i g h l a n d s . Montrose, H e counted F o l l o w i n g the w h o crossed t o t h e m a i n l a n d i n A p r i l w i t h his f o r e i g n soldiers

coast as far as D u n r o b i n C a s t l e i n S u t h e r l a n d , he t u r n e d i n l a n d u p S t r a t h F l e e t , b u t f o u n d n o n e t o j o i n h i m , a n d h a d to r e t u r n eastwards. Sutherland. O n A p r i l 27 h i s l i t t l e force w a s s u r p r i s e d where a n d r o u t e d b y C o l o n e l S t r a c h a n i n C a r b i s d a l e near t h e K y l e o f M o n t r o s e t r i e d t o g a i n t h e w e s t e r n coast, he m i g h t t a k e s h i p for t h e c o n t i n e n t , b u t was seized a n d delivered up b y M a c l e o d o f A s s y n t . X h e covenanters devise. spared no indignity that malice could tied Edinyears before M o n t r o s e was taken southwards w i t h his feet

under t h e horse's b e l l y . to the T o l b o o t h .

W h e n he r e a c h e d t h e gate o f h a d been c o n d e m n e d s o m e but he was summoned

b u r g h he was b o u n d o n a h i g h cart, w h i c h t h e h a n g m a n d r o v e A s he before, no t r i a l was n e c e s s a r y ;

the p a r l i a m e n t t o h e a r h i s d o o m .

X o the angry invective of covenant X h e clerk and had

L o u d o u n , t h e chancellor, h e m a d e a b r i e f a n d s p i r i t e d r e p l y , p r o t e s t i n g t h a t h e h a d never b r o k e n t h e always acted b y the king's commission. p r o n o u n c e d t h e sentence. register

M o n t r o s e was to be hanged o n a H i s h e a d was to be set u p o n

g a l l o w s t h i r t y - f i v e feet h i g h for t h r e e h o u r s , a n d t h e n t o be taken d o w n and dismembered. t h e X o l b o o t h , each l i m b e x p o s e d i n s o m e o t h e r t o w n , a n d his b o d y i n t e r r e d i n t h e B o r o u g h m u i r unless t h e K i r k s h o u l d be pleased t o r e v o k e h i s e x c o m m u n i c a t i o n . execution. at his n a m e . ^With serene m a j e s t y A copy of Wishart's h i s t o r y o f h i s e x p l o i t s was t o b e h u n g a b o u t his n e c k at his M o n t r o s e sustained t h e i n sults of t h e m i n i s t e r s a n d p o l i t i c i a n s w h o h a d so often t r e m b l e d H e g l o r i e d i n his fate, a n d d e c l a r e d h i s w i s h X h e sentence were put to his marvellous that he h a d flesh e n o u g h t o be sent to e v e r y c i t y o f C h r i s t e n d o m as a t e s t i m o n y o f t h e cause for w h i c h h e suffered. was d u l y e x e c ut e d, a n d several o f h i s followers death soon afterwards. M o n t r o s e h a d spent

1650

CHARLES

IN

SCOTLAND.

367

powers

o n a n i m p o s s i b l e task \ b u t h i s n a m e c a n n e v e r b e
1

CHAP.
X V L

f o r g o t t e n w h i l e g e n i u s a n d v a l o u r a n d a t r a g i c fate a p p e a l t o human sympathy. X h e S c o t s were s t i l l r e s o l v e d t o have C h a r l e s f o r t h e i r k i n g , b u t t o a l l o w h i m n o freedom. soever w i t h t h e I r i s h rebels. H e was required t o take the X h e act o f classes w a s t o be were not t o a p c o v e n a n t s w i t h o u t d e l a y , a n d t o d e c l a r e v o i d a l l treaties w h a t enforced, the supporters o f the engagement

p r o a c h t h e k i n g s p e r s o n , a n d s i x t e e n o f h i s m o s t t r u s t e d friends a n d a d v i s e r s w e r e b y n a m e f o r b i d d e n t o enter t h e k i n g d o m . C h a r l e s c o u l d n o t e n d u r e e i t h e r t o accept these t e r m s o r t o f o r e g o h i s hopes o f a c r o w n , b u t e m b a r k e d o n J u n e 2 w i t h h i s f r i e n d s a n d t h e S c o t t i s h c o m m i s s i o n e r s , i n t h e h o p e that w h e n h e r e a c h e d S c o t l a n d h i s presence w o u l d i n d u c e t h e S c o t s t o m i t i g a t e their conditions. E i t h e r i n a v o i d i n g t h e ships o f t h e o f weather, h e c a m e to c o m m o n w e a l t h , o r d r i v e n b y stress

H e l i g o l a n d , a n d there p e r c e i v i n g t h a t h e h a d n o choice, h e agreed t o a l l that the commissioners required. reached S p e y m o u t h , a n d before covenants. O n J u n e 23 h e to the d i s e m b a r k i n g swore

O n h i s s o u t h w a r d j o u r n e y h e w a s forced t o p a r t Charles was the

w i t h a l l t h e friends w h o m h e h a d b r o u g h t , save n i n e , a n d e v e n o f these s o m e w e r e d e b a r r e d h i s presence. m o r e c o m p l i a n t because h e s t i l l h o p e d f o r a n E n g l i s h i n s u r rection w h i c h w o u l d relieve h i m f r o m h i s h u m i l i a t i n g bondage. W^hen t h e S c o t s t o o k C h a r l e s f o r t h e i r k i n g , t h e y e n s u r e d a w a r w i t h E n g l a n d , for he w o u l d certainly t r y to regain his principal k i n g d o m , a n d under the S o l e m n League and Covenant land they might preparations c l a i m t h e r i g h t t o assist h i m . were made for war. In In ScotE n g l a n d the

parliament established a n e w h i g h court o f justice, a n d took o t h e r measures t o p r e v e n t have rebellion. M o n e y was raised b y F a i r f a x should naturally destined to act against p r e s s i n g t h e sale o f confiscated l a n d s . taken c o m m a n d o f the a r m y the Scots.

B u t F a i r f a x h a d l o n g b e e n u n e a s y i n h i s office. o f the king, the

X h e p u r g i n g o f t h e house, t h e e x e c u t i o n a l t h o u g h h e h a d acquiesced i n t h e m . presbyterian a n d royalist.

1

rule o f t h e a r m y a n d t h e r u m p h a d n o t b e e n d e s i r e d b y h i m , H i s wife was a staunch X h u s dissatisfied, h e w a s s t i l l f a i t h f u l ed. by Murdoch and Simpson; Napier,

Wishart, Deeds of Montrose,

of Montrose.

Memoirs

368

ESTABLISHMENT

OF THE COMMONWEALTH

1650

CHAP, t o t h e state a n d r e a d y t o a c t o n t h e defensive, b u t h e s c r u p l e d at a n i n v a s i o n o f S c o t l a n d , a l t h o u g h t h i s w a s t h e o n l y effective w a y o f securing E n g l a n d . ing Neither the arguments o f the counovercome c i l o f state, n o r t h e entreaties o f h i s b r e t h r e n i n a r m s , i n c l u d C r o m w e l l , newly returned from Ireland, could
1

this scruple.

A t t h e e n d o f J u n e F a i r f a x r e s i g n e d the office o f I n Ireland Ireton

general a n d was succeeded b y C r o m w e l l . t w o , a f t e r w a r d s four, c o m m i s s i o n e r s . in England.

s t i l l a c t e d as l o r d d e p u t y , w i t h t h e assistance i n c i v i l affairs o f C r o m w e l l was to lead a n a r m y into Scotland, while H a r r i s o n was to c o m m a n d the troops O n J u l y 22 C r o m w e l l crossed t h e b o r d e r w i t h 16,000 m e n o f w h o m one-third were cavalry. far otherwise T o w a r d s t h e S c o t s h e felt T h e Scots, however T o convert t h e m than towards the Irish.

misguided, were still protestant brethren.

f r o m p o l i t i c a l a n d ecclesiastical e r r o r b y a r g u m e n t a n d p e r suasion w o u l d h a v e been a v i c t o r y m o r e acceptable t h a n a n y that could be w o n b y arms. C r o m w e l l sent before h i m a declaration o f t h e p a r l i a m e n t a n d a n o t h e r o f t h e a r m y " t o a l l t h a t a r e saints a n d p a r t a k e r s i n t h e f a i t h o f G o d s elect i n Scotland," remonstrating w i t h t h e m o n their choice o f Charles S t u a r t as k i n g . T h e general assembly framed a n answer a n d These T h e Scots C r o m w e l l r e p l i e d i n a l e t t e r t o t h e g e n e r a l assembly. e x p o s t u l a t i o n s , h o w e v e r earnest, w e r e o f n o a v a i l . t h e E n g l i s h veterans.

h a d a s s e m b l e d about 26,000 m e n , b u t t h e y w e r e far i n f e r i o r t o T h e t r u e r o y a l i s t s were either e x c l u d e d L e v e n w a s once m o r e c o m at first o r afterwards w e e d e d out, a n d m o s t o f t h e r a n k a n d file lacked b o t h zeal a n d experience. d i r e c t e d operations. mander-in-chief, but h i s lieutenant-general D a v i d L e s l i e really I t w a s r e s o l v e d t o s t a n d o n t h e defensive after w a s t i n g t h e r e g i o n t h r o u g h w h i c h t h e i n v a d e r s h a d t o pass, a n d t h e p e a s a n t s w e r e i n d u c e d t o q u i t t h e i r h o m e s b y fearful tales o f E n g l i s h c r u e l t y . The E n g l i s h c o u l d n o t thus b e a r r e s t e d , f o r t h e i r s h i p s In c o m m a n d e d t h e sea a n d ensured supplies t o their a r m y .

a week C r o m w e l l reached the neighbourhood o f E d i n b u r g h . L e s l i e h a d t a k e n a n a d m i r a b l e p o s i t i o n , w h e r e o n e flank w a s c o v e r e d b y E d i n b u r g h a n d t h e o t h e r b y L e i t h , b o t h fortified

1

"Whitelocke,

Memorials,

pp.

460-62

j Ludlow,

Memoirs,

i., 243-44.

1650

CROMWELL

IN SCOTLAND.

369
1

towns, a n d h i s front b y entrenchments garnished w i t h artillery. There he l a y immovable C r o m w e l l ' s manoeuvres. but was presently The

CHAP.

a n d w o u l d n o t be lured forth b y Charles came to inspirit his friends, a n d they dictated a new

d r i v e n a w a y b y t h e c o m m i t t e e o f estates. t h e a r m y b y 3,000 m e n . C r o m w e l l W h e n he h a d provisioned himself

s p i r i t s o f t h e ministers rose

purging, which weakened w h o needed food, fell back to Dunbar.

a safe h a r b o u r f o r t h e ships w h i c h b r o u g h t h i m

h e r e t r a c e d h i s steps t o w a r d s E d i n b u r g h , w i t h t h e i n t e n t i o n o f p a s s i n g r o u n d t h e c i t y a n d s e i z i n g Q u e e n s f e r r y , so as t o c u t off L e s l i e f r o m s u p p l i e s a n d o b l i g e h i m t o offer pursuance Braid o f this design south Cromwell removed Hill, of Edinburgh. K n o w i n g that battle. In to h i s quarters

there w a s appeased idolatry.

dissension i n the Scottish camp, he waited i n hope that one o f t h e parties m i g h t n e g o t i a t e w i t h h i m , b u t C h a r l e s strife for the moment b y a declaration w h i c h resistance to reformation Queensferry, father's a n d h i s mother's bewailed his Leslie h a d

"When a t last C r o m w e l l t h r e a t e n e d for a t t a c k . Sickness

t a k e n at C o r s t o r p h i n e , west o f E d i n b u r g h , a p o s i t i o n t o o s t r o n g was t h i n n i n g t h e E n g l i s h army, a n d o n A u g u s t 31 C r o m w e l l b e g a n a s e c o n d retreat t o D u n b a r . D u n b a r stands o n a n a r r o w space b e t w e e n t h e L a m m e r m u i r H i l l s a n d t h e sea. camped Cromwell arrived o n September 1 and enh i s troops o n t h e l o w g r o u n d near t h e t o w n , w h i l e t o seize t h e defile o f C o c k b u r n s Dunbar on the road to E n g l a n d . position. H i s effective m e n strength.

L e s l i e t o o k post a b o v e o n D o o n H i l l , t h e last s p u r o f t h e L a m m e r m u i r s , a n d sent a force path, some miles b e y o n d

C r o m w e l l w a s i n a dangerous

w e r e r e d u c e d t o 11,000, perhaps o n e - h a l f o f L e s l i e ' s

T o fight h i s w a y t h r o u g h w a s d i f f i c u l t ; t o s t a y l o n g at D u n b a r i n t h e presence o f a superior a r m y w a s i m p o s s i b l e ; a n d t h e r e w e r e n o t ships e n o u g h t o c a r r y o f f a l l his m e n , even i f t h e y w e r e not molested while embarking. F o r t u n a t e l y L e s l i e d i d not abide on h i s v a n t a g e g r o u n d , w h e r e h e h a d n e i t h e r shelter n o r w a t e r . A s s u r e d o f v i c t o r y a n d f e a r i n g o n l y lest the e n e m y s h o u l d escape, the c o m m i t t e e o f estates a n d t h e m i n i s t e r s o f the K i r k i n s i s t e d u p o n a c t i o n , a n d o n t h e 2nd L e s l i e g a v e orders t o d e s c e n d w i t h t h e p u r p o s e o f f i g h t i n g t h e E n g l i s h as soon as p o s s i b l e . Carlyle, Letters VOL. VII.
1

and Speeches of Oliver Cromwell,

Letter cxxxv.

24

37

ESTABLISHMENT

OF THE

COMMONWEALTH

1650

CHAP.

The

armies w e r e s e p a r a t e d

by

a stream

known

as

the

B r o x b u r n , w h i c h comes d o w n f r o m t h e h i l l s to the sea about a mile and a half south of D u n b a r . W^here i t traverses t h e h i g h i n several g r o u n d i t runs i n a deep d e l l , b u t as i t approaches t h e c o a s t the b a n k s f a l l a w a y a n d i t c a n r e a d i l y be crossed places. A t t h e p o i n t w h e r e i t intersects the r o a d t o B e r w i c k

stood B r o x m o u t h H o u s e , w h i c h t h e E n g l i s h h e l d as a n o u t p o s t . T o t h e s o u t h o f the s t r e a m , L e s l i e d e s c e n d i n g f r o m t h e h i l l s spread out his forces so as to front t h e r o a d w h i c h the E n g l i s h w o u l d h a v e t o f o l l o w , b u t h i s left w i n g was c r a m p e d b y r a v i n e o f the B r o x b u r n . the D e s p e r a t e as C r o m w e l l ' s case seemed,

he w a s r e s o l v e d to a t t a c k , a n d t o concentrate h i s force u p o n L e s l i e ' s r i g h t w i n g , f o r i f he w e r e v i c t o r i o u s there, t h e rest o f Leslie's army, crowded between the h i l l and the b u m , w o u l d have n o r o o m to re-form. A t a c o u n c i l o f w a r that n i g h t , s o m e But officers p r o p o s e d that t h e foot s h o u l d be sent a w a y b y sea a n d t h a t t h e horse s h o u l d t r y t o b r e a k t h r o u g h the e n e m y . L a m b e r t , to w h o m for a n attack. o n t h e 3rd, three regiments o f horse a n d C r o m w e l l h a d communicated his o p p o s e d the suggestion Before daybreak design,

a n d p r e v a i l e d o n the c o u n c i l t o v o t e

two o f foot w e r e sent across the B r o x b u r n t o cover t h e passage of t h e rest, a n d p e r f o r m e d t h e i r t a s k w i t h o u t m u c h difficulty, f o r t h e S c o t s after one o r t w o false a l a r m s h a d c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e E n g l i s h w o u l d n o t a t t a c k i n s u c h tempestuous were n o t on t h e alert. weather, and M a n y of the cavalry had unsaddled

t h e i r horses, m o s t o f t h e i n f a n t r y h a d n o t their matches l i t , a n d a n u m b e r of officers h a d q u i t t e d t h e i r posts t o f i n d shelter f r o m the rain. T h e rest o f t h e E n g l i s h f o l l o w e d across t h e B r o x b u r n , a n d C r o m w e l l m a r s h a l l e d h i s w h o l e a r m y w i t h i t s rear to t h e sea a n d its f r o n t t o t h e h i l l , a p o s i t i o n w h i c h left n o altern a t i v e save d e a t h or conquest. fantry, b e g a n t h e attack. O n t h e left, L a m b e r t , w i t h t h e best p a r t o f t h e c a v a l r y , a n d i n t h e c e n t r e M o n k w i t h the i n T h e S c o t s , at l e n g t h f u l l y roused, The c o n f r o n t e d t h e m w i t h e q u a l courage a n d greater n u m b e r s . and r e n e w e d t h e onset.

E n g l i s h were g i v i n g w a y w h e n C r o m w e l l b r o u g h t u p t h e reserve T h e Scottish right was broken, the the cavalry i n f a n t r y o f t h e S c o t t i s h centre g a v e w a y before retrievable r u i n .

c h a r g i n g t h e m i n flank, a n d t h e w h o l e S c o t t i s h host f e l l i n t o i r " L e t G o d arise, let H i s enemies be scattered ! "

BA TTLE

OF D

UNBAR.

37^

e x c l a i m e d C r o m w e l l , as the sun rose o n that field o f havoc. A CHAP, fierce chase for m a n y miles g a t h e r e d i n a l l t h e fruits o f v i c t o r y . XVI. T h e Scots lost 3,000 m e n slain, 10,000 prisoners, n e a r l y 200 colours, 15,000 s t a n d o f arms, a n d a l l their baggage a n d a r t i l l e r y . T h e E n g l i s h loss seems to have b e e n insignificant. C r o m w e l l a l l o w e d the c o u n t r y people t o r e m o v e s u c h o f the S c o t t i s h prisoners as were w o u n d e d a n d sent the rest t o E n g l a n d . S o m e perished b y the w a y o f hunger a n d f a t i g u e ; m o r e d i e d o f sickness i n D u r h a m , where t h e y were confined a n d t h e residue were sent t o serve t h e N e w E n g l a n d colonists, w h o used t h e m n o t u n k i n d l y . H a v i n g regained freedom o f m o v e m e n t , C r o m w e l l a d v a n c e d f r o m D u n b a r f o r the t h i r d t i m e , a n d entered L e i t h a n d E d i n b u r g h w i t h o u t resistance, a l t h o u g h t h e castle s t i l l h e l d o u t , L e s l i e , w i t h perhaps 4,000 fugitives, retreated t o w a r d s S t i r l i n g , a n d the s t u b b o r n Scots, not c r u s h e d a l t h o u g h defeated, began t o raise a n e w a r m y . B u t t h e s p i r i t o f their warfare was changed. A s Cromwell w r o t e : " S u r e l y it's p r o b a b l e t h e k i r k has done their d o . I believe t h e i r k i n g w i l l set u p u p o n h i s o w n score n o w , w h e r e i n h e w i l l find m a n y friends." * I n a n age w h e n e v e r y * success o r defeat was d e e m e d t h e i m m e d i a t e a n d v i s i b l e j u d g m e n t o f H e a v e n , t h e rout o f D u n b a r shattered the ascendency o f the covenanters. T h e i r p u r g i n g s o f the a r m y , their distrust o f t h e k i n g , t h e i r assurance o f v i c t o r y h a d been j u d g e d b y t h e G o d o f battles, a n d t h e y c o u l d avert worse c a l a m i t y o n l y b y a l l o w i n g a l l w h o w o u l d d o so t o j o i n i n the defence o f t h e c o u n t r y . T h e o l d followers o f H a m i l t o n b e g a n to c h e r i s h n e w hopes, a n d C h a r l e s c o u l d not conceal his j o y at t h e worst overt h r o w w h i c h t h e house o f S t u a r t h a d ever experienced.
1

H e t r i e d t o lure A r g y l e i n t o a n a l l i a n c e w i t h t h e H a m i l t o n p a r t y , a n d h e arranged w i t h the r o y a l i s t s o f the n o r t h to rise i n his defence i n O c t o b e r . T h e project h a v i n g come t o the ears o f the c o m m i t t e e o f estates, t h e y enforced a n e w p u r g i n g o f the royal household and bodyguard. C h a r l e s fled from P e r t h t o j o i n h i s friends, but w a s overtaken a n d b r o u g h t b a c k . This Cromwell's own account of the battle (Carlyle, Letters and Speeches of Cromwell, Letter cxl.) is brief and general. Professor Firth, Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, N.S., xiv., has analysed all the available evidence and reached results differing from those of previous historians, but accepted by Gardiner. Carlyle, Letters ami Speeches of Oliver Cromwell, Letter cxli.
1

Oliver

24

372

ESTABLISHMENT

OF THE

COMMONWEALTH

1650

CHAP, i n c i d e n t , w h i c h b e c a m e k n o w n as t h e S t a r t , l e d the c o m m i t t e e
x

^**

t o t a k e a m i l d e r tone a n d g r a n t a n i n d e m n i t y t o those w o u l d h a v e risen o n t h e k i n g ' s behalf. T h e more rigid

who cove-

nanters, l e d b y C o l o n e l s K e r a n d S t r a c h a n , t h e n p u t f o r t h a r e m o n s t r a n c e t o the effect t h a t t h e y w o u l d not fight f o r t h e king until he h a d proved his repentance and expelled the malignants. ing. Y e t t h e y w o u l d h a v e n o t h i n g t o do w i t h C r o m -

well, who advanced t o G l a s g o w i n the hope of an understandH e r e t u r n e d t o E d i n b u r g h , b u t f i n d i n g t h a t the w e s t e r n A s k i r m i s h at H a m i l t o n , o n D e c e m b e r O n December 1, covenanters w e r e s t i l l t r o u b l e s o m e , h e t o o k t h e field a g a i n i n the d e p t h o f winter. of t h e i r f o l l o w e r s . Scotland. S u c h w a s t h e s i n g u l a r p o s i t i o n o f C h a r l e s t h a t e v e r y reverse increased h i s p o w e r or, at least, h i s f r e e d o m . T h e parliament devotion to engagement On w h i c h met at P e r t h i n N o v e m b e r s t i l l p r o f e s s e d the covenant, b u t w e l c o m e d a n y o l d p a r t i s a n o f the who would take it. ended in the surrender of K e r a n d Strachan a n d the dispersion 24 E d i n b u r g h C a s t l e surrendered, a n d t h e E n g l i s h b e c a m e m a s t e r s o f a l l the s o u t h o f

M a n y o f the c l e r g y gave w a y a n d c o n -

sented to t h e p a r d o n o f those w h o testified repentance.

J a n u a r y 1, 1651, C h a r l e s was c r o w n e d a t S c o n e w i t h s u c h s p l e n d o u r as t h e t i m e a l l o w e d , a n d a g a i n s w o r e f a i t h f u l l y to observe the covenants. A s the returning engagers became more powerT h e D u k e of H a m i l t o n , formerly ful i n the c o u r t a n d a r m y , A r g y l e felt so i l l at ease t h a t he ret i r e d t o h i s castle of I n v e r a r y . of the k i n g . E a r l o f L a n a r k , a n d o t h e r e n g a g e r s o p e n l y possessed t h e ear I n a n e w session o f p a r l i a m e n t t h e y p r o c u r e d t h e Since the repeal o f t h e act o f classes, thus a d m i t t i n g t h e i r f o l l o w e r s o n c e m o r e to p u b l i c l i f e a n d t h e service o f t h e crown. engagers w o u l d be a b l e t o a c t w i t h t h e E n g l i s h r o y a l i s t s far m o r e c o r d i a l l y t h a n the s t r i c t covenanters, C h a r l e s b e c a m e m o r e dangerous t h a n e v e r to t h e c o m m o n w e a l t h . I n E n g l a n d the r o y a l i s t s h a d been p l o t t i n g i n c e s s a n t l y , b u t t h e i r secrets w e r e n o t w e l l k e p t , a n d f r o m t i m e t o t i m e of the c o n s p i r a t o r s w e r e arrested. January it became known that a A sentence o f c o u r t - m a r t i a l or o f t h e h i g h court o f j u s t i c e . general been p l a n n e d t o b r e a k out at t h e e n d o f t h e p r e v i o u s a n d was o n l y deferred t o s o m e f a v o u r a b l e o p p o r t u n i t y . some by In year, few w e r e e x e c u t e d

insurrection h a d Thomas

1651

CHARLES

INVADES

ENGLAND.

373

C o k e , a r o y a l i s t agent, w h o w a s a r r e s t e d i n M a r c h , t u r n e d i n - CHAP, f o r m e r t o s a v e h i s life, a n d m e n t i o n e d a n u m b e r o f p r e s b y t e r i a n m i n i s t e r s as f o r e m o s t i n the c o n s p i r a c y . demned T h r e e o f t h e m , Case, After much J e n k i n s , a n d L o v e , were arrested, a n d L o v e w a s t r i e d a n d c o n b y the h i g h court of justice in July. o n A u g u s t 22. hesitation, he was executed ness, a n d H a r r i s o n w a s sent inroads. Many suspected royalist

persons w e r e t h r o w n i n t o p r i s o n , the m i l i t i a w a s h e l d i n r e a d i to the border to repel A t the e n d o f J u n e L e s l i e chose a s t r o n g p o s i t i o n a t

T o r w o o d , a little north o f F a l k i r k , where he could cover S t i r l i n g a n d d e f y a l l t h e efforts o f C r o m w e l l t o b r i n g a b o u t a b a t t l e . C r o m w e l l r e s o l v e d t o d i s l o d g e t h e S c o t s b y c u t t i n g off t h e i r supplies, w h i c h t h e y d r e w m a i n l y f r o m F i f e . m a n d o f t h e sea, he o c c u p i e d North Having comand sent Queensferry,

p a r t o f h i s a r m y across the F i r t h o f F o r t h i n c h a r g e o f L a m b e r t . L e s l i e d e t a c h e d a g a i n s t L a m b e r t a force o f 4>ooo m e n u n d e r S i r J o h n B r o w n , b u t i t was d e f e a t e d Inverkeithing. a n d almost d e s t r o y e d at body 2. C r o m w e l l then crossed w i t h the m a i n

a n d m a r c h e d against P e r t h , w h i c h surrendered o n A u g u s t

T h e n e c e s s i t y o f f o r c i n g t h e w a r t o a n issue before h i s s o l d i e r s s h o u l d be c o n s u m e d b y t h e h a r d s h i p s o f a n o t h e r w i n t e r c a m paign, outweighed in his judgment the risk of leaving E n g l a n d open to a Scottish invasion.
1

A s the Scots could no longer r e m a i n i n their position, a n d w e r e n o t s t r o n g e n o u g h to e n c o u n t e r C r o m w e l l , C h a r l e s r e s o l v e d to t h r o w h i m s e l f u p o n E n g l a n d a n d trust to the chance o f a general rising. A l t h o u g h h e c o u l d n o t p e r s u a d e A r g y l e o r the to take part i n the adventure, he C r o m w e l l sent
3JOOO

genuine covenanters with 20,000 men.

broke to

u p f r o m S t i r l i n g o n J u l y 31, a n d m a r c h e d r a p i d l y s o u t h w a r d s Harrison instructions h a n g o n t h e flank o f the i n v a d e r s a n d harass t h e m i n d e t a i l . Despatching Lambert with h o r s e t o f o l l o w i n t h e i r rear, The a n d l e a v i n g M o n k w i t h a f o r c e sufficient t o besiege S t i r l i n g , h e set o u t f r o m L e i t h o n A u g u s t 6 w i t h t h e m a i n a r m y . c o u n c i l o f state e m b o d i e d t h e m i l i t i a o f t h e counties o n t h e i n v a d e r s l i n e o f m a r c h , a n d r a i s e d 2,000 horse a n d 8,000 foot for t h e d e f e n c e by
1

of London.

M e a n w h i l e Charles pressed

on and

Carlisle a n d Lancaster, a n d brushed aside H a r r i s o n Carlyle,

Letters and Speeches of Oliver Cromwell,

Letters clxxv., clxxx.

374
C

ESTABLISHMENT
D e r t

OF THE
n e

COMMONWEALTH

1651

xvf'

^ ^ ji
a <

w i t h s t a n d h i m near W a r r i n g t o n .

F e w E n g l i s h m e n , h o w e v e r , w o u l d consent t o share h i s fortunes. T h e E a r l o f D e r b y left h i s i s l a n d o f M a n w i t h a few s o l d i e r s , a n d t r i e d t o raise L a n c a s h i r e for t h e k i n g . c o l l e c t i n g s o m e 1,500 by Colonel Lilburne. to j o i n his Those who H e succeeded in m e n , b u t t h e y w e r e r o u t e d near W i g a n were not killed or taken

dispersed, a n d t h e e a r l , w o u n d e d a n d a l m o s t alone, fled s o u t h wards Wales. master. N o r d i d Charles find more enc o u r a g e m e n t as h e p a s s e d t h r o u g h t h e counties b o r d e r i n g o n W l i e n he reached W o r c e s t e r o n t h e 22nd w i t h a t i r e d , d i s h e a r t e n e d , a n d d i m i n i s h e d a r m y , h e c o u l d g o n o farther, a n d sat d o w n t o f o r t i f y t h e city. H e w a s a l l o w e d s h o r t space for rest o r reflection. an easterly route through Northumberland and his accustomed C r o m w e l l pushed forward with Talcing and Yorkshire, speed,

j o i n e d L a m b e r t a n d H a r r i s o n at W a r w i c k o n l y t w o d a y s after C h a r l e s entered "Worcester. ^Vith the militia regiments w h i c h The Scottish h a d c o m e i n , he c o u l d dispose o f 28,000 m e n .

generals l e a v i n g a g a r r i s o n i n W o r c e s t e r , q u a r t e r e d t h e b u l k o f t h e i r a r m y o n t h e western b a n k o f t h e S e v e r n , so as to k e e p open t h e i r c o m m u n i c a t i o n w i t h W a l e s , t h e o n l y r e g i o n l i k e l y t o afford t h e m a n y succour. F l e e t w o o d t o cross t h e c i t y f r o m t h e east. C r o m w e l l , w h o w i s h e d t o cut t h e S c o t s off f r o m W a l e s , sent p a r t o f h i s troops u n d e r L a m b e r t a n d S e v e r n a t U p t o n , a few m i l e s b e l o w W o r c e s t e r , w h i l e h e h e l d t h e m a m b o d y i n readiness t o assail t h e A b r i d g e o f boats was t h e n l a i d across t h e Severn, the two by river Teme, which barred the march of L a m b e r t and Fleetwood up t h e v a l l e y , a n d a n o t h e r b r i d g e was l a i d across t h e so as forces. t o afford a shorter c o m m u n i c a t i o n between

D u r i n g these p r e p a r a t i o n s C r o m w e l l was j o i n e d

3,000 m o r e m i l i t i a , r a i s i n g h i s t o t a l s t r e n g t h t o a l m o s t t w i c e the s t r e n g t h o f the e n e m y . for t h e d o u b l e a t t a c k . Charles h a d but one advantage, his central position. obstinate resistance, u n t i l C r o m w e l l r e i n f o r c e d Fleetwood The so f i g h t first r a g e d b e y o n d t h e S e v e r n , w h e r e t h e S c o t s m a d e a n strongly that they were driven back into Worcester. F r o m the O n t h e a f t e r n o o n o f S e p t e m b e r 3, e x a c t l y a y e a r after t h e v i c t o r y o f D u n b a r , e v e r y t h i n g was r e a d y

top o f t h e c a t h e d r a l t o w e r C h a r l e s c o u l d see h o w m u c h t h e e n e m y o n the eastern b a n k was r e d u c e d i n number^ a n d h e s e i z e d

1651

BATTLE

OF

WORCESTER.

375

the moment for a vigorous sally.

A t first h e g a i n e d g r o u n d , T h e Scots

CHAP,
XVI.

but C r o m w e l l soon returned w i t h overpowering numbers, forced back the Scots, a n d stormed his w a y into the city. fought desperately, down rallying again a n d again, w i t h shot t o C r o m w e l l ' s o w n offer o f q u a r t e r . foot l a i d t h e i r a r m s , a n d t h e horse and replying A t length the burst out o f the

gates, C h a r l e s h i m s e l f , a n d D e r b y , a n d H a m i l t o n , a n d L a u d e r dale a m o n g the c r o w d . B u t the homeward w a y was too long, the invaders, a n d
1

the c o u n t r y people were too bitter against Hamilton died o f his wounds, a n d D e r b y

t h e officers o f t h e p a r l i a m e n t t o o w a t c h f u l , f o r m a n y t o e s c a p e . y i e l d e d themselves prisoners. Lauderdale remained

and Lauderdale

D e r b y was c o n d e m n e d b y courtuntil the restoration.

m a r t i a l a t C h e s t e r a n d sent f o r e x e c u t i o n t o B o l t o n - l e - M o o r s . i n the T o w e r C h a r l e s , after p a s s i n g t h r o u g h s t r a n g e h a z a r d s , a n d p r o v i n g t h e g e n e r o u s f a i t h o f m a n y obscure m e n a n d w o m e n , m a d e h i s w a y to B r i g h t h e l m s t o n e , a n d thence i n a s m a l l barque t o F6camp,

2

i n N o r m a n d y , where h e landed o n O c t o b e r o f t h e r a n k a n d file h a d v a r i o u s fortunes.

16.

T h e prisoners

M a n y were p u t to

forced service at home, or i n Barbados, or i n N e w E n g l a n d ; while some were allowed to return to their o w n country. S c o t l a n d , h a v i n g lost three c o n s i d e r a b l e a r m i e s w i t h i n f o u r ye ars , w a s e x h a u s t e d a n d c o u l d n o l o n g e r d e f e n d i t s i n d e p e n d ence. M o n k h a d received the surrender o f S t i r l i n g Castle o n O n e o f h i s officers s u r p r i s e d L e v e n a n d t h e c o m a l l prisoners. O n September 1 Monk stormed A u g u s t 14* took them

m i t t e e o f estates a t a conference i n t h e l i t t l e t o w n o f A l y t h , a n d Dundee, putting to the sword most of the garrison a n d some of the citizens, a n d m a k i n g a r i c h booty. B e f o r e t h e close o f t h e y e a r a l l t h e lowlands h a d been subdued w i t h the exception o f a f e w castles, a n d t h e last o f these, t h e w e l l - n i g h inaccessible D u n n o t t a r , c a p i t u l a t e d o n M a y 26, 1652. Even Argyle, who h a d h o p e d t o r e g a i n h i s o l d p o s i t i o n as r u l e r o f S c o t l a n d w i t h E n g l i s h support, y i e l d e d to t h e c o m m o n .destiny, a n d a l l o w e d the p a r l i a m e n t a r y c o m m a n d e r s t o g a r r i s o n h i s castles. Some with
8

t i m e e l a p s e d before t h e h i g h l a n d s w e r e t h o r o u g h l y

subdued.

T h e parliament passed a n act to incorporate S c o t l a n d

E n g l a n d , a n d the u n i o n was proclaimed at E d i n b u r g h i n A p r i l .

1

Carlyle,

Letters and Speeches of Oliver Cromwell,

3

Letters clxxxii., clxxxiii.

Now Brighton.

Commons* Journals,

vii., 107, 118.

37

ESTABLISHMENT

OF THE

COMMONWEALTH.

1651

CHAP.

T h e S c o t s g e n e r a l l y w e r e t o e n j o y t h e r i g h t s o f E n g l i s h subjects a n d f u l l f r e e d o m o f conscience. T h e estates o f those w h o h a d to tenants rents. t a k e n p a r t i n t h e i n v a s i o n s o f E n g l a n d w e r e confiscated d e f r a y t h e expenses w h i c h t h e y h a d caused, b u t their were allowed to hold of the c o m m o n w e a l t h at easy

W h i l e the E n g l i s h a d m i r e d their o w n generosity i n treating the c o n q u e r e d as f e l l o w - c i t i z e n s , t h e S c o t s detested t h e d o m i n a t i o n o f the o l d e n e m y , a n d t h e to destroy. T h e conquest of I r e l a n d h a d n o t been stayed b y the parture o f C r o m w e l l . worthy that The n a m e , was routed at Scariffhollis, i n deU l s t e r a r m y , t h e last I r i s h for c e Donegal, Clogher, Shannon, Kirk w r i t h e d under a toleration conferred b y those v e r y h e r e t i c s w h o m i t h a d so l o n g l a b o u r e d

o n J u n e 21, 1650, a n d i t s c o m m a n d e r , t h e B i s h o p o f w a s t a k e n a n d put t o d e a t h . o n A u g u s t 6. ever. town. The I r i s h still h e l d the line of the

W a t e r f o r d surrendered to Ireton

w i t h A t h l o n e and L i m e r i c k , but they lacked direction worse than O r m o n d h a d so c o m p l e t e l y lost c r e d i t t h a t i n A u g u s t he F i n d i n g that he could do nothing more, he named the predecessor, governWithin o f the was d e p o s e d f r o m his office b y t h e b i s h o p s a s s e m b l e d a t J a m e s catholic E a r l of Clanricarde lord deputy, a n d retired to F r a n c e . Clanricarde wielded no more authority t h a n his a n d t h e bishops f o r m e d t h e o n l y r e a l g o v e r n m e n t , a m e n t u n f i t to w a g e a s t r u g g l e f o r n a t i o n a l existence. the E n g l i s h bounds s m a l l parties, a v a i l i n g themselves c o n t i n u e d t o w a g e a g u e r i l l a warfare. d e s t r o y i n g houses a n d c r o p s , so t h a t pestilence s p r e a d i n i t s t r a i n . peopled bestead and and untitled, a n d the for daily food. Athlone besiege Hugh Connaught, while Ireton prepared to

w o o d s a n d bogs, a n d a s s i s t e d b y t h e g o o d w i l l o f t h e p e a s a n t r y , U n a b l e t o c a t c h these the dearth w h i c h h a d and hard n i m b l e adversaries, t h e E n g l i s h s o u g h t t o starve t h e m o u t b y l o n g a f f l i c t e d t h e c o u n t r y b e c a m e m o r e severe, a n d fever conquerors were often

^Whole d i s t r i c t s were left u n -

W h e n -summer r e t u r n e d a force f r o m U l s t e r took invaded Limerick.

T h e c i t y was strong a n d well supplied, and

O N e i l l , t h e governor, g a v e proof o f the same s k i l l a n d courage w h i c h he h a d shown i n the defence o f C l o n m e l . the e n d of June to starve it into surrender. A l l attempts to carry L i m e r i c k b y s t o r m having failed, Ireton determined at M o n t h after m o n t h

PACIFICATION

OF

IRELAND.

377

p a s s e d a w a y ; t h e p l a g u e m a d e fearful ravages w i t h i n t h e w a l l s ; CHAP, t h e besiegers a t last f o u n d a spot f r o m w h i c h t h e i r h e i g h t w h i c h m a d e further resistance i m p o s s i b l e . capitulation were signed o n O c t o b e r 27, 1651. batteries
XVI.

c o u l d d o e x e c u t i o n , a n d strife b e t w e e n t h e defenders r os e t o a Articles of Ireton, w h o The

died o f the plague a few days afterwards, was h o n o u r e d w i t h a sumptuous funeral a n d a grave i n W e s t m i n s t e r A b b e y . commissioners appointed to help h i m i n the civil administration n a m e d o n e o f themselves, M a j o r - G e n e r a l L u d l o w , t o c o m m a n d t h e a r m y u n t i l t h e pleasure o f t h e p a r l i a m e n t s h o u l d b e k n o w n . unconditional submission. sword.
1

C l a n r i c a r d e t r i e d t o negotiate, b u t L u d l o w w o u l d o n l y h e a r o f A l l through the winter a n d spring o p e n e d i t s gates, a n d t h e for future capitulations. 34,000, scorning powers. subt h e d i s t r i c t s w h i c h s t i l l h e l d o u t w e r e w a s t e d w i t h fire a n d O n M a y 12, 1 6 5 2 , G a l w a y chiefs o f t h e last I r i s h forces i n L e i n s t e r a c c e p t e d t h e a r t i c l e s o f K i l k e n n y , which became a precedent Great numbers o f Irishmen, i t is said t h e armies o f the catholic

m i s s i o n t o t h e h a t e d f o r e i g n e r , g a i n e d leave t o g o a b r o a d a n d recruited T h e state o f Petty reckoned I r e l a n d w a s s u c h as c o u l d b e p a r a l l e l e d o n l y b y t h e state o f G e r m a n y a t t h e close o f t h e t h i r t y years' w a r . fallen f r o m 1,466,000 t o 850,ooo. enormous. t h e future
2

t h a t since t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e r e b e l l i o n t h e p o p u l a t i o n h a d H e might exaggerate, for he h a d n o t r u s t w o r t h y d a t a , b u t t h e loss o f life h a d c e r t a i n l y b e e n M i s e r a b l e as w a s t h e c o n d i t i o n o f t h e I r i s h catholics, afforded t h e m n o comfort, for t h e parliament h a d b y feelings o f revenge a n d

b o u n d i t s e l f t o effect a n i m m e n s e confiscation o f l a n d s b e l o n g i n g t o t h e rebels, a n d w a s d i s p o s e d p r e c a u t i o n t o g o e v e n further. W h i l e t h e commonwealth was subduing Ireland a n d Scotl a n d , i t asserted w i t h equal v i g o u r t h e d o m i n i o n o f t h e seas. A t t h e time o f the execution o f Charles I. the royalists held a n u m b e r o f n a v a l s t r o n g h o l d s , t h e Isle o f M a n , t h e S c i l l y Isles, Jersey, a n d i n Guernsey Castle Cornet. a respectable fleet. T h e y also possessed A f t e r escaping from K i n s a l e i n November,

1 6 4 9 , R u p e r t steered f o r L i s b o n , c o n f i d e n t t h a t K i n g J o h n I V . Ludlow, Memoirs, i., 294. ^ Petty, Political Anatomy of Ireland. This estimate includes the losses of the protestants, which he places at 37,000 for thefirstyear and at 1x2,000 for the whole period.
1

37$

ESTABLISHMENT

OF THE COMMONWEALTH

1650

CHAP,

w o u l d b e f r i e n d t h e enemies o f a r e g i c i d e r e p u b l i c .

T h e king

g r a n t e d t h e h o s p i t a l i t y w h i c h h e s o u g h t , b u t i n M a r c h , 1650, B l a k e appeared at the m o u t h o f the T a g u s i n pursuit o f R u p e r t . F o r some t i m e b o t h fleets l a y near e a c h o t h e r i n t h e estuary while J o h n prudence. enemies. allowed Tagus. wavered between the claims o f honour a n d of A t length he resolved t o continue his protection o f T h e Spaniards, w h o regarded B l a k e t o supply his wants from them as rebels,

R u p e r t , a n d B l a k e received o r d e r s t o t r e a t t h e P o r t u g u e s e as Cadiz and Vigo,

thus e n a b l i n g h i m t o k e e p

his station at the mouth o f the I n September Blake cargoes.

T w i c e R u p e r t s t r o v e t o escape, but, finding t h e e n e m y fleet o n its h o m e w a r d voyage, t a k i n g

o n t h e alert, d r e w b a c k w i t h l i t t l e loss. intercepted the B r a z i l the flagship a n d seven

other vessels w i t h v a l u a b l e

T h e n , as t h e t i m e w a s a p p r o a c h i n g w h e n t h e s h i p s o f t h a t a g e c o u l d , n o l o n g e r k e e p t h e sea, h e sent p a r t o f h i s fleet h o m e w i t h t h e prizes a n d w i t h t h e rest s a i l e d f o r C a d i z , w h e r e h e f o u n d a friendly reception. O n O c t o b e r 12 R u p e r t left L i s b o n f o r t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n , t a k i n g o r d e s t r o y i n g o n t h e w a y s u c h E n g l i s h s h i p s as h e c o u l d find even i n S p a n i s h p o r t s a n d u n d e r t h e fire o f S p a n i s h b a t teries. W h e n h e h a d entered t h e S t r a i t s B l a k e p u r s u e d . Some There o f R u p e r t ' s s h i p s were t a k e n , others w e r e w r e c k e d C a r t h a g e n a , a n d o n l y three r e a c h e d T o u l o n i n safety. R u p e r t was able P e n n succeeded t o refit a n d augment close t o

his little squadron. I n the following

B l a k e r e t u r n e d h o m e t o receive t h e t h a n k s o f p a r l i a m e n t a n d h i m i n the Mediterranean. summer Rupert, h a v i n g misled P e n n b y circulating a report t h a t h e w o u l d sail for t h e L e v a n t , c o n t r i v e d t o s l i p o u t o f t h e Straits unmolested. I t was his design to make for the W e s t B u t h i s crews Indies, w h e r e t h e r o y a l cause h a d m a n y f r i e n d s a n d t o e s t a b l i s h a n e w base o f operations i n those d i s t a n t waters. preferred t o l i n g e r n e a r t h e A z o r e s constrained t o h u m o u r t h e i r desires. i n t h e hope o f m a k i n g
1

prizes, a n d R u p e r t , w h o h a d n o resource s a v e i n p l u n d e r , w a s W h e n there w a s n o l o n g e r a n y h o p e o f r e l i e f t h e i s l a n d fortresses a r o u n d B r i t a i n were e a s i l y s u b d u e d . m T h e S c i l l y Isles s u r r e n d e r e d t o B l a k e M a y , 1651 \ t h e Isle o f M a n w a s c o n q u e r e d w i t h ease after *For Ruperts voyages see Warburton,
et seq.

Memoirs of Prince Rupert,

iii,

279

1650

THE

COMMONWEALTH

AND

THE

COLONIES.

379

the death o f the E a r l of D e r b y \ Jersey a n d Castle C o m e t were gained i n December. T h e E n g l i s h colonies b e y o n d t h e A t l a n t i c h a d f l o u r i s h e d so g r e a t l y s i n c e t h e first e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f V i r g i n i a a n d M a s s a chusetts t h a t t h e i r a d h e s i o n was a l r e a d y a m a t t e r o f s o m e c o n s e q u e n c e t o t h e g o v e r n m e n t at h o m e . The Bermudas In were 1623 West s e t t l e d b y t h e V i r g i n i a c o m p a n y as e a r l y as 1612.

CHAP, XVI.

T h o m a s ^Varner founded the E n g l i s h d o m i n i o n i n the

I n d i e s b y o c c u p y i n g S t . K i t t s, a n d a l t h o u g h t h e E n g l i s h h a d to share the island w i t h F r e n c h adventurers a n d b o t h were a l m o s t r u i n e d b y a S p a n i s h o n s l a u g h t i n 1629, t h e c o l o n y s u r vived. 1628, S t a r t i n g f r o m S t . K i t t ' s , t h e E n g l i s h settled N e v i s i n Antigua and Montserrat i n 1632. More prosperous

t h a n a n y o f these settlements w a s t h e p l a n t a t i o n o f B a r b a d o s , b e g u n i n 1625 b y S i r W i l l i a m Courten, a wealthy L o n d o n e r of I n 1646 t h i s l i t t l e i s l a n d is s a i d t o Sir have S t i l l more notable George his F l e m i s h descent.

a l r e a d y n u m b e r e d 20,000 free i n h a b i t a n t s .

was a new colony o n the m a i n l a n d of A m e r i c a .

C a l v e r t , w h o h a d s e r v e d J a m e s I . as secretary, r e s i g n e d

office a s h o r t t i m e before t h e k i n g ' s d e a t h , a v o w e d h i m s e l f a R o m a n c a t h o l i c a n d was c r e a t e d L o r d B a l t i m o r e i n t h e I r i s h peerage. D e s i r o u s t o m a k e a n a s y l u m f o r those o f h i s o w n f a i t h , h e o b t a i n e d f r o m C h a r l e s I. a c h a r t e r e m p o w e r i n g h i m t o settle the region n o r t h of the P o t o m a c a n d investing h i m w i t h a l m o s t s o v e r e i g n r i g h t s o v e r t h e settlers. i n its terms made A discreet vagueness Baltimore Among religious toleration possible.

s t y l e d t h e c o l o n y M a r y l a n d i n h o n o u r o f t h e queen, a n d h i s o w n m e m o r y is p r e s e r v e d i n the n a m e o f i t s greatest c i t y . t h e first settlers w h o c a m e o u t i n 1634 w e r e s o m e but the majority was n a t u r a l l y catholic. o f t h e c i v i l war, t h e s e t t l e m e n t s protestants,

Before the outbreak

of R h o d e Island, Connecticut,

M a i n e a n d N e w H a m p s h i r e h a d also b e e n f o r m e d . T h e N e w E n g l a n d colonies were instinctively l o y a l t o the commonwealth; but in M a r y l a n d and V i r g i n i a , i n Bermuda, A n t i g u a a n d above a l l B a r b a d o s the royalists were the stronger party, a n d were recruited b y a stream of exiles f r o m the mothercountry. II. and L o r d W i l l o u g h b y of P a r h a m , w h o had forsaken the from Charles A few days reached Barbados on A p r i l 29* 1650. p a r l i a m e n t , r e c e i v e d a c o m m i s s i o n as g o v e r n o r

afterwards K i n g Charles was p r o c l a i m e d a n d the P r a y e r B o o k

380
c

ESTABLISHMENT

OF THE

COMMONWEALTH.

1651

**A *
p

declared to be the o n l y pattern o f true worship i n the colony. V ^ i l l o u g h b y c o u l d not e v e n r e s t r a i n h i s friends f r o m b a n i s h i n g a large number of their opponents. P a r l i a m e n t passed a n a c t t o f o r b i d t r a d e w i t h t h e r e b e l l i o u s colonies, a n d e q u i p p e d a s q u a d r o n u n d e r S i r G e o r g e A y s c u e for t h e i r r e d u c t i o n . The assembly o f Barbados replied w i t h a declaration refusing obedience t o a p a r l i a m e n t i n w h i c h t h e colonists w e r e n o t represented a n d c l a i m i n g t h e r i g h t t o t r a d e w i t h a l l n a t i o n s . W h e n A y s c u e r e a c h e d B a r b a d o s i n O c t o b e r , 1651> h e f o u n d t h e i s l a n d so w e l l f o r t i f i e d a n d s u c h a force u n d e r a r m s t h a t he durst n o t a t t e m p t a l a n d i n g . B u t w h e n i t b e c a m e k n o w n t h a t t h e S c o t t i s h a r m y h a d been d e s t r o y e d a t W o r c e s t e r a n d t h a t C h a r l e s was a f u g i t i v e , t h e w i s e r r o y a l i s t s p e r s u a d e d t h e i r friends t o t r e a t w h i l e favourable t e r m s m i g h t y e t be o b t a i n e d . B y articles o f a g r e e m e n t m a d e i n J a n u a r y , 1652, t h e B a r b a d i a n s a c k n o w l e d g e d t h e a u t h o r i t y o f p a r l i a m e n t , a n d i n r e t u r n were p r o m i s e d f r e e d o m o f conscience a n d o f t r a d e w i t h a l l f r i e n d l y nations. T h e o t h e r islands f o l l o w e d t h e e x a m p l e o f B a r b a d o s , and V i r g i n i a and M a r y l a n d made their submission i n M a r c h . O n his a r r i v a l i n t h e 'West Indies s o m e t i m e later R u p e r t c o u l d effect n o t h i n g b e y o n d t h e c a p t u r e o f a few prizes. A f t e r l o s i n g his b r o t h e r M a u r i c e i n a h u r r i c a n e off t h e V i r g i n Islands, h e sailed for E u r o p e , p u t i n t o t h e m o u t h o f t h e L o i r e , a n d e n d e d his l o n g v o y a g e at the l i t t l e p o r t o f P a i m b o e u f .

CHAPTER
THE

XVII.

ESTABLISHMENT OF T H E PROTECTORATE.

A L L t h a t a r m s c o u l d d o t o e s t a b l i s h a n e w p o l i t y h a d been C H A P . a c h i e v e d b y t h e rulers o f t h e c o m m o n w e a l t h , b u t t h e i r w o r k XVII. w a s n o t l i k e l y t o endure unless i t c o u l d g a i n t h e a p p r o v a l o f t h e n a t i o n . T h e n a t i o n w a s n o t r e a l l y represented i n p a r l i a ment. E v e n w h e n m a n y o f t h e e x c l u d e d m e m b e r s h a d been a l l o w e d t o r e t u r n a n d n e w m e m b e r s h a d b e e n elected for places k n o w n t o b e l o y a l , t h e house r e m a i n e d a m e r e fragment o f a representative b o d y . F e e l i n g t h a t m a t t e r s c o u l d n o t rest thus, i t often discussed projects f o r i t s o w n c o m p l e t i o n o r renewal. A committee appointed i n M a y , 1 6 4 9 , consider t h e subject r e p o r t e d i n favour o f filling u p vacancies r a t h e r t h a n h o l d i n g a g e n e r a l election, a n d e v e n t h i s m u c h w a s n o t e x e c u t e d . While w a r s t i l l r a g e d i n B r i t a i n there w a s a plausible excuse f o r d o i n g n o t h i n g . B u t t h e victory o f Worcester removed this excuse a n d left t h e a r m y free t o i n t e r f e r e i n politics. T h e soldiers w o u l d s c a r c e l y endure t h a t t h e h a n d f u l o f p u b l i c m e n w h o m t h e y alone k e p t i n p o w e r s h o u l d c o n t i n u e t o g o v e r n t h e three k i n g d o m s f o r a n indefinite t i m e . Cromwell was k n o w n to desire a n e w p a r l i a m e n t , a n d w i t h h i s s u p p o r t a b i l l w a s b r o u g h t i n t o fix t h e t i m e for a d i s s o l u t i o n . A s t h e b i l l passed, t h e d a t e n a m e d w a s N o v e m b e r 3? i6fJ4> w h i c h g a v e t h e p a r l i a m e n t t h r e e years' p r o l o n g a t i o n o f a u t h o r i t y . M a n y adherents o f t h e c o m m o n w e a l t h b e g a n t o m u r m u r against t h e rule o f a single a s s e m b l y w i t h o u t c h e c k o r counterpoise, a n d at a conference o f officers w i t h m e m b e r s o f p a r l i a m e n t h e l d i n D e c e m b e r , 1651, C r o m w e l l f r a n k l y declared t h a t " a settlement w i t h s o m e w h a t o f a monarchical power i n it w o u l d be v e r y effectual"; memora b l e w o r d s , t h e first presage o f a n e w p o l i t i c a l r e v o l u t i o n .
t o 1 3

Whitelocke, Memorials, p. 5*7*

38i

382

ESTABLISHMENT

OF THE

PROTECTORATE.

1651

CHAP. ^^Ii.

T h e h o u s e c o u l d s t i l l allege reasons to j u s t i f y i t s r e t e n t i o n of power. A l l that h a d been w o n i n t h e c i v i l w a r m i g h t have been hazarded b y a general election at a t i m e when the people h a d felt l i t t l e save t h e b u r d e n s a n d r e s t r a i n t s i m p o s e d b y t h e new government. I n order to subdue Ireland and Scotland, t o clear t h e sea o f enemies, t o o v e r a w e t h e u n f r i e n d l y c o n t i n e n t a l p o w e r s , a n d t o e x t i n g u i s h a l l h o p e o f successful r e v o l t a t h o m e , t h e c o m m o n w e a l t h w a s f o r c e d t o m a i n t a i n a great a r m y a n d n a v y at a c h a r g e h i t h e r t o u n p r e c e d e n t e d . revenue o f C h a r l e s I. i n h i s m o s t prosperous years. I n 1651 I t was first t h e p u b l i c e x p e n s e s a m o u n t e d t o 2,750,000, or t h r i c e t h e t o t a l necessary, therefore, t o c o n t i n u e t h e e x t r a o r d i n a r y t a x e s ments.

i m p o s e d i n t h e c i v i l w a r , t h e e x c i s e a n d t h e m o n t h l y assessA g a i n s t t h e r o y a l i s t s t h e p a r l i a m e n t t o o k measures o f W h e n alarmed p r e c a u t i o n , w h i c h m u s t h a v e been u n p o p u l a r .

b y t h e n e g o t i a t i o n b e t w e e n C h a r l e s a n d t h e S c o t s , i t passed a n act r e q u i r i n g a l l m e n t o t a k e t h e e n g a g e m e n t t o b e f a i t h f u l t o a c o m m o n w e a l t h without k i n g or house o f lords. W h e n royIn alist c o n s p i r a t o r s b e c a m e n u m e r o u s , i t d u r s t n o t leave t h e m t o t h e v e r d i c t o f a j u r y , b u t r e v i v e d t h e h i g h c o u r t o f justice. J u l y , 1651, i t passed a n a c t c o n f i s c a t i n g t h e estates o f s e v e n t y of the most distinguished a n d obstinate royalists, including s o m e w h o were n o t t h e n i n a r m s a g a i n s t t h e c o m m o n w e a l t h . Although i t passed i n the following February an act of o b l i v i o n for a l l treasons a n d felonies c o m m i t t e d d o w n t o t h e date o f t h e b a t t l e o f \A/brcester, t h i s a c t d i d n o t release t h e l a n d s u n d e r sequestration. in want of money, A l w a y s f e e l i n g insecure a n d a l w a y s its harshness the parliament continued

t o w a r d s d e l i n q u e n t s w h e n l e n i t y m i g h t h a v e p r o v e d wiser as w e l l as n o b l e r . T h e press also e x c i t e d t h e j e a l o u s y o f p a r l i a m e n t . The censorship o f t h e T u d o r s , e s t a b l i s h e d b y S t a r C h a m b e r o r d i n ance a n d enforced b y S t a r C h a m b e r j u r i s d i c t i o n , h a d e x p i r e d w i t h t h e a b o l i t i o n o f t h a t c o u r t i n 1641* England. T h e r e ensued such a n o u t b r e a k o f p o l i t i c a l l i t e r a t u r e as h a d n e v e r b e e n k n o w n i n M a n y hundreds of the pamphlets then published Although are s t i l l p r e s e r v e d i n t h e great T h o m a s s o n c o l l e c t i o n .

t h e earliest E n g l i s h n e w s p a p e r dates f r o m t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e t h i r t y y e a r s ' w a r , i t w a s t h e n t h a t newspapers first b e c a m e a political power. A n order o f parliament for the publication o f

1651

THE

COMMONWEALTH

AND

THE

PRESS.

383

its p r o c e e d i n g s g a v e t h e m n e w m a t t e r a n d t h e o u t b r e a k o f t h e civil war made them doubly interesting. forth the most I n a l a r m at the a restraining of M i l t o n ' s was famous results o f t h i s l i b e r t y t h e houses passed i n 1643 ordinance, which Pitntmg. not more called

CHAP. XVII.

p a m p h l e t s , Areopagitica, a Speech for the Liberty of Unlicensed

A n o t h e r a n d a severer o r d i n a n c e passed i n 1647 effectual. An act of 1649 confined p r i n t i n g to under which the

L o n d o n , Y o r k , O x f o r d , and C a m b r i d g e , and the importation of books to L o n d o n . Y e t n o m a n seems to h a v e suffered penalties c o m p a r a b l e t o t h o s e T h e i r v a n i t y was a n y o f these e n a c t m e n t s silence t h e

t h e S t a r C h a m b e r h a d so o f t e n i n f l i c t e d \ n o r d i d t h e y a v a i l t o r o y a l i s t press. shown b y of his success o f a b o o k w h i c h a p p e a r e d

y

a few d a y s after t h e Written by recompensed

execuSacred John with

t i o n o f C h a r l e s , EIKWV /Ba<xhLtcr) The Portraiture Majesty in his solitudes and sufferings* afterwards G a u d e n , a clergyman who was of his spiritual experiences an i d e a l sufferer. Basilike, Eikon A w i t h Eikon succeed.

t h e diocese o f W o r c e s t e r , i t professed

to be t h e k i n g ' s r e c o r d disappointed

a n d e x h i b i t e d h i m i n the light of

m o d e r n reader m a y feel

for its u n c t i o n is querulous a n d e g o t i s t i c . is s a i d t o h a v e g o n e t h r o u g h fifty

B u t a b o o k w h i c h h i t s the s e n t i m e n t o f t h e h o u r is c e r t a i n to Basihki e d i t i o n s i n o n e year, a n d its effect was l i t t l e i m p a i r e d b y the a n s w e r w h i c h M i l t o n w r o t e at t h e p r o m p t i n g o f t h e c o u n c i l of s t a t e a n d e n t i t l e d EUovofekdarijs, or the Imagebreaker. In 1650 Mert h e p a r l i a m e n t t o o k a f u r t h e r m e a n s o f defence a g a i n s t r o y a l i s t p a m p h l e t e e r s b y f o u n d i n g t h e first official newspaper, t h e cunus Pohticus, edited b y Marchmont turncoat, but a journalist of unquestionable M a n y v e x a t i o u s measures spirit. talent. b y the puritan l i t t l e respect The Needham, a cynical

were p r o m p t e d

T h e rulers o f t h e c o m m o n w e a l t h s h o w e d

for t h e fine arts o r s y m p a t h y w i t h p o p u l a r a m u s e m e n t . m a n y s p l e n d i d w o r k s were lost t o E n g l a n d for ever. o r d e r t o sell t h e i r l e a d , t i m b e r , a n d stone. * festivals, associated The

n o b l e c o l l e c t i o n o f pictures f o r m e d b y C h a r l e s I. was s o l d , a n d M o r e than old church The once it was resolved to pull d o w n some o f the cathedrals, i n as m u c h w i t h t h e pleasures as w i t h t h e

d e v o t i o n o f t h e people, m i g h t n o l o n g e r b e c e l e b r a t e d .

theatres were shut, a n d t h e p l a y e r s were t r e a t e d as r o g u e s a n d

* Commons Jouynctls, vi*, 5 5 3*

384

ESTABLISHMENT

OF THE PROTECTORATE.

1650

CHAP,
x v n

vagabonds. E n g l i s h life.

A dulness h i t h e r t o u n k n o w n b e g a n t o settle u p o n T h e puritan, w h o drew his ideal of society from A l t h o u g h the

the O l d Testament, was always r e a d y t o believe that i m m o r a l i t y a n d i r r e l i g i o n c o u l d b e c u r e d b y p e n a l laws. i n d e p e n d e n t s were h o s t i l e t o t h a t e c c l e s i a s t i c a l d i s c i p l i n e w h i c h the K i r k exercised i n Scotland, a l t h o u g h t h e parliament h a d suppressed t h e ecclesiastical c o u r t s , t h i s t e n d e n c y c o m m o n w e a l t h b e c a m e s t r o n g e r t h a n ever. t o enforce t h e o b s e r v a n c e profane offences, swearers. Incest a n d adultery under the A c t s were passed were m a d e capital
1

o f t h e L o r d ' s 3Day, a n d t o correct imprisonment

a n d fornication was punished w i t h

H o w far s u c h laws a v a i l t o m a k e a p e o p l e v i r t u o u s w a s seen a few y e a r s afterwards j b u t i t is c e r t a i n t h a t t h e y m u s t h a v e m a d e m a n y enemies t o t h e g o v e r n m e n t . The p a r l i a m e n t w o u l d best h a v e j u s t i f i e d i t s r e t e n t i o n o f i n the many power h a d i t v i g o r o u s l y e s s a y e d t o r e c o n s t r u c t w h a t t e n y e a r s o f c i v i l w a r a n d revolution h a d destroyed * but even Church n o n e w order succeeded the old. When joined Scotland i n the S o l e m n League a n d Covenant, hoped t o establish presbyterianism. b y o r d i n a n c e i n 1646. England

T h e assembly o f divines presbyterians a n d

framed a presbyterian organisation, w h i c h parliament sanctioned T h e strife b e t w e e n i n d e p e n d e n t s h i n d e r e d t h i s o r d i n a n c e f r o m r e c e i v i n g d u e effect, a n d t h e final v i c t o r y o f t h e i n d e p e n d e n t s e x t i n g u i s h e d t h e h o p e t h a t E n g l a n d w o u l d ever b e c o m e p r e s b y t e r i a n i n t h e s a m e sense as S c o t l a n d . B o t h parties w e r e a g r e e d i n h o s t i l i t y t o bishops.
a n <

E p i s c o p a c y w a s a b o l i s h e d b y o r d i n a n c e i n 1646, d e a n s a n d chapters were suppressed b y a n a c t o f 1649, and c a p i t u l a r estates w e r e i n l a r g e purchasers. ^ episcopal measure sold t o private

T h e p r e s b y t e r i a n o r g a n i s a t i o n was never e x t e n d e d

o v e r the w h o l e k i n g d o m o r c o m p l e t e d i n a n y large p o r t i o n o f i t , a l t h o u g h m o r e a d v a n c e d i n L o n d o n a n d L a n c a s h i r e t h a n elsewhere.

2

T h e Westminster assembly drew up a presbyterian form

of public worship, t h e directory w h i c h was adopted b y parliam e n t i n 1645, w h e n t h e u s e o f t h e P r a y e r B o o k w a s f o r b i d d e n . T h o s e w h o c o u l d n o t d i s p e n s e w i t h t h e P r a y e r B o o k h a d thenceforward t o a s s e m b l e p r i v a t e l y i f t h e y w o u l d b e safe f r o m i n t e r * Scobell, ii., 119, 121, 123* ^For the extent to which the presbyterian system was actually established 1 For see Shaw, History of the Church of England,
fl

1652

ECCLESIASTICAL

AFFAIRS.

385

ruption.

I n 1650,

h o w e v e r , t h e p a r l i a m e n t repealed a l l acts parish place.

1

Sj**^P.

i m p o s i n g p e n a l t i e s o n those w h o f a i l e d t o a t t e n d t h e church i f they attended T h e repeal d i d not divine w o r s h i p i n some other the benefit

R o m a n c a t h o l i c s , s inc e

the The was

c e l e b r a t i o n o f mass s t i l l r e m a i n e d u n l a w f u l , b u t i t w o u l d benefit t h e A n g l i c a n s w h o m e t together t o e n j o y t h e i r o w n l i t u r g y . W e s t m i n s t e r a s s e m b l y also d r e w u p a p r e s b y t e r i a n not adopted b y parliament a n d never became b i n d i n g . the baptists a n d the independents. o f d o c t r i n e , t h e famous W e s t m i n s t e r confession, b u t t h i s statement Through-

o u t E n g l a n d t h e p r e s b y t e r i a n s d i v i d e d t h e p a r i s h churches w i t h U n d e r the commonwealth, therefore, t h e r e p r e v a i l e d n o u n i f o r m i t y o f d o c t r i n e , w o r s h i p , o r d i s c i p l i n e , b u t a large a l t h o u g h i l l - d e f i n e d f r e e d o m o f r e l i g i o u s belief. F r e e d o m e n c o u r a g e d d i v e r s i t y , a n d some o f t h e n e w o p i n i o n s g a v e g e n e r a l offence. J o h n B i d d l e taught S o c i n i a n doctrines magistrates out A a n d the parliament ordered the S o c i n i a n books to be burned. G e o r g e F o x a n d his d i s c i p l e s a n g e r e d j u d g e s a n d ministers b y denouncing all w h o accepted b y r e f u s i n g t o c o m p l y w i t h the o r d i n a i y f o r m s o f deference, a n d a maintenance o f t i t h e s a n d b y d i s t u r b i n g t h e course o f p u b l i c w o r s h i p , grace a l l things were lawful.

sect k n o w n as the R a n t e r s h e l d t h a t t o persons i n a state o f A s t h e p a r l i a m e n t was u n w i l l i n g C h u r c h a n d State or to grant to sever the c o n n e x i o n be t we e n

a b s o l u t e l i b e r t y o f conscience, i t s h o u l d l o g i c a l l y h a v e u n d e r taken anew the reorganisation o f the C h u r c h of E n g l a n d and determined what opinions might a t a s k so h e a v y a n d i n v i d i o u s . or m i g h t n o t be tolerated. 1652, John B u t , o v e r b u r d e n e d as it was w i t h secular affairs, i t s h r a n k f r o m A t length in February, i t n a m e d a c o m m i t t e e f o r the p r o p a g a t i o n o f the G o s p e l . O w e n , w h o m the parliament h a d appointed a p l a n for a n e s t a b l i s h e d C h u r c h . ministers.

D e a n of Christ

C h u r c h , O x f o r d , a n d o t h e r c l e r g y m e n l a i d before t h e c o m m i t t e e A l l w h o could find testimony Church, but acworo f t h e i r p i e t y a n d soundness i n t h e f a i t h w e r e t o be e l i g i b l e as Persons w h o dissented f r o m the cepted the fundamental doctrines of Christianity, m i g h t o f t h e i r p l a c e of m e e t i n g .
1

ship i n their own way, but were required to notify the magistrate T h o s e w h o rejected the d o c t r i n e s

Scobell, ii., 13x.,

VOL. VII.

25

386

ESTABLISHMENT

OF THE PROTECTORATE.

1652

CHAP,

deemed fundamental were not t o have the liberty o f propagating their opinions. A 1 n e c o m m i t t e e d i d n o t , However, a d o p t t n i s o r a n y o t h e r scheme. p o l i t i c a l r e v o l u t i o n w h i c h opens n e w prospects a n d u n I n E n g l a n d under the commonwealth a Some regarded a l l A settles t h e m i n d s o f m e n often arouses t h e desire f o r r e f o r m s not strictly political. reform o f the l a w was generally desired. relics o f t h e N o r m a n conquest

institutions w h i c h h a d c o m e d o w n f r o m t h e m i d d l e ages as a n d badges o f slavery. few w i s h e d t o r e p l a c e t h e c o m m o n l a w b y t h e l a w o f M o s e s . P l a i n m e n g r u m b l e d a t abuses i n d e t a i l , a n d a t t h e d e l a y a n d e x p e n s e i n t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f justice, e s p e c i a l l y b y t h e c o u r t of chancery. T h e faults o f t h e l a w w e r e m o r e k e e n l y felt, b e I n t h i s field s o m e t h i n g cause t h e c i v i l w a r s h a d d i s t u r b e d c o m m e r c e , d e p r e c i a t e d p r o p e r t y , a n d m u l t i p l i e d i n s o l v e n t debtors* was achieved b y t h e parliament. I t passed a n act t o relieve

poor m e n imprisoned for debt, it resolved that a l l legal proceedings s h o u l d b e c o n d u c t e d i n E n g l i s h , i t p r o v i d e d t h a t t h e j u d g e s s h o u l d i n future b e p a i d n o t b y fees b u t b y salaries. In J a n u a r y , 1652, i t n a m e d a m i x e d c o m m i s s i o n o f l a w y e r s a n d laymen to consider what reforms were most urgently needed i n the l a w . T h e commission w o r k e d h a r d a n d drafted
1

various

projects o f r e f o r m , w h i c h p a r l i a m e n t d i s c u s s e d b u t n e v e r p a s s e d i n t o statutes. T h a t s o m e o f these p r o p o s a l s d e s e r v e d a b e t t e r fate w o u l d a p p e a r b y t h e fact t h a t t h e y w e r e a d o p t e d n e a r l y 200 years afterwards. T h u s t h e p a r l i a m e n t f a i l e d t o seize t h e o p p o r t u n i t y f o r such g r e a t c o n s t r u c t i v e measures as m i g h t i m p r e s s p u b l i c o p i n i o n . T h e f o r m o f the constitution, w h i c h e x c l u d e d the supremacy o f a n y m a s t e r m i n d , w a s adverse t o l e g i s l a t i o n o n a m a g n i f i c e n t scale. I n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n t h e chiefs o f the c o m m o n w e a l t h w e r e T h e v i g o u r a n d success w i t h w h i c h t h e y w a g e d Nevertheless there m o r e efficient.

w a r b y sea a n d l a n d afford a s t r o n g p r e s u m p t i o n that t h e y w e r e for t h e m o s t p a r t u p r i g h t a n d l a b o r i o u s . riched themselves were m e n i n t h e p a r l i a m e n t a n d t h e c o u n c i l o f state w h o e n b y s p e c u l a t i n g i n confiscated lands or b y downright corruption. U n d e r James a n d Charles l a x i t y h a d

been m a t t e r o f course, a n d t h e p u b l i c a s s u m e d a l m o s t w i t h o u t For the history of law and law reform under the Commonwealth see F. A. Inderwick, The Interregnum generally.
1

1650

RELATIONS

WITH

FRANCE

AND

SPAIN

387

i n d i g n a t i o n t h a t statesmen w e r e as a r u l e v e n a l . b y force a n d i m p o s e d e n o r m o u s taxes.

It judged were

v e r y differently a new government w h i c h h a d been established T h e royalists q u i e t because b i t t e r e x p e r i e n c e h a d t a u g h t t h e m h o w l i t t l e t h e y could do against regular troops, b u t they o n l y waited f o r an opportunity to revolt. Democrats like Lilburne complained that t h e parliament was m a k i n g itself perpetual, that i t outraged t h e s o v e r e i g n t y o f t h e people a n d i n t e r f e r e d w i t h t h e c o u r s e o f j u s t i c e b e t w e e n p r i v a t e persons. E n t h u s i a s t s l i k e H a r r i s o n felt T h e genert h a t t h e r e i g n o f the s a i n t s was as d i s t a n t as ever. their rulers. d i s s a tisfi e d . T h e p a r l i a m e n t w i s h e d t o i n t e r f e r e i n t h e contest had grievances against b o t h parties. between It F r a n c e a n d S p a i n , but scarcely k n e w w h i c h side to t a k e .

CHAP, XVII.

a l i t y d r e a d e d a n o t h e r c i v i l war, b u t h a d n o p o s i t i v e affection for T h e parliament continued to depend for power u p o n a n a r m y w h i c h w a s b e c o m i n g m o r e a n d m o r e restless a n d

F r a n c e still refused to

recognise the commonwealth a n d still harboured the Stuarts. F r e n c h men-of-war a n d p r i v a t e e r s s t i l l p r e y e d u p o n E n g l i s h shipping. S p a i n h a d recognised the commonwealth, a n d h a d When Charles sent to M a d r i d , P h i l i p I V . Y e t the testified i t s w i s h for f r i e n d l y r e l a t i o n s . Cottington a n d H y d e on an embassy

received t h e m c o l d l y a n d shunned a n y engagement. a n d S p a i n was frail a n d precarious. E n g l i s h cavaliers w h o took sanctuary. but

f r i e n d s h i p o f states w h i c h h a d so l i t t l e i n c o m m o n as E n g l a n d I n M a y , 1650, A n t h o n y A s t h e benefit o f s a n c t u Philip A s c h a m , the E n g l i s h resident at M a d r i d , was m u r d e r e d b y some a r y d i d n o t e x t e n d t o h o m i c i d e , t h e y were h a l e d o f f t o p r i s o n ; the C h u r c h claimed its suppliants, a n d a l l that concede to the E n g l i s h d e m a n d they would f o r justice w a s t h e T h e o t h e r s were escaped. afterwards

e x e c u t i o n o f t h e o n e protestant i n t h e b a n d . r e s t o r e d t o t h e sanctuary, w h e n c e

T h e i n j u r y a n d t h e affront, gross i n themselves, were e n h a n c e d b y t h e fact t h a t t h e d i p l o m a t i c a g e n t s o f t h e c o m m o n w e a l t h , as the fate o f D o r i s l a u s h a d s h o w n , were e v e r y w h e r e danger o f assassination. to
1

i n peculiar

T h e S p a n i a r d s never scrupled t o destroy the settlements or intercept t h e trade o f other nations i n the W e s t
1

Indies.

See the Thurtoe Papers, i., 148-49; and for the spirit in which the royalists and the Spaniards regarded the deed, Clarendon, History, xiii., 10-16.
2

388

ESTABLISHMENT

OF

THE

PROTECTORATE.

1650

CHAP.

S i n c e t h e c o n c l u s i o n o f t h e p e a c e o f 1630 expelled the E n g l i s h m e n w h o sought

t h e y h a d slain or vacant T h e y confisinto their of pro-

to colonise the

islands o f T o r t u g a , Providence, a n d S a n t a C r u z .

c a t e d the E n g l i s h ships d r i v e n b y stress o f w e a t h e r tions. T h e Spaniards were the t r a d i t i o n a l enemies

"West I n d i a n p o r t s a n d set t h e s a i l o r s t o w o r k o n t h e fortificat e s t a n t i s m a n d w o u l d n o t a l l o w E n g l i s h residents t o w o r s h i p i n t h e i r o w n w a y e v e n i n t h e i r o w n houses. yet T h i s consideration m i g h t h a v e b e e n t h o u g h t decisive w i t h a p u r i t a n g o v e r n m e n t ; m a n y p u r i t a n s h e l d t h a t t h e interests of r e l i g i o n w o u l d T h e K i n g of Spain subjects. The be best s e r v e d b y a n a l l i a n c e w i t h S p a i n . F r e n c h protestants enjoyed

m i g h t b e a b i g o t , b u t he h a d n o p r o t e s t a n t

a full legal toleration, but found enjoyment

its benefits c o n s t a n t l y c u r t a i l e d b y t h e i l l - w i l l o f t h e authorities i n C h u r c h a n d State. T o secure t h e m i n t h e full o f t h e i r l i b e r t y m i g h t seem w i t h i n t h e p o w e r o f E n g l a n d at a time when the F r e n c h government c o u l d b a r e l y m a i n t a i n its A m o n g those g r o u n d against S p a i n a n d t h e rebellious nobles. r o y a l b l o o d a n d h i s g e n i u s for w a r . south-west of France where the

nobles t h e P r i n c e o f Cond6 h e l d t h e first place b y v i r t u e o f h i s H e w a s p o w e r f u l i n the were especially Huguenots

numerous, a n d h e sought h e l p f r o m E n g l a n d w h i c h C r o m w e l l a n d others m the c o u n c i l o f state w e r e h a l f d i s p o s e d t o g r a n t i f they c o u l d thus V a n e t o confer deaux that serve t h e H u g u e n o t interest. astute They among sent the of with D e R e t z , the most

leaders o f t h e F r o n d e , a n d L i e u t e n a n t - C o l o n e l S e x b y he m i g h t report on the

to B o r -

p l a n s a n d resources

t h e rebels b u t f o r some t i m e t h e y t o o k n o further a c t i o n . I n t h e b e g i n n i n g o f 1652 t h e y w e r e d i s t r a c t e d b y a n o v e r ture from M a z a r i n , Dunkirk, which the F r e n c h had won from by M a z a r i n knew that E n g desire the S p a n i a r d s at a n e a r l i e r p e r i o d o f t h e w a r , w a s i n v e s t e d the Spaniards a n d i n extreme peril. l i s h m e n h a d n o t ceased t o regret t h e loss o f C a l a i s o r t o reasons.

a s t r o n g h o l d o n t h e c o n t i n e n t for c o m m e r c i a l as w e l l as m i l i t a r y H e b e g a n a n i n f o r m a l n e g o t i a t i o n for t h e surrender the offer, a n d i n A p r i l , to o f D u n k i r k t o E n g l a n d i n r e t u r n for E n g l i s h h e l p agains t S p a i n . C r o m w e l l a n d his friends welcomed e m b a r k for D u n k i r k . 1652, S)COO t r o o p s were c o n c e n t r a t e d at D o v e r i n readiness

Y e t n o r u l e r o f F r a n c e c o u l d w i s h t o see

t h e E n g l i s h e s t a b l i s h e d i n a fortress o n t h e v e r y b o r d e r , a n d at

1652

CAUSES

OF THE

WAR

WITH

THE DUTCH

389

the last moment M a z a r i n drew back.

I n M a y h e offered t h a t

CHAP.

F r a n c e w o u l d recognise t h e c o m m o n w e a l t h , i f E n g l a n d w o u l d r e c a l l t h e letters o f r e p r i s a l issued against F r e n c h s h i p p i n g , b u t m a d e n o reference t o D u n k i r k . agent quit the country. alliance. T h e causes o f t h e first w a r b e t w e e n E n g l a n d a n d H o l l a n d were p a r t l y recent, p a r t l y o f o l d date. S o l o n g as t h e t w o k i n d r e d peoples h a d been b a t t l i n g f o r f r e e d o m a g a i n s t S p a i n , t h e y h a d b e e n a l l i e s a n d friends. peace w i t h S p a i n , a n d b e c a m e W h e n the E n g l i s h had made rivals w i t h t h e D u t c h for t h e The
1

T h e English government would

concede n o t h i n g u n t i l i t h a d b e e n r e c o g n i s e d a n d b a d e M a z a r i n ' s T h e n t h e outbreak o f w a r between E n g l a n d and H o l l a n d ended for a time all thought o f a F r e n c h

c o m m e r c e o f t h e E a s t I n d i e s , a b i t t e r j e a l o u s y ensued.

m a s t e r y o f t h e S p i c e I s l a n d s w a s t h e first object o f c o n t e n t i o n . B y a t r e a t y c o n c l u d e d i n 1619 t h e t r a d e o f t h o s e i s l a n d s w a s d i v i d e d between the D u t c h a n d the E n g l i s h E a s t I n d i a C o m panies. A s n e i t h e r state m a i n t a i n e d a p u b l i c force i n t h o s e r e m o t e w a t e r s t o c o n t r o l o r p r o t e c t i t s o w n subjects, t h e D u t c h C o m p a n y , w h i c h h a d far greater resources t h a n t h e E n g l i s h , d e t e r m i n e d t o e x p e l i t s c o m p e t i t o r altogether. I n 1621 t h e I n 1623 D u t c h seized., P u l a r o o n , o n e o f t h e B a n d a I s l a n d s .

certain E n g l i s h m e n charged w i t h c o n s p i r i n g t o surprise t h e c a s t l e o f A m b o y n a w e r e arrested, w e r e c r u e l l y t o r t u r e d t o e x tract a confession a n d were finally p u t t o death.

2

Redress was

demanded again a n d again b y James a n d Charles, but without effect, as t h e y were e i t h e r u n a b l e o r u n w i l l i n g t o m a k e w a r . The E n g l i s h were d r i v e n f r o m t h e Spice Islands and the The thought D u t c h g a i n e d a m o n o p o l y o f t h e i r precious harvests. E a s t I n d i e s l a y so f a r b e y o n d t h e r a n g e o f c o m m o n that Civil a n d r e l i g i o u s disputes absorbed

t h e i n j u r y and dishonour were little heeded i n E n g l a n d . the public to such a

degree that for m a n y years few E n g l i s h m e n concerned t h e m selves w i t h questions o f f o r e i g n p o l i c y . T h e r e v o l u t i o n w h i c h set u p a C a l v i n i s t r e p u b l i c i n E n g l a n d On this subject consult Gardiner, History of the Commonwealth, ch. xxi., and the article, " Cromwell and Mazarin in 1652," English Historical Review, 479 (^896), by the same wnter, and the authorities therein cited. These incidents are fully described in Hunter, History of British India, i.,
1 2

33^~434*

39

ESTABLISHMENT

OF

THE

PROTECTORATE.

1651

CHAP,

awakened

o l d sympathies

w i t h the U n i t e d Provinces. severed the t i e between

The the

death of the

Prince of Orange

D u t c h republic and the Stuarts.

T h e n the parliament and the

c o u n c i l o f state c o n c e i v e d t h e h o p e o f a n a l l i a n c e or e v e n o f a political union between the two commonwealths, and i n M a r c h , 1651? sent t h e C h i e f J u s t i c e S t , J o h n a n d S t r i c k l a n d , f o r m e r l y t h e i r agent at t h e H a g u e , o n a s o l e m n e m b a s s y t o effect t h i s purpose. T h e States General met the ambassadors i n a friendly arose r e t e r m s ; the D u t c h negotiators were dilatory, the a n d returned home, personal St. spirit a n d proffered a close a l l i a n c e , b u t differences garding the

E n g l i s h n e g o t i a t o r s w e r e i m p a t i e n t , a n d at l a s t S t . J o h n a n d S t r i c k l a n d b r o k e off the conferences J o h n a t least i n a m o o d o f h i g h - w r o u g h t irritation.

I t does n o t appear that t h e y v e n t u r e d t o m e n t i o n t h e u n r e a sonable a n d fanciful scheme for a p o l i t i c a l u n i o n b e t w e e n E n g land and H o l l a n d . October, 1651, which no the "When t h e h o p e o f a n i n t i m a t e a l l i a n c e h a d In the N a v i g a t i o n A c t , b y from A s i a , A f r i c a , 01 to half Such at least one
1

v a n i s h e d , t h e t w o r e p u b l i c s became less a n d less f r i e n d l y . t h e p a r l i a m e n t passed be imported goods might

A m e r i c a save i n a n E n g l i s h s h i p or i n a s h i p b e l o n g i n g E n g l i s h plantations and w i t h a crew

E n g l i s h , a n d n o g o o d s c o u l d be i m p o r t e d f r o m a n y E u r o p e a n c o u n t r y save i n a s h i p o f t h a t c o u n t r y o r a n E n g l i s h s h i p . a l a w was a direct a t t a c k u p o n t h e p r o s p e r i t y o f t h e D u t c h , who, while they could produce little w i t h i n their narrow bounds, carried t h e p r o d u c t s o f a l l t h e w o r l d beside. so c l e a r l y w i t h i n the rights of a sovereign c o u l d n o t h a v e been m a d e a p r e t e x t for w a r . B u t the D u t c h h a d o t h e r grievances. claimed the sovereignty The E n g l i s h still Britain. flag of power. and o f t h e seas w h i c h s u r r o u n d I t was, however, legislature t h a t i t

D u t c h p r i d e r e v o l t e d from r e n d e r i n g obeisance t o t h e a state w h i c h t h e y h e l d inferior t o t h e i r o w n i n n a v a l

D u t c h c o m m o n sense refused t o ask l e a v e o r to p a y t r i b u t e for fishing i n t h e N o r t h S e a , a p r i m e m e a n s o f subsistence w e a l t h t o t h e D u t c h people. E n g l i s h merchants w h o that t h e y h a d suffered w r o n g s from D u t c h m e n o b t a i n e d alleged letters

o f reprisal w h i c h enabled t h e m t o p r e y u p o n D u t c h shipping. D u t c h ships c a r r y i n g F r e n c h g o o d s w e r e seized a n d b r o u g h t i n b y E n g l i s h privateers, a n d t h e g o o d s w e r e c o n d e m n e d b y t h e Scobell, ii., Z76.

1652

OUTBREAK

OF

HOSTILITIES.

39*
c**^* that

E n g l i s h c o u r t s o f a d m i r a l t y , a l t h o u g h t h e ships w e r e r e s t o r e d , F o r the E n g l i s h held the doctrine then generally admitted t h e n e u t r a l flag does n o t c o v e r h o s t i l e g o o d s , w h i l e t h e D u t c h h e l d t h e m o d e r n doctrine that hostile goods other t h a n contraband o f w a r a r e safe u n d e r t h e n e u t r a l o f these disputes, flag. I n December to obtain the three ambassadors settlement that c a m e f r o m t h e S t a t e s G e n e r a l t o effect a a n d , i f possible, T h e E n g l i s h refused t o t o u c h

repeal o f the N a v i g a t i o n A c t act a n d demanded fisheries trol the

a recognition o f their right to con-

o f t h e N o r t h S e a , as w e l l as satisfaction f o r

wrongs o l d a n d new, whether c o m m i t t e d i n the E a s t Indies o r in Europe. C r o m w e l l a n d those other councillors w h o were B u t t h e E n g l i s h c l a i m to the sovegovernaverse t o w a r w i t h a p r o t e s t a n t n a t i o n d i d w h a t t h e y c o u l d t o effect a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g . Always r e i g n t y o f t h e sea o c c a s i o n e d a c o n f l i c t w h i c h m a d e w a r c e r t a i n . cautious, r a t h e r t h a n c h i v a l r i c , t h e D u t c h m e n t g a v e i t s officers n o d i s t i n c t orders w h e t h e r t h e y s h o u l d s t r i k e t h e i r flag t o E n g l i s h s h i p s o r n o t . o f d e f e r e n c e s a v e t o a s u p e r i o r force. T r o m p , t h e greatest Encountering Blake larger combat member, of their admirals, declared that h e w o u l d never p a y this m a r k i n t h e D o w n s o n M a y 18, a n d c o m m a n d i n g a m u c h fleet, h e w o u l d n o t o b e y B l a k e ' s s u m m o n s , a n d a fierce ensued. T r o m p a t l e n g t h retreated w i t h s o m e loss. l i a m e n t sent a c o m m i s s i o n , o f w h i c h C r o m w e l l w a s a who h a d done n o more than was expected admiral. redress T h e D u t c h ambassadors o f injuries

T h e par-

t o i n q u i r e i n t o t h e affair, a n d t h e y r e p o r t e d f a v o u r a b l y t o B l a k e , of every E n g l i s h obtained made a final demand for Thus began maritime sure o f

t o t h e i r s h i p p i n g , a n d , as t h e y
1

n o n e , t h e y t o o k t h e i r leave a t t h e e n d o f J u n e . t h e first D u t c h w a r . people victory. cessful. peace. reasons.

1

Since t h e D u t c h were confessedly i n Europe, they might have

t h e greatest been supposed

Y e t i n a l o n g series o f b a t t l e s t h e y w e r e s e l d o m sucT h e i r coast was blockaded, their commerce was c r i p F o r t h i s r e m a r k a b l e issue o f t h e w a r t h e r e w e r e s e v e r a l T h e E n g l i s h government h a d unity and energy i n a

pled, a n d they were at length forced t o accept a disadvantageous

X X I I . , XX111., X X X . ,

For the first Dutch war see Gardiner, History of the Commonwealth, ch. and Letters and Papers relating" to the first Dutch War, 16521654* fry Gardiner and Atkinson for the Navy Records Society.

39

ESTABLISHMENT

OF

THE

PROTECTORATE.

1652

CHAP, h i g h d e g r e e ; t h e D u t c h g o v e r n m e n t clumsy confederation of p r o v i n c e s ;

h a d neither. every

It was

maritime province had

h a d its o w n b o a r d of a d m i r a l t y ; a n d the c o m m o n b o n d formerly supplied b y the authority of the P r i n c e of Orange been w a n t i n g s i n c e t h e d e a t h o f V T O l i a m . X h e mischief pene-

t r a t e d deeper s t i l l , for t h e s a i l o r ' s p a t r i o t i s m w a s often p r o v i n c i a l rather t h a n n a t i o n a l , a n d t h e Z e a l a n d e r c o u l d n o t a l w a y s be trusted to d o his utmost under the c o m m a n d of a H o l l a n d e r . X h e E n g l i s h c o m m o n w e a l t h i n h e r i t e d a fine fleet f r o m C h a r l e s I., a n d t h e c o m m i s s i o n e r s for t h e n a v y h a d b r o u g h t i t t o a perfection h a r d l y a t t a i n e d a t a n y f o r m e r t i m e . men-of-war w e r e larger, more stoutly heavily armed than the D u t c h . Xhe English and more timbered,

I n e v e r y fight t h e y d i d t e r r i b l e Only in Xhe protect;

execution, a n d received b y comparison little h a r m . E n g l i s h h a d a relatively s m a l l mercantile m a r i n e to t h e D u t c h h a d t o p r o t e c t t h e largest i n t h e w o r l d .

the reserve o f t r a i n e d s e a m e n w e r e t h e E n g l i s h i n f e r i o r .

X h e routes

f o l l o w e d b y D u t c h c o m m e r c e , w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f t h e route l e a d i n g to the B a l t i c , p a s s e d a l o n g t h e s o u t h e r n or t h e e a s t e r n coast o f B r i t a i n , a n d l a y o p e n t o a t t a c k from E n g l i s h ports. strategy, dangerous supplying territory their time i n conInstead of w a g i n g war o n strict principles of naval the D u t c h admirals were forced to s p e n d seas. v o y i n g large fleets o f m e r c h a n t m e n t h r o u g h those agricultural country, raising its own food, Xhe and Dutch

E n g l a n d , d e s p i t e its f l o u r i s h i n g c o m m e r c e , was s t i l l a n

m o s t o f its w a n t s b y n a t i v e i n d u s t r y .

was so s m a l l , a n d so g r e a t a p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e D u t c h p e o p l e lived b y trade, that a n y interruption i n their c o m m a n d o f the sea r e d u c e d t h e m t o t h e u t m o s t distress. W h e n t h e w a r b e g a n , B l a k e w a s sent t o d r i v e the fishermen of Dover, Dutch o u t o f t h e N o r t h S e a , a n d A y s c u e was sent to m a k e B l a k e captured the whole squadron which guarded

p r i z e o f t h e D u t c h m e r c h a n t vessels p a s s i n g t h r o u g h t h e S t r a i t s the h e r r i n g boats, s e n t t h e h e r r i n g fishers h o m e , a n d w e n t o n t o secure a D u t c h fleet f r o m t h e E a s t I n d i e s , w h i c h w a s r e t u r n ing by way of Shetland. X r o m p seized the o p p o r t u n i t y given Ayscue, but X h e n he pursued B l a k e to the b y a storm which wrecked But in August, D e b y t h i s d i s p e r s i o n o f force, a n d t r i e d t o a t t a c k was baffled b y c o n t r a r y w i n d s . S h e t l a n d s , a n d w a s a g a i n baffled

s o m e o f h i s vessels a n d s c a t t e r e d t h e rest.

BATTLE

OF

DUNGENESS.

393

R u y t e r , w h o was convoying a number of merchantmen d o w n t h e C h a n n e l , m e t A y s c u e off P l y m o u t h , a n d g a i n e d a v i c t o r y . T h e D u t c h government, w h i c h w a s n o t h i s fault. v i e w i n g T r o m p w i t h s u s p i c i o n as Admiral de W i t h took a p a r t i s a n o f the house o f O r a n g e , d i s p l a c e d h i m f o r a n ill-success command o f t h e fleet, a n d s a i l e d t o effect a j u n c t i o n w i t h D e R u y t e r , while B l a k e sailed to j o i n A y s c u e . T h u s t h e forces o n b o t h was sides w e r e c o n c e n t r a t e d i n t h e C h a n n e l , a n d , as D e W i t h

CHAP,

eager f o r b a t t l e , E n g l i s h a n d D u t c h e n c o u n t e r e d o n S e p t e m b e r 8 n e a r t h e K e n t i s h K n o c k , a s h o a l n o t far f r o m t h e m o u t h o f the Thames. Blake, who h a d the advantage of the or wind, a t t a c k e d , a n d after a c o n f u s e d t h o u g h s t u b b o r n fight, t h e D u t c h were worsted, a n d a number of malcontent captains sailed home. defeat w a s faint-hearted Their Van T h e D u t c h a d m i r a l s sought t h e s h e l t e r e d by the victory which

waters o f Goree, leaving B l a k e master of the C h a n n e l . h a r d l y recompensed

G a l e n gained over a n E n g l i s h squadron near E l b a , or b y the blockade of another E n g l i s h squadron i n L e g h o r n . The it passed p a r l i a m e n t pressed the w a r w i t h t h e u t m o s t e n e r g y , T o fill the treasury hundred Y e t it had a n d o r d e r e d t h e b u i l d i n g o f t h i r t y frigates.

a n a c t c o n f i s c a t i n g t h e estates o f several

r o y a l i s t s , for t h e m o s t p a r t o b s c u r e a n d h a r m l e s s .

d i f f i c u l t y i n p r o v i d i n g f o r t h e p a y a n d v i c t u a l s o f t h e sailors. B l a k e w a s o b l i g e d t o s e n d so m a n y o f h i s s h i p s f o r r e p a i r t h a t i n N o v e m b e r he h a d o n l y forty-two available, a n d m a n y were hired merchantmen. eighty-five sail. of these the to merT a u g h t b y misfortune,

D u t c h r e c a l l e d T r o m p t o c o m m a n d , a n d r a i s e d h i s force H e was c h a r g e d w i t h t h e c o n v o y o f a

c h a n t fleet s a i l i n g t o B o r d e a u x , b u t t o o k t h e o c c a s i o n t o leave t h e m b e h i n d a n d seek B l a k e , w h o g l a d l y a c c e p t e d lenge, a n d m e t T r o m p off D u n g e n e s s o n N o v e m b e r 30. him to contend against terrible odds and he was the c h a l Twenty defeated.

o f h i s s h i p s , m o s t l y t h e h i r e d m e r c h a n t m e n , h e l d back, l e a v i n g T r o m p , h a v i n g regained c o m m a n d of the Channel, continued his v o y a g e , a n d w h e n he reached the Isle of Rh waited u n t i l the m e r c h a n t m e n s h o u l d h a v e t a k e n t h e i r r e t u r n cargoes at B o r d e a u x a n d s h o u l d n e e d h i s p r o t e c t i o n o n the w a y h o m e . t h u s a l l o w e d h i s e n e m y a respite w h i c h p r o v e d disastrous. By raising the m o n t h l y assessments w h i l e r e d u c i n g the strength o f the a r m y the parliament found means to attract the He

394

ESTABLISHMENT

OF

THE

PROTECTORATE.

1653

CHAP, necessary seamen.

A s F r e d e r i c k , K i n g o f D e n m a r k , the a l l y

o f H o l l a n d , h a d closed t h e S o u n d t o E n g l i s h vessels, t h e n a v a l stores, w h i c h c o u l d n o l o n g e r be o b t a i n e d f r o m the B a l t i c , w e r e sought f r o m S c o t l a n d a n d N e w E n g l a n d . Colonel M o n k and By February, Colonel Deane were j o i n e d i n c o m m a n d w i t h B l a k e , w h o h a d also w o n h i s first h o n o u r s i n warfare o n l a n d . 1653, the t h r e e a d m i r a l s p u t out w i t h s e v e n t y ships t o i n t e r cept T r o m p , w h o w a s r e t u r n i n g w i t h a l i k e force, b u t e n c u m bered b y t h e m e r c h a n t m e n . off P o r t l a n d . T h e y c a m e i n s i g h t o f the D u t c h T h e i r s h i p s w e r e so c l u m s y a n d the s k i l l o f t h e i r

crews so imperfect that t h e i r fleet was scattered over t h e sea i n several g r o u p s , a n d B l a k e a n d D e a n e c o u l d muster o n l y t w e n t y sail t o b e g i n t h e a c t i o n . T r o m p , w h o h a d all his ships w e l l i n could join them. Some of the h a n d , fell u p o n B l a k e a n d D e a n e , w h o m a i n t a i n e d a desperate struggle u n t i l t h e i r consorts E n g l i s h sh ip s m a d e a t i m e l y d i v e r s i o n b y a s s a i l i n g the c o n v o y , a n d the d a y e n d e d w i t h o u t m u c h a d v a n t a g e t o either t o renew the battle n e x t m o r n i n g . followed, and i n a r u n n i n g powder. fight party. T r o m p h a d so far e x h a u s t e d h i s m a g a z i n e s that he was u n a b l e H e continued his voyage, f o r c e d h i m t o b u r n his last deserted their c o v e r i n g t h e m e r c h a n t m e n as best h e c o u l d , w h i l e t h e E n g l i s h A g a i n m a n y o f the D u t c h c a p t a i n s

c h i e f a n d m a d e a l l s a i l for h o m e , b u t w i t h a d m i r a b l e s k i l l a n d coolness T r o m p a n d his l i e u t e n a n t s c o n t i n u e d t o h o l d off t h e E n g l i s h , a n d at last effected t h e i r retreat. The D u t c h war favoured the views of the p a r t y w h i c h In August, 1652, preferred a S p a n i s h t o a F r e n c h alliance.

t h e c o u n c i l o f state p r o p o s e d t o C a r d e n a s t h a t h e s h o u l d draft a commercial treaty between S p a i n a n d E n g l a n d , a n d he consented. I n S e p t e m b e r he p r e v a i l e d w i t h t h e c o u n c i l t o h i n d e r B y its orders B l a k e a t t a c k e d a n d fleet next day. deb r i n g i n g supplies for t h a t T h e parliathe r e l i e f o f D u n k i r k .

s t r o y e d o r dispersed a F r e n c h

town, w h i c h surrendered on the v e r y

m e n t was not, however, satisfied w i t h t h e t r e a t y d r a w n up b y Cardenas, b u t offered a d r a f t o f its o w n , e n s u r i n g i n m o r e a m p l e terms t h e religious f r e e d o m o f E n g l i s h m e n i n S p a i n . Mazarin t o o k a l a r m , a n d t r i e d t o avert a n A n g l o - S p a n i s h a l l i a n c e b y s e n d i n g a n a g e n t t o L o n d o n w i t h a letter w h i c h a c k n o w l e d g e d the E n g l i s h c o m m o n w e a l t h . A s t h e a g e n t h a d n o credentials, a n d t h e letter was n o t p r o p e r l y addressed, t h e p a r l i a m e n t de-

1652

DISAFFECTION

OF THE ARMY.

395

c l i n e d t o receive it.

E v e n w h e n this defect o f f o r m h a d b e e n T h e French and

CHAP,
X V I L

s u p p l i e d a n d a n e g o t i a t i o n f o r m u t u a l redress o f g r i e v a n c e s had been begun, n o t h i n g was accomplished. each other. S p a n i s h parties i n the council a n d parliament almost balanced T h e ill-success o f t h e F r e n c h rebels a n d t h e r e v i v a l o f t h e r o y a l a u t h o r i t y a w a k e n e d t h e fear t h a t M a z a r i n a n d the y o u n g K i n g L o u i s X I V . m i g h t attempt something o n behalf of the Stuarts. B u t when it became apparent that S p a i n w o u l d
1

n o t c o n c e d e a l l t h a t t h e E n g l i s h g o v e r n m e n t desired, E n g l i s h statesmen once more inclined to friendship w i t h F r a n c e . a n d m o r e disaffected. D u r i n g t h e progress o f t h e D u t c h w a r t h e a r m y b e c a m e m o r e I n M a y , 1652, t h e p a r l i a m e n t a p p o i n t e d days o n w h i c h a grand committee should sit t o consider the t i m e for a d i s s o l u t i o n ; b u t i n a s h o r t t i m e this c o m m i t t e e ceased to assemble. S o o n afterwards t h e p a r l i a m e n t d e e p l y offended I t h a d been reL a m b e r t , w h o i n m i l i t a r y r e p u t a t i o n a n d p o l i t i c a l influence s t o o d s e c o n d o n l y t o C r o m w e l l a m o n g t h e officers. s o l v e d u p o n I r e t o n ' s d e a t h t h a t L a m b e r t s h o u l d succeed h i m as lord deputy o f Ireland, a n d L a m b e r t h a d made preparations for a s s u m i n g t h a t p o s i t i o n . 1652, T h e parliament changed its m i n d , a n d w h e n C r o m w e l l ' s t e r m as l o r d l i e u t e n a n t e x p i r e d i n J u n e , i t a b o l i s h e d h i s office a n d c o n s e q u e n t l y t h e office o f C r o m w e l l w a s s u p p o s e d t o feel a c u t e l y t h e u n lord deputy.

h a n d s o m e usage o f h i s m o s t d i s t i n g u i s h e d c o m p a n i o n i n a r m s . M o r e o v e r , t h e p a r l i a m e n t , a b s o r b e d i n t h e c o n d u c t o f a great w a r , s h o w e d less interest t h a n ever i n those d o m e s t i c r e f o r m s which many officers financial soldiers desired. O n August 2, therefore, t h e other adopted a petition demanding a maintenance

t h a n t i t h e f o r t h e m i n i s t e r s , t h e r e f o r m o f t h e l a w , a better administration, the provision o f w o r k for the poor, the p a y m e n t o f arrears t o t h e t r o o p s , t h e observance o f articles o f w a r granted t o royalists, a n d t h e election o f a n e w representative body. T h e last d e m a n d w a s afterwards softened i n t o a prevent request t h a t t h e p a r l i a m e n t w o u l d c o n s i d e r o f such q u a l i f i c a t i o n s f o r m e m b e r s o f e n s u i n g p a r l i a m e n t s as m i g h t disaffected o r m a l i g n a n t p e r s o n s f r o m b e i n g chosen. T h e p a r l i a m e n t referred t h e p e t i t i o n t o a select c o m m i t t e e , t o w h i c h i t afterwards referred a b i l l o n elections. I t also ch. xxii. m a d e some display o f reforming zeal, revived the committee for
1

See authorities quoted by Gardiner,

History

of the Commonwealth,

39

ESTABLISHMENT

OF

THE

PROTECTORATE.

1652

CHAP, XVII.

t h e p r o p a g a t i o n o f the G o s p e l , a n d pressed o n a b i l l for s e t t i n g p o o r t o w o r k \ b u t it s o o n r e l a p s e d i n t o its f o r m e r indifference. S o dissatisfied w e r e t h e s o l d i e r s t h a t C r o m w e l l w a s s a i d t o h a v e t h o u g h t o f r e s t o r i n g t h e m o n a r c h y i n t h e p e r s o n o f the D u k e o f Gloucester, t h e o n l y c h i l d o f C h a r l e s I. w h o r e m a i n e d in England. I n c o n v e r s a t i o n w i t h W h i t e l o c k e , he c o m p l a i n e d o f the self-seeking o f t h e p a r l i a m e n t , t h e i r d e s i g n t o perpetuate themselves, t h e i r injustice a n d p a r t i a l i t y , a n d suggested t h e need of s o m e a u t h o r i t y t o c h e c k said at l e n g t h ,
t {

their exorbitances.

" What,"

he
1

i f a m a n s h o u l d t a k e u p o n h i m t o be k i n g ? "

N e v e r t h e l e s s h e appears t o h a v e l a b o u r e d h o n e s t l y for a peaceable settlement o f a l l disputes, a n d t o h a v e e n c o u r a g e d w i t h t h a t v i e w meetings o f the p r i n c i p a l officers w i t h t h e p a r l i a m e n t a r y leaders. I n J a n u a r y , 1653* ^ parliament. a stage.
e

officers a t l e n g t h c a m e to a n u n d e r new

standing w i t h the c o u n c i l o f state for the election o f a

X h e bill for elections was considered from time a n x i o u s t o d o as l i t t l e Some

t o time, a n d some b i l l s f o r t h e r e f o r m o f the l a w w e r e a d v a n c e d B u t again the house seemed as possible, w h i l e t h e i m p a t i e n c e o f t h e soldiers g r e w a n d f o u n d its usual v e n t i n a n o u t b u r s t o f p r a y e r a n d p r e a c h i n g . o f C r o m w e l l ' s friends u r g e d h i m t o d i s s o l v e t h e p a r l i a m e n t b y force, a n d i n M a r c h t h e c o u n c i l o f officers w o u l d h a v e d e c i d e d o n this measure, b u t for t h e i n t e r c e s s i o n o f C r o m w e l l a n d D e s borough. X h e parliamentary leaders were commander-in-chief. new so m u c h a l a r m e d to give give that they thought of displacing C r o m w e l l a n d m a k i n g F a i r f a x or L a m b e r t X h e y determined t h e b i l l o n elections a purport. Instead of h o l d i n g a

g e n e r a l e l e c t i o n , t h e y w o u l d fill u p t h e v a c a n t seats, a n d t h e n e w , a n d thus p r o l o n g t h e i r o w n p o w e r i n d e f i n i t e l y . house u n t i l N o v e m b e r , so as to i m p o s s i b l e for m a n y m o n t h s . against m o d i f y i n g t h e b i l l . m a k e repeal or

the o l d m e m b e r s the r i g h t o f d e c i d i n g o n t h e q u a l i f i c a t i o n s o f When t h e b i l l h a d been p a s s e d i n t h i s f o r m , t h e y w o u l d a d j o u r n t h e amendment C r o m w e l l p r o t e s t e d i n t h e house O n A p r i l 19 h e h e l d a c onfer enc e devolve chosen.
2

o f officers a n d m e m b e r s o f p a r l i a m e n t at h i s l o d g i n g s i n W h i t e hall, a n d proposed that the parliament should itself power upon a number of m i n i s t e r p u b l i c affairs u n t i l a n e w p a r l i a m e n t c o u l d b e Whitelocke, Memorials, p. 549* p. 5 4 5* trustworthy men, who would ad-

A l l the politicians except S t J o h n c o n d e m n e d this expedient,

1
M

Ibid.,

1653

EXPULSION

OF

THE

LONG

PARLIAMENT

397
CHAP,

b u t t h e y u n d e r t o o k to d e l a y t h e p r o g r e s s o f the b i l l o n elections. pected N e x t m o r n i n g , h o w e v e r , t h e officers i n the house f o u n d T h e y extill that after its passing the house would adjourn that t h e majority meant to proceed w i t h the bill.

XVII.

N o v e m b e r , a n d t h a t C r o m w e l l w o u l d be r e p l a c e d i n c o m m a n d of the a r m y b y F a i r f a x . H a r r i s o n sent w o r d t o C r o m w e l l , w h o c a m e d o w n t o t h e house w i t h a d e t a c h m e n t o f soldiers. H a v i n g posted them a w i t h i n c a l l , h e e n t e r e d a n d l i s t e n e d t o t h e debate. After

while he called to H a r r i s o n , a n d t o l d h i m that he j u d g e d the p a r l i a m e n t ripe f o r a d i s s o l u t i o n , a n d t h i s t o b e t h e t i m e . though therefore a fearless s o l d i e r a n d fanatic, H a r r i s o n f r o m t h e act. e n g a g e i n it. " S i r , t h e w o r k is v e r y g r e a t a n d " Y o u say well, Alhalf recoiled dangerous, you

I desire y o u , s e r i o u s l y t o c o n s i d e r o f i t , before

C r o m w e l l answered, and again W h e n t h e q u e s t i o n for p a s s i n g he began his speech

sat s t i l l f o r a q u a r t e r o f a n h o u r .

the b i l l w a s a b o u t t o b e put, " T h i s is t h e t i m e , I m u s t d o i t , " he said to H a r r i s o n , a n d s t a n d i n g up w i t h c o m m e n d a t i o n o f t h e p a r l i a m e n t for t h e g o o d t h e y h a d done, b u t c h a n g i n g as h e w e n t o n , e n d e d b y d e n o u n c i n g t h e i r injustice, t h e i r self-interest, t h e i r d e s i g n o f p e r p e t u a t i n g t h e m selves. P u t t i n g o n h i s hat, h e s t r o d e u p a n d d o w n the floor, members. l e v e l l i n g t h e bitterest p e r s o n a l reproaches at v a r i o u s

S i r P e t e r W^entworth rose t o d e n o u n c e s u c h u n b e c o m i n g l a n guage, t h e m o r e h o r r i d i n t h a t i t c a m e f r o m t h e i r servant, a n d t h e i r s e r v a n t w h o m t h e y h a d so h i g h l y o b l i g e d .

<

Come, come," You Call them he The re-

retorted C r o m w e l l , " I will put an end to y o u r prating. are n o p a r l i a m e n t , I s a y y o u a r e n o p a r l i a m e n t . in, call them i n . " entered. Vane
i c

H a r r i s o n gave the w o r d , and the soldiers

b r o k e out i n protest, b u t a l l t h e a n s w e r O Sir Henry Vane ! Sir Henry V a n e ! T h e speaker

r e c e i v e d was,

L o r d deliver me from Sir H e n r y V a n e . " fused t o m o v e e x c e p t perforce, w h e r e u p o n

t c

Harrison handed

h i m d o w n f r o m the c h a i r w h i l e t h e soldiers cleared t h e h o u s e . ^ V h a t s h a l l w e d o w i t h t h i s b a u b l e ? " said C r o m w e l l , l o o k i n g

(<

at the mace.

H e r e , take it a w a y . "

T h e n he snatched the

b i l l o n elections f r o m the clerk w h o h a d been about to read it,

* W h i t e l o c k e , Memorials, p. 554 L u d l o w , Memoirs, i . , 35^*55 J Blencowe, Sidney Papers, Journal of the Earl of Leicester, p. 139; *' Cromwell a n d the E x p u l s i o n o f the L o n g Parliament i n 1653," F i r t h , English Historical Review, viii., 526 (1893)'

39

ESTABLISHMENT

OF

THE

PROTECTORATE.

1653

CHAP,

xvn*

put it i n his pocket, ordered the doors to be locked, a n d went b a c k t o his l o d g i n g s at W h i t e h a l l . I n this ignominious w a y ended the most powerful parliam e n t ever k n o w n i n E n g l a n d . I t s e x p u l s i o n was a n act of m e r e m i l i t a r y v i o l e n c e , b u t it was n o t regretted b y t h e p u b l i c . W i t h as l i t t l e c e r e m o n y t h e c o u n c i l o f state was d i s s o l v e d i n the afternoon. C r o m w e l l , w i t h H a r r i s o n a n d L a m b e r t , entered t h e " Gentlemen, i f you c h a m b e r a n d closed t h e i r d e l i b e r a t i o n s .

are m e t h e r e as p r i v a t e persons, y o u s h a l l n o t be d i s t u r b e d ; b u t i f as a c o u n c i l o f state, t h i s is n o place for y o u j a n d since y o u c a n n o t b u t k n o w w h a t was d o n e i n t h e house this m o r n ing, take notice that few w o r d s o f protest t h e p a r l i a m e n t is d i s s o l v e d . " After a of was f r o m t h e l o r d president, B r a d s h a w , T h e last s e m b l a n c e of England. It the

c o u n c i l l o r s rose a n d w e n t t h e i r w a y . their head stood thought f o r t h as t h e m a s t e r s

l a w f u l a u t h o r i t y v a n i s h e d , a n d t h e soldiers w i t h C r o m w e l l at t h a t C r o m w e l l w o u l d seize o n r o y a l p o w e r w i t h o r S o m e petitioned h i m to take u p o n B u t whether from

without the title of k i n g .

h i m s e l f t h e oifice o f p r o t e c t o r o f t h e r e a l m .

lack o f p e r s o n a l a m b i t i o n o r f r o m t h e feeling that t h i n g s w e r e n o t y e t ripe, C r o m w e l l t o o k care n o t t o assume a n y p r e - e m i n e n t a u t h o r i t y , a n d a c t e d m e r e l y as t h e first i n r a n k a m o n g officers. A n e w c o u n c i l o f state, c o n s i s t i n g o f seven soldiers and three c i v i l i a n s , was established a few d a y s after t h e e x p u l s i o n o f the o l d . W h a t f o r m o f n a t i o n a l a s s e m b l y s h o u l d be s u m Lamm o n e d was a q u e s t i o n o n w h i c h t h e officers disagreed. the

bert desired t o r e t u r n as s o o n as circumstances w o u l d a l l o w to t h e t r a d i t i o n a l m e t h o d a n d p r o v i d e for t h e e l e c t i o n o f a parliament, w h i c h should, however, written constitution. be k e p t i n b o u n d s b y a H a r r i s o n w i s h e d t o inaugur ate t h e r e i g n Cromwell

o f t h e saints b y c a l l i n g a n a s s e m b l y o f p i o u s m e n w h o , l i k e the J e w i s h S a n h e d r i m , s h o u l d be s e v e n t y i n n u m b e r . resign its p o w e r s to s u c h a b o d y . election m i g h t h a v e been p e r i l o u s . a n d t h e officers h a d suggested t h a t the late p a r l i a m e n t s h o u l d A t a crisis w h e n t h e friends C r o m w e l l therefore d e c i d e d o f t h e c o m m o n w e a l t h w e r e d i v i d e d a g a i n s t themselves, a g e n e r a l for s u c h a n a s s e m b l y as H a r r i s o n desired, b u t s o u g h t t o g i v e it a larger character, t o m a k e i t a c o m p r e h e n s i v e g a t h e r i n g o f p u r i t a n notables, w h a t e v e r the shade o f their opinions. In

1653

THE

LITTLE

PARLIAMENT

399

t h i s s p i r i t h e i n v i t e d F a i r f a x t o t a k e h i s seat there, b u t i n v a i n . CHAP. XVII. F i n a l l y C r o m w e l l a n d t h e c o u n c i l o f t h e a r m y w r o t e letters t o t h e c o n g r e g a t i o n a l churches i n e a c h c o u n t y , i n v i t i n g t h e m t o send u p t h e n a m e s o f persons fit t o b e m e m b e r s . F r o m the names thus submitted the general a n d the council made their choice, b u t t h e y also n o m i n a t e d s u c h persons as t h e y t h o u g h t fit, f o r t h e y s t i l l w i s h e d t o r e c o n c i l e a l l t h e u p h o l d e r s o f t h e commonwealth. final T h e invitation to F a i r f a x was renewed a n d B o t h h e l d o b s t i n a t e l y aloof. The five to persons t o represent E n g l a n d , even V a n e was sounded. list i n c l u d e d 129

represent S c o t l a n d , a n d s i x t o represent I r e l a n d .

Thus, without

even t h e p r e t e n c e o f e l e c t i o n , was f o r m e d t h e a s s e m b l y best k n o w n as t h e L i t t l e P a r l i a m e n t o r B a r e b o n e ' s P a r l i a m e n t , so s t y l e d f r o m o n e o f its m e m b e r s , P r a i s e - G o d B a r e b o n e , a l e a t h e r merchant i n the city of L o n d o n . T h i s a s s e m b l y was i n after y e a r s t h e b u t t o f f o r c e d a n d extravagant acter ridicule. Most of its m e m b e r s w e r e n o t O n e or two very peers, u n l i k e the members of an average house o f c o m m o n s i n chara n d abilities a n d even i n station. m a n y g e n t l e m e n o f l a n d e d estate, a n d m a n y p r o s p e r o u s c i t i z e n s sat there. S o m e were n o t e w o r t h y m e n \ M o n k , t h e least f a n a t i c a l s o l d i e r o f the t i m e j B l a k e , t h e i l l u s t r i o u s a d m i r a l j L o c k h a r t , s o o n t o be d i s t i n g u i s h e d a l i k e i n w a r a n d i n d i p l o m a c y ; H e n r y C r o m w e l l , w h o i n h e r i t e d s o m e w h a t o f h i s father s v i g o u r \ A n t h o n y A s h l e y Cooper, afterwards E a r l o f Shaftesbury, the first g r e a t p a r l i a m e n t a r y leader a n d p a r t y c h i e f o f t h e m o d e r n type. The I n t w o respects, h o w e v e r , t h e a s s e m b l y c o n t r a s t e d w i t h great m a j o r i t y w e r e zealous puritans h o l d i n g opinions a n y h o u s e o f c o m m o n s t h a t has e v e r b e e n k n o w n i n E n g l a n d . a l m o s t as d i s p l e a s i n g t o t h e p r e s b y t e r i a n as t o the A n g l i c a n , a n d t h e y were t h e o r e t i c a l p o l i t i c i a n s w h o d i d n o t c o m p r e h e n d t h e t h o u g h t s a n d feelings o f o r d i n a r y E n g l i s h m e n . T h e y ass e m b l e d a t ' W h i t e h a l l o n J u l y 4> a n d l i s t e n e d t o a speech f r o m C r o m w e l l j u s t i f y i n g w h a t h a d b e e n d o n e as necessary f o r t h e welfare o f the people o f G o d . T h e officers h a d been d r i v e n t o B u t they had not sought Power had come e x p e l t h e p a r l i a m e n t because i t w o u l d n o t d i s s o l v e i t s e l f n o r y e t d o a n y t h i n g for t h e p u b l i c g o o d . t o keep power to themselves even for a day. hands.

t o h i s hearers b y t h e p r o v i d e n c e o f G o d , a l t h o u g h u s i n g w e a k " I confess I n e v e r l o o k e d t o see s u c h a d a y as t h i s

400

ESTABLISHMENT

OF THE

PROTECTORATE.

1653

CHAP, XVII,

- i t m a y b e , n o r y o u n e i t h e r w h e n Jesus C h r i s t s h o u l d b e so o w n e d as H e is, a t t h i s d a y a n d i n t h i s w o r k . " n o t b e h o p e d f r o m m e n thus w o n d e r f u l l y " Indeed I d o think somewhat What might power? raised t o

i s at t h e d o o r j w e a r e a t t h e
1

t h r e s h o l d ; a n d therefore i t b e c o m e s u s t o lift u p o u r heads a n d encourage ourselves i n t h e L o r d . " than they should ordain. I n conclusion he t o l d the a s s e m b l y t h a t t h e c o u n c i l o f state h a d n o a u t h o r i t y t o s i t l o n g e r A n instrument was read w h i c h gave
a n <

t h e m p o w e r u n t i l N o v e m b e r 3 1654* >

^ authorised t h e m to o f the

choose b e f o r e t h a t t i m e a n o t h e r a s s e m b l y w h i c h s h o u l d i n h e r i t their authority a n d provide for the future government nation. A r e t u r n t o elective p a r l i a m e n t s , w h i c h C r o m w e l l h a d

m e n t i o n e d i n h i s speech as desirable, seemed t o b e p u t o f f f o r a n indefinite time. T h e a s s e m b l y t o o k t h e p o w e r t h u s offered, elected F r a n c i s Rouse, author o f a w e l l - k n o w n version o f the Psalms, t o be speaker, i n v i t e d C r o m w e l l a n d four o t h e r assumed t h e t i t l e o f p a r l i a m e n t . officersDesborough, H a r r i s o n , L a m b e r t , a n d T o m l i n s o n t o become members, a n d It resolved t o employ n o m a n I t set u p a n e w unless i t w e r e satisfied o f h i s r e a l g o d l i n e s s .

c o u n c i l o f state, c o n s i s t i n g o f t h i r t y - o n e m e m b e r s , a n d n a m e d c o m m i t t e e s t o prepare t h e subjects w h i c h s e e m e d m o s t urgent. T h e n t h e p a r l i a m e n t fell t o t h e w o r k o f r e f o r m a t i o n w i t h t h e zeal o f m e n w h o believe t h a t t h e y h a v e b e e n e n t r u s t e d power b y a n immediate act o f Providence. been f o u n d . with I t would not, i n -

deed, a b o l i s h t i t h e u n t i l s o m e o t h e r p r o v i s i o n for m i n i s t e r s h a d B u t it abolished the court o f chancery b y one It It anticipated O t h e r acts vote, l e a v i n g t h e c o m m i t t e e o n l a w t o f i n d a substitute. n a m e d a n o t h e r c o m m i t t e e t o d r a w u p a code.

m o d e r n legislators b y i n t r o d u c i n g c i v i l m a r r i a g e a n d e s t a b l i s h e d p a r o c h i a l registers o f b i r t h s , deaths, a n d marriages. lunatics a n d i d i o t s . ment attempted m a n y interests. w e r e passed f o r t h e r e l i e f o f p o o r p r i s o n e r s a n d t h e c u s t o d y o f W h a t e v e r its g o o d intentions, t h e parliaand alarmed too t o evince that too m a n y things at once

M o s t serious o f a l l , i t b e g a n T h e i m m e n s e cost

j e a l o u s y o f t h e p o w e r o f t h e s w o r d w h i c h seems i n h e r e n t i n a l l deliberative bodies. o f the a r m y was a The they p l a i n g r i e v a n c e , a n d g a v e o c c a s i o n f o r a p o p u l a r protest. excise w a s d e n o u n c e d , a n d m e m b e r s Carlyle, Letters made k n o w n that Speech i.

and Speeches of Oliver Cromwell,

DISCONTENTED

PARTIES.

401 CHAP. xvii.

considered

it a temporary

expedient.

Difficulty a n d delay

o c c u r r e d i n p a s s i n g t h e b i l l w h i c h f i x e d t h e m o n t h l y assessm e n t a t ; 120,000. T h e p a y o f t h e soldiers w a s i n j e o p a r d y , a n d i t w a s even p r o p o s e d t h a t t h e h i g h e r officers, w h o m t h e state h a d b o u n t i f u l l y r e w a r d e d , s h o u l d serve f o r a y e a r w i t h o u t receiving anything. refused F u r t h e r offence w a s g i v e n b y t h e t r e a t ment o f S i r J o h n Stawell, a royalist, to w h o m the parliament t o restore h i s estate, w h i c h , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e s o l d i e r s ,
1

was c o v e r e d b y articles o f c a p i t u l a t i o n . thus exasperated a g a i nst

W h i l e l a w y e r s a n d c l e r g y m e n , l a n d o w n e r s a n d soldiers w e r e an assembly which they deemed a n a r c h i c , i t w a s d e n o u n c e d as u s u r p i n g a n d t y r a n n i c a l b y m e n w h o w i s h e d t o g o s t i l l further. F o r a n alleged breach o f p r i v i H e h a d intrigued lege L i l b u r n e h a d b e e n b a n i s h e d b y t h e l o n g p a r l i a m e n t u n d e r pain o f death i f he returned t o England.^ abroad w i t h royalist exiles for a restoration o f m o n a r c h y o n p u r e l y d e m o c r a t i c p r i n c i p l e s , a n d c a m e b a c k after t h e e x p u l s i o n of the parliament. before the upper H e was arrested, b u t he obtained a t r i a l bench and the jury pronounced death. him not T h e verdict was

guilty o f a n y crime that deserved

a c c l a i m e d b y t h e p u b l i c a n d b y t h e v e r y soldiers set t o g u a r d t h e c o u r t \ a n d , a l t h o u g h t h e n e w c o u n c i l o f state d e t a i n e d L i l b u r n e i n prison, they could n o t hinder his partisans f r o m i n v i t i n g t h e p e o p l e o f E n g l a n d t o m e e t a n d elect a t r u e p a r l i a m e n t b y u n i v e r s a l suffrage. T h e F i f t h M o n a r c h i s t preachers attacked t h e l i t t l e p a r l i a m e n t as fiercely as t h e y h a d a t t a c k e d i t s predecessor, a n d c a l l e d f o r t h e a d o p t i o n o f t h e M o s a i c code a n d t h e r e i g n o f t h e saints. royalists took Encouraged b y t h e disaffection themselves o f so m a n y so v i g o r o u s l y p o w e r f u l interests a n d b y t h e strife o f so m a n y parties, t h e heart a n d b e s t i r r e d t h a t i t w a s p r o p o s e d t o r e v i v e t h e h i g h c o u r t o f justice. L a m b e r t , i n whose despite t h e p a r l i a m e n t h a d been c a l l e d , m a d e h i m s e l f t h e r i n g l e a d e r o f t h e m a l c o n t e n t officers a n d s o o n found a n opportunity. In November t h e house r e s o l v e d i t rejected to abolish C h u r c h patronage. I n December t h e first

clause o f a r e p o r t b r o u g h t u p b y t h e c o m m i t t e e o n tithes, a n d t h i s v o t e p r o v e d f a t a l t o t h e w h o l e report, w h i c h e m b o d i e d t h e views o f t h e moderate party a n d proposed t o m a i n t a i n tithes,

x

281-363.

For the proceedings of the little parliament see VOL. VII.

Commons Journals,
1

vii.,

26

4Q2

ESTABLISHMENT

OF THE

PROTECTORATE.

1653

CHAP, XVII.

while allowing them to be commuted.

L a m b e r t a n d his friends

resolved t o use t h e d i s c o n t e n t o f t h e m i n o r i t y i n effecting a d i s s o l u t i o n , confident t h a t , w h e n t h e t h i n g w a s d o n e , C r o m w e l l would approve what he would n o t have undertaken. w i t h t h e speaker. They c a m e t o a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g w i t h t h e i r f r i e n d s i n t h e house a n d E a r l y o n t h e m o r n i n g o f t h e 12th t h e m i n o r i t y t o o k t h e i r seats, a n d o n e o f t h e m , S i r C h a r l e s W o l s e ley, after d e n o u n c i n g t h e acts o f t h e m a j o r i t y , m o v e d t h a t t h e sitting o f the parliament a n y longer w o u l d n o t be for the good o f the commonwealth, a n d that they should deliver back their powers t o t h e L o r d - G e n e r a l C r o m w e l l . a n d t h e house b e g a n t o fill. A debate f o l l o w e d , T h e n t h e speaker, f e a r i n g t h a t , Those

i f t h e m o t i o n w e r e put, i t w o u l d b e l o s t , rose a n d r e p a i r e d t o W h i t e h a l l , followed b y about one-third o f t h e members. w h o r e m a i n e d w e r e s o o n ejected t e n a n t - C o l o n e l W h i t e , w i t h a file o f musketeers. b y C o l o n e l Goffe a n d L i e u W h e n the

speaker a n d h i s friends reached W h i t e h a l l , C r o m w e l l d e c l a r e d his surprise, b u t d i d n o t refuse t h e i r w r i t t e n a b d i c a t i o n , w h i c h was afterwards s i g n e d b y s o m a n y m e m b e r s t h a t i t m i g h t pass for the a c t o f t h e w h o l e revolution. house.
1

T h e little parliament m a r k s the highest point o f the puritan T h a t revolution was inspired b y t w o principles, distinct a n d e v e n c o n t r a r y t o each o t h e r ; t h e p r i n c i p l e t h a t government should conform t o the w i l l o f the nation a n d the p r i n c i p l e that g o d l y m e n h a v e a r i g h t t o g o v e r n t h e u n g o d l y . A s the nation w o u l d n o t tolerate t h e extremer forms o f p u r i t a n i s m , t h e sectaries w e r e l e d t o subjugate the nation. The a r m y , w h i c h h a d b e c o m e t h e sole d e p o s i t a r y o f p o w e r , i n s t a l l e d a p a r l i a m e n t w h i c h represented n o t t h e p e o p l e b u t t h e c o n g r e g a t i o n a l churches. chafed T h e result h a d b e e n t h a t this p a r l i a m e n t W i t h t h e failure o f against t h e d o m i n a t i o n o f t h e s w o r d , a n d t h e p u b l i c

chafed against t h e d o m i n a t i o n o f t h e sects. in the older institutions o f E n g l a n d . thought o f m a k i n g himself k i n g . ended i n t h e r e s t o r a t i o n .

the l i t t l e p a r l i a m e n t b e g a n a r e t u r n t o w h a t w a s y e t p r a c t i c a b l e C r o m w e l l h a d desired a settlement w i t h s o m e w h a t o f m o n a r c h i c a l p o w e r i n i t , a n d h a d A large part o f t h e a r m y agreed w i t h h i m a n d h e l p e d t o b e g i n a series o f c h a n g e s w h i c h L a m b e r t a n d h i s friends h a d a l r e a d y p r e p a r e d a n e w w r i t t e n " An Exact Relation of the Proceedings and Transactions of the late Parliament, Sonnets Ttucts, vi., 266-84.
1

THE

INSTRUMENT

OF

GOVERNMENT.
1

403

constitution, the Instrument o f Government, parliament.

w h i c h vested suwas of

CHAP.
X V I L

preme a u t h o r i t y i n one person a n d i n the people assembled i n T h e o n e person, s t y l e d t h e l o r d p r o t e c t o r , H e was t o be t h e source t o e x e r c i s e t h e chief m a g i s t r a c y .

all honours a n d to have the power o f pardon.

H e was t o dis-

pose a n d o r d e r t h e m i l i t i a a n d t h e o t h e r forces b y sea a n d l a n d w i t h t h e c o n s e n t o f p a r l i a m e n t , a n d i n t h e i n t e r v a l s o f its sessions w i t h t h e c o n s e n t o f his c o u n c i l . m a k e w a r a n d peace. t e c t o r f o r his life. W i t h the advice of the council, be he was t o d i r e c t for e i g n relations, a n d w i t h its consent h e m i g h t T h e office o f t h e p r o t e c t o r was t o elective, n o t h e r e d i t a r y , a n d O l i v e r C r o m w e l l w a s d e c l a r e d p r o T h e I n s t r u m e n t n a m e d fifteen persons t o b e T h e y were to h o l d office t h e first c o u n c i l l o r s , a n d e m p o w e r e d t h e m w i t h t h e p r o t e c t o r ' s consent t o a d d s i x t o t h e i r n u m b e r . d u r i n g life o r g o o d behaviour, a n d could be removed o n l y b y a court n a m e d p a r t l y b y the parliament, p a r t l y b y the c o u n c i l . W h e n e v e r a v a c a n c y o c c u r r e d t h e p a r l i a m e n t was t o n a m e s i x persons, o u t o f w h o m t h e c o u n c i l w a s t o choose these t h e p r o t e c t o r w a s t o a p p o i n t one. a d v i c e h e r e q u i r e d for m o s t acts o f state. T h e p a r l i a m e n t w a s t o c o n t a i n 400 representatives land, thirty o f Scotland, and thirty of Ireland. of E n g In England two, and of Thus the protector whose

had v e r y little power over the composition of the b o d y

m a n y s m a l l b o r o u g h s w e r e t o b e suppressed a n d t h e i r m e m b e r s g i v e n t o t h e counties o r t o l a r g e t o w n s h i t h e r t o u n r e p r e s e n t e d . T h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f seats i n S c o t l a n d a n d I r e l a n d was left t o t h e p r o t e c t o r a n d his c o u n c i l . l i m i t e d t o those T h e f r a n c h i s e i n t h e counties was worth of property, real or remaining unaltered. the w h o h a d 200

p e r s o n a l , t h e franchise i n t h e b o r o u g h s since 1641

T h o s e w h o h a d t a k e n p a r t i n a n y w a r a g a i nst t h e p a r l i a m e n t w e r e d i s a b l e d f r o m e l e c t i n g o r b e i n g elected t o A n e x t four p a r l i a m e n t s . R o m a n catholics and a l l w h o had t a k e n parlia-

p a r t i n t h e l i ' i s h r e b e l l i o n w e r e d i s q u a l i f i e d for ever.

m e n t w a s n o t t o last a b o v e three y e a r s a n d w a s n o t t o b e p r o r o g u e d o r d i s s o l v e d d u r i n g t h e first five m o n t h s o f its s i t t i n g w i t h o u t its o w n consent. I n the event o f war w i t h a foreign state, t h e p r o t e c t o r w a s t o s u m m o n a p a r l i a m e n t i f o n e w e r e not sitting, a n d respecting the duration of such a parliament n o t h i n g was e n a c t e d . T h e parliament h a d the legislative power.
History
t

* Old Pdrliamentary

26 *

xx.,

248.

44

ESTABLISHMENT

OF

THE

PROTECTORATE.

1653

CHAP.

B i l l s w h i c h i t h a d passed w e r e t o b e offered t o t h e p r o t e c t o r for h i s consent, b u t i f h e f a i l e d t o g i v e i t w i t h i n t w e n t y d a y s or t o satisfy t h e p a r l i a m e n t o f h i s r e a s o n f o r refusing, t h e the Instrument. bills w e r e t o b e c o m e l a w , unless t h e y c o n t a i n e d m a t t e r c o n t r a r y to X h e parliament also h a d the power o f i m be fleet p o s i n g t a x e s , save t h a t a c o n s t a n t y e a r l y revenue was t o settled, sufficient t o m a i n t a i n a n a r m y o f 30,000 m e n a n d a charges o f c i v i l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n .

for g u a r d i n g the seas, a n d t o p r o v i d e ^200,000 a y e a r for t h e T h i s r e v e n u e was t o b e r a i s e d b y c u s t o m s a n d o t h e r m e a n s a p p r o v e d b y t h e p r o t e c t o r a n d his council, a n d was not to be taken a w a y or d i m i n i s h e d without his consent. T h e a p p r o b a t i o n o f p a r l i a m e n t was m a d e necess a r y i n t h e c h o i c e o f c e r t a i n great officers o f statethe c h a n cellor, t h e treasurer, t h e a d m i r a l , t h e c h i e f g o v e r n o r s o f I r e l a n d a n d S c o t l a n d , a n d t h e c h i e f justices o f b o t h benches. T h e first p a r l i a m e n t u n d e r t h e I n s t r u m e n t was t o m e e t o n September 3J *654> a n d u n t i l its m e e t i n g t h e p r o t e c t o r w i t h The his c o u n c i l w a s e m p o w e r e d t o raise m o n e y b y t a x a t i o n , a n d t o m a k e o r d i n a n c e s f o r the peace a n d w e l f a r e o f the n a t i o n . tained i n the Scriptures, should be profession. pelled b y penalties. Those I n s t r u m e n t f u r t h e r p r o v i d e d t h a t t h e C h r i s t i a n r e l i g i o n , as c o n h e l d f o r t h as t h e p u b l i c faith i n G o d by docto T o that public profession none were t o be c o m w h o professed

Jesus C h r i s t , a l t h o u g h n o t a g r e e i n g w i t h t h e e s t a b l i s h e d

trine or discipline, were t o be protected i n the exercise o f their o w n r e l i g i o n , so l o n g as t h e y d i d n o t abuse t h e i r f r e e d o m t h e i n j u r y o f others, o r t h e d i s t u r b a n c e o f t h e peace. B u t this Re-

l i b e r t y was n o t e x t e n d e d t o p o p e r y o r p r e l a c y , o r t o s u c h as p r a c t i s e d licentiousness u n d e r t h e p r o f e s s i o n o f C h r i s t . ligious t o l e r a n c e as i t was understood b y the was t h u s m a d e a p r i n c i p l e o f t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n . T h e I n s t r u m e n t w a s a n a t t e m p t t o restore a n o r d e r l y g o v e r n ment i n accordance w i t h E n g l i s h traditions. Misgovernment was t o b e r e n d e r e d i m p o s s i b l e for t h e future b y s e t t i n g u p a balance o f p o w e r s u n d e r t h e s a n c t i o n o f a f u n d a m e n t a l l a w . B u t t h e b a l a n c e was i l l u s o r y . A s the new constitution was imposed o n E n g l a n d b y the w i l l o f the a r m y , the chief o f the a r m y b e c a m e p r o t e c t o r , a n d , i n case o f c o n f l i c t w i t h t h e p a r l i a ment, his w i l l inevitably prevailed. T h e Instrument furnished n o means f o r d e c i d i n g d o u b t f u l p o i n t s o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , s t i l l independents

PROGRESS

OF

THE

DUTCH

WAR.

45

less o f a m e n d i n g p r o v i s i o n s w h i c h m i g h t b e f o u n d defective. ^ ^ P . C r o m w e l l afterwards declared, w h a t is h a r d t o believe, t h a t h e h a d n o t been c o n s u l t e d b y those w h o d r e w u p the I n s t r u m e n t . H e accepted i t w h e n offered t o h i m , o n c o n d i t i o n t h a t h e m i g h t criticise details, a n d o n D e c e m b e r protector i n Westminster Hall, 16 h e was i n a u g u r a t e d solemnly conducted as to and

W h i t e h a l l , w h i c h was t o b e his official residence. N e i t h e r t h e e x p u l s i o n o f t h e R u m p n o r t h e failure o f t h e n o m i n a t e d p a r l i a m e n t i m p a i r e d the v i g o u r o f E n g l i s h f o r e i g n policy. T h e D u t c h w e r e reduced t o severe distress, a n d w o u l d h a v e accepted a n y t o l e r a b l e t e r m s ; b u t e v e n C r o m w e l l , w h o regretted t h e w a r , was disposed t o e x a c t m o r e t h a n t h e y c o u l d h o n o u r a b l y concede. W i t h the return of summer the naval In M a y , T r o m p concontest was r e s u m e d o n a g r a n d e r scale.

v o y e d a n i m m e n s e fleet o f m e r c h a n t m e n as far as S h e t l a n d , where h e m e t a n o t h e r fleet h o m e w a r d b o u n d , a n d b r o u g h t i t . safely into the D u t c h ports. another fleet, under Slake, O n e E n g l i s h fleet, u n d e r M o n k was f i t t i n g out at P o r t s m o u t h . a n d D e a n e , sought v a i n l y f o r T r o m p i n the N o r t h S e a , w h i l e T r o m p , w h e n freed f r o m h i s c o n v o y , sailed i n c[uest o f ] M o n k and Deane. fleets, O n J u n e 2, a d a y o f l i g h t a n d s h i f t i n g airs, t h e from Harwich. even more As i t was difficult t o than usual. a dead b y each c o n s i d e r a b l y u p w a r d s o f 100 sail, m e t off t h e G a b b a t t l e was confused was s t r u c k

b a r d s h o a l , n o t far manoeuvre, t h e cannon ball.

S c a r c e l y h a d it b e g u n , w h e n D e a n e

I n spite o f T r o m p ' s s u p e r i o r s k i l l , t h e D u t c h , A l l t h r o u g h the other, Although

after a h a r d fight, h a d s o m e w h a t t h e w o r s t .

n i g h t t h e fleets d r i f t e d at n o g r e a t d i s t a n c e f r o m each a n d n e x t m o r n i n g t h e y were n o t far off D u n k i r k . Blake's victory. appearance w i t h thirteen ships ensured

h e h a d r u n s h o r t o f p o w d e r , T r o m p r e n e w e d the b a t t l e , b u t the E n g l i s h N i n e D u t c h ships h a d b e e n s u n k a n d eleven t a k e n .

T r o m p a n d D e R u y t e r l o u d l y d e c l a r e d t h a t a large p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e i r ships w e r e s o i n f e r i o r t o t h e E n g l i s h as t o b e w o r s e t h a n useless. A b l o c k a d e o f t h e coast a n n o u n c e d t h a t H o l l a n d A m i d the g e n e r a l i m p o v e r i s h h a d l o s t t h e d o m i n i o n o f t h e sea.

m e n t a n d h u m i l i a t i o n t h e O r a n g e p a r t y lifted its h e a d o n c e m o r e . J o h n d e W i t t , p e n s i o n a r y o f the p r o v i n c e o f H o l l a n d , p r e v a i l e d o n the States General to send four commissioners to ascertain w h e t h e r E n g l a n d w o u l d g r a n t reasonable conditions* T h e new

406

ESTABLISHMENT

OF

THE

PROTECTORATE.

1653

C H A P , c o u n c i l o f state r e q u i r e d a n a c k n o w l e d g m e n t XVII.

that T r o m p h a d In July

b e e n at fault i n t h a t e n c o u n t e r w i t h B l a k e w h i c h b e g a n t h e w a r , a n d insisted o n t h e a b s u r d p r o j e c t o f p o l i t i c a l u n i o n . t h e n e g o t i a t i o n c a m e t o a pause. M e a n t i m e T r o m p ' s fleet h a d

b e e n r e i n f o r c e d , a n d h e s a i l e d t o free h i s lieutenant, D e W i t h , w h o was b l o c k a d e d i n t h e T e x e l b y t h e E n g l i s h u n d e r M o n k . H e effected 30. his purpose, a n d was j o i n e d b y D e W i t h o n J u l y T r o m p w a s m o r t a l l y w o u n d e d at t h e v e r y w i t h obstinate valour, but were at T h e D u t c h l o s t t w e n t y - s i x s hips a n d taken. twelve and a loss o f t w o shi ps s u n k , a n d T h e n e x t d a y was fought the last and most tremendous H i s crews fought

battle o f t h e w a r . outset. upwards

l e n g t h u t t e r l y defeated. T h e E n g l i s h confessed

o f 6,000 m e n k i l l e d , d r o w n e d , w o u n d e d , o r

captains a n d 1,000 m e n k i l l e d o r w o u n d e d . sailed h o m e w a r d s t o m a k e g o o d t h e i r i n j u r i e s . T h e little parliament elected utmost were gains of victory. and the

S o m a n y of their

vessels h a d b e e n s h a t t e r e d t h a t t h e y r a i s e d t h e b l o c k a d e council of

state w h i c h i t to exact the peace a n d

as resolute as t h e i r predecessors

C r o m w e l l still desired

even a n a l l i a n c e b e t w e e n t h e t w o r e p u b l i c s , b u t t h e t e r m s w h i c h he p r o p o u n d e d w e r e fantastic a n d i m p o s s i b l e . T h e D u t c h enalliance. v o y s w o u l d h e a r o f n o t h i n g m o r e t h a n a defensive

I r r i t a t e d , perhaps, b y t h i s rebuff, C r o m w e l l j o i n e d w i t h h i s c o l leagues i n m a k i n g s u c h d e m a n d s as t h e D u t c h , e v e n i n t h e i r fallen c o n d i t i o n , c o u l d n o t accept. T h e y required a m o n g other things that the States G e n e r a l should undertake to exclude the y o u n g P r i n c e o f O r a n g e f r o m a l l office, c i v i l o r m i l i t a r y , a n d n o t to s e n d m o r e t h a n a c e r t a i n n u m b e r o f s h i p s t h r o u g h B r i t i s h seas w i t h o u t l e a v e a s k e d a n d o b t a i n e d . t i m e i n E n g l a n d t h e e x p e n d i t u r e far o u t s t r i p p e d t h e m u t i n e e r s e v e n t h r e a t e n e d Whitehall
1

the

A t that very revenue, heart

the sailors w e r e left u n p a i d , m u t i n i e s b r o k e o u t a n d s o m e o f t h e T h e Dutch took t o c o n t i n u e t h e w a r , a n d b e g a n to b u i l d s h i p s o f size a n d p o w e r sufficient t o cope w i t h t h e E n g l i s h . W h i l e t h e E n g l i s h w e r e absorbed i n t h e D u t c h w a r , M a z a n n was r e s t o r i n g i n F r a n c e h i s o w n a u t h o r i t y a n d t h a t crown. f r o m E n g l a n d , w e r e forced t o surrender o n J u l y 20. became a n e x i l e a n d a deserter i n t h e S p a n i s h service. S e x b y returned from F r a n c e i n September, of the Cond When T h e citizens o f B o r d e a u x , w h o h a d v a i n l y sought h e l p

C r o m w e l l offered

1653

CROMWELL

AND

THE

HUGUENOTS.

407

t o assist t h e H u g u e n o t s w i t h a fleet a n d 6,000 soldiers i f S p a i n w o u l d bear the expense. H e sent J o a c h i m H a n e , a G e r m a n engineer, t o r e p o r t o n t h e fortifications o f H a v r e , R o c h e l l e , a n d Bordeaux. I n t h e s a m e m o n t h h e p r o p o s e d to t h e D u t c h a l e a g u e d i r e c t e d a g a i n s t S p a i n . A n earnest b u t u n r e a s o n i n g w i s h t o h e l p t h e protestant cause i n o t h e r c o u n t r i e s b e t r a y e d C r o m w e l l m o r e t h a n once i n t o f a n c i f u l a n d c o n t r a d i c t o r y s c h e m e s a l i e n t o his o r d i n a r y s o u n d j u d g m e n t .

CHAP

CHAPTER
THE

XVIII.

FIRST PERIOD O F T H E PROTECTORATE.

CHAP.

OLIVER

C R O M W E L L , who

by

the
t

i n s t r u m e n t of

government

XVIII. b e c a m e v i r t u a l s o v e r e i g n o f t h e three k i n g d o m s , was b o m at H u n t i n g d o n o n A p r i l 2$, 1599* ^ b y birth a gentleman, h e said, w h e n protector, " l i v i n g n e i t h e r i n a n y c o n s i d e r a b l e height, nor y e t i n o b s c u r i t y . " B u t these words scarcely express t h e c o n s e q u e n c e o f h i s f a m i l y . H i s great-grandfather, S i r R i c h a r d C r o m w e l l , was a n e p h e w o f t h e c e l e b r a t e d m i n i s t e r o f Henry V I I I . H i s grandfather, S i r H e n r y C r o m w e l l o f H i n c h i n g b r o o k e , g a i n e d b y h i s s p l e n d o u r a n d h o s p i t a l i t y the a p p e l l a t i o n o f t h e g o l d e n k n i g h t \ O l i v e r s father R o b e r t , i t is t r u e , was o n l y a y o u n g e r s o n . O l i v e r w a s e d u c a t e d at H u n t i n g d o n F r e e S c h o o l a n d at S i d n e y S u s s e x C o l l e g e , C a m b r i d g e , a n d afterwards b e c a m e a m e m b e r o f L i n c o l n ' s I n n , w h e r e h e m a y h a v e a c q u i r e d s u c h k n o w l e d g e o f t h e l a w as w o u l d b e useful t o a c o u n t r y g e n t l e m a n . W^hen h e w a s t w e n t y - o n e h e m a r r i e d E l i z a b e t h B o u r c h i e r , a merchant's d a u g h t e r , a n d settled at H u n t i n g d o n to f a r m his o w n land. H e was returned to p a r l i a m e n t b y t h e b o r o u g h o f H u n t i n g d o n i n 1628, a n d i n t h e f o l l o w ing year took part i n the attack on B i s h o p Neile. D u r i n g the eleven y e a r s suspension o f p a r l i a m e n t h e l e d a quiet r u r a l life. H e s o l d h i s estate n e a r H u n t i n g d o n a n d r e m o v e d to S t . I v e s . T h e r e as at H u n t i n g d o n he s t o o d f o r w a r d t o defend t h e r i g h t s o f the p o o r c o m m o n e r s , w h e n assailed b y persons o f influence. I n order t o m a i n t a i n h i s i n c r e a s i n g f a m i l y h e r e n t e d l a n d a n d f o l l o w e d t h e business o f a g r a z i e r .
1 i C

B y n a t u r e earnest a n d h a v i n g f u l l leisure for t h o u g h t C r o m w e l l w a s o p p r e s s e d w i t h r e l i g i o u s m e l a n c h o l y , u n t i l at l e n g t h h e

S e e N o b l e , Protectoral House of Cromwell, a n d a n article, " O l i v e r C r o m well's Kinsfolk," b y Stanley J . W e y m a n , English Historical Review, v i . , 48 (1891). 408
x

CROMWELL'S

RISE

TO

POWER.

409

f o u n d assurance

of salvation.

T h e condition of Church and

CHAP.

b t a t e w a s as grievous to n i m as t o o t n e r e a s t - c o u n t r y p u r i t a n s , a n d i t is p o s s i b l e t h a t h e m a y h a v e t h o u g h t o f e m i g r a t i n g t o A m e r i c a , a l t h o u g h t h e r e is n o t r u t h i n t h e l e g e n d t h a t h e h a d t a k e n h i s passage i n a s h i p w h i c h w a s s t a y e d b y o r d e r o f t h e crown. H e was returned b y the borough of Cambridge to b o t h t h e p a r l i a m e n t s c a l l e d i n 1640. I n the l o n g parliament, them the most

it h a s b e e n s a i d , C r o m w e l l c o u l d r e c k o n n e a r l y a score o f m e m bers c o n n e c t e d w i t h h i m b y b l o o d o r m a r r i a g e , a m o n g Hampden, second St. John, and E d m u n d W a l l e r . He r e a d i n g o f t h e t r i e n n i a l b i l l a n d was o n e o f t h e moved

a c t i v e e n e m i e s o f t h e bishops. been forgotten. made known. prayer meetings cavalry tion. age o f f o r t y - t h r e e a n d organiser, the

Y e t h a d t h e contest b e e n o n l y was first the

one o f w o r d s , C r o m w e l l ' s p a r t i n i t w o u l d l o n g ere n o w h a v e I n the c i v i l w a r h i s r e a l c a p a c i t y The somewhat h a d d i v i d e d h i s serious t h o u g h t s a n d cattle m a r k e t s , s t o o d f o r t h as a most brilliant y e t the most uncouth squire, w h o u n t i l

between leader of and

methodic

captains, a n a d r o i t t a c t i c i a n , a d a r i n g strategist, H e b r o k e i n pieces t h e p a r t i e s , C h u r c h e s , a n d

w i t h a l a statesman equal to g u i d i n g a n d c o n t a i n i n g a revolupeoples that withstood h i m . land where almost H e became master of E n g l a n d where his all men hated h i m w i t h the fulness of

e n e m i e s far o u t n u m b e r e d h i s friends, a n d o f I r e l a n d a n d S c o t n a t i o n a l a n d religious h a t r e d . H e h a d o n l y o n e task left, b u t envenomed

t h a t t h e n o b l e s t a n d m o s t d i f f i c u l t j t h e task, as h e s a i d h i m self, o f h e a l i n g a n d s e t t l i n g : o f h e a l i n g t h e r a n c o u r b y so m a n y years o f strife; o f settling a n e w order, p o l i t i c a l a n d ecclesiastical, w h i c h s h o u l d rest, n o t u p o n m i l i t a r y forcey but u p o n the w i l l i n g acceptance o f a l l g o o d citizens. U n t i l the new parliament should meet i n September, power. Some of H o w e v e r u n w i l l i n g t o use severity, the most seditious preachers, they could 1654, not the protector a n d his council enjoyed the plenitude o f sovereign o v e r l o o k t h e furious d e n u n c i a t i o n s o f t h e F i f t h Feake, Monarchists. Powell, and of

S i m p s o n , w e r e arrested, a n d H a r r i s o n , t h e m i l i t a r y c h i e f the party, was deprived o f his commission. to the new government. He repealed the

A t the same t i m e ordinance under

t h e p r o t e c t o r s o u g h t t o reassure a l l w h o w o u l d q u i e t l y s u b m i t w h i c h m e n h a d t o swear t h a t t h e y w o u l d b e f a i t h f u l t o a c o m -

4io

FIRST

PERIOD

OF

THE

PROTECTORATE.

1654

CHAP,

m o n w e a l t h w i t h o u t k i n g o r house o f l o r d s . was ster. no i u r t n e r aiscuroance. m ocotiana s o l d i e r s accepted

I n E n g l a n d there me omcers ana

w i t h o u t d e m u r e a c h r e v o l u t i o n at W e s t m i n commonwealth A s a consisperform his that failed In

I n Ireland a l l the commissioners o f the

save L u d l o w s u b m i t t e d t o t h e n e w g o v e r n m e n t . tion under a protector, although o f i m m e d i a t e attack, he agreed to

tent r e p u b l i c a n , L u d l o w d e c l i n e d t o act i n the c i v i l a d m i n i s t r a m i l i t a r y duties u n t i l he s h o u l d b e r e p l a c e d . danger Secure f r o m the

C r o m w e l l could undertake

work o f legislation i n w h i c h the l o n g parliament had

through sloth a n d the little parliament t h r o u g h impatience.

t h e p e r i o d o f h i s sole g o v e r n m e n t he issued u p w a r d s o f e i g h t y ordinances, w h i c h cover a wide range o f topics and justify h i m against t h e r e p r o a c h o f h a v i n g c a r e d l i t t l e f o r t h e r e f o r m i n s t i t u t i o n s .^ N o o t h e r r e f o r m was so g e n e r a l l y d e s i r e d b y t h e p u r i t a n s o r s o u r g e n t i n C r o m w e l l s o p i n i o n as ecclesiastical r e f o r m . liefs. H e w o u l d n o t interfere w i t h t h e r i g h t s o f p a t r o n s He or w i s h e d , however, t o c o n c i l i a t e vested interests a n d accepted bea b o l i s h tithes u n t i l s o m e other m a i n t e n a n c e f o r t h e c l e r g y c o u l d be devised. N o r w o u l d he impose a n y f o r m of ordination or -By *m o r d i n a n c e for t h e as triers, approhe appartly d o c t r i n a l test o n m i n i s t e r s . pointed thirty-eight of

b a t i o n o f p u b l i c preachers issued o n M a r c h 20, 1654, commissioners, k n o w n

ministers, p a r t l y l a y m e n , t o t r y t h e fitness o f persons p r e s e n t e d to livings. T h e a s p i r a n t h a d t o p r o d u c e a certificate f r o m three the the persons o f k n o w n i n t e g r i t y , o n e o f w h o m w a s t o b e a m i n i s t e r , t e s t i f y i n g t o his h o l y a n d g o o d c o n v e r s a t i o n , w h e r e u p o n u n d e r seal. I n p r a c t i c e t h e m i n i s t e r s w h o certified a n d commissioners were to admit h i m b y an instrument i n w r i t i n g triers w h o a d m i t t e d w o u l d b e either i n d e p e n d e n t s , p r e s b y t e r i a n s , or baptists, a n d c a n d i d a t e s c o n f o r m i n g t o o n e o r o t h e r o f these standards o f b e l i e f w o u l d h a v e a n a d v a n t a g e . B y another orIn every d i n a n c e o f A u g u s t 22 m e a n s w e r e p r o v i d e d f o r e j e c t i n g i n c o m petent o r s c a n d a l o u s m i n i s t e r s a n d s c h o o l m a s t e r s . county of E n g l a n d and W a l e s a body o f commissioners k n o w n as ejectors w a s t o h e a r charges a n d eject o n p r o o f a n y m i n i s t e r or schoolmaster o f evil life or o f atheistical or * Sfie Scobell, ii., 283"3^8i blasphemous

EXTENT

OF

CROMWELL'S

TOLERANCE.

411 CHAP,

o p i n i o n s , as w e l l as s u c h as persisted i n u s i n g t h e P r a y e r B o o k or avowed tneir aisanection to tne government. i t is a n o w e a t h a t t h e t r i e r s a n d ejectors d i d t h e i r d u t y h o n e s t l y a n d carefully, a n d that the ministers inducted under the c o m m o n w e a l t h w e r e w i t h r a r e e x c e p t i o n s f a i t h f u l a n d zealous. H a v i n g organised principal t h e C h u r c h so as t o c o m p r e h e n d the large f o r m s o f p u r i t a n belief, C r o m w e l l a l l o w e d a

measure o f t o l e r a t i o n t o t h o s e w h o f o u n d it t o o s t r a i t f o r t h e i r conscience. I f free t o f o l l o w h i s o w n j u d g m e n t , h e w o u l d p e r the haps have tolerated a l l w h o h e l d what were then thought obey the government. freedom. As a too

fundamental doctrines of C h r i s t i a n i t y a n d who were w i l l i n g to B u t he h a d to consider the instability prejudice against might have religious liberal policy embittered The of his power and the deep-rooted presbyterian opposition without

conciliating R o m a n catholics

o r A n g l i c a n s , he d a r e d n o t be c o n s i s t e n t o r t h o r o u g h .

catholics, although no longer forced to attend the parish church, r e m a i n e d subject t o t h e o l d penalties f o r f o l l o w i n g t h e i r o w n observances. C r o m w e l l d i d n o t r i g i d l y enforce t h e p e r s e c u t i n g H e t o l d M a z a r i n that he A s it was still forl a w s a g a i n s t t h e m , a n d t h e r e is o n l y o n e i n s t a n c e o f a c a t h o l i c priest suffering death i n his reign. h a d protected m a n y catholics a n d hoped to do more, a l t h o u g h he w o u l d n o t promise a legal toleration. b i d d e n t o use the P r a y e r B o o k , A n g l i c a n s c o u l d o n l y w o r s h i p i n p r i v a t e , b u t t h e i r assemblies w e r e r a r e l y m o l e s t e d s a v e at t i m e s w h e n t h e g o v e r n m e n t felt i t s e l f i n d a n g e r . m e n w h o regarded government essential, Church. did doubtless C r o m w e l l showed conform much to M a n y clergyestablished Archbishop his the b y b i s h o p s as l a w f u l , b u t n o t Cromwell's to deference

U s s h e r w h o h a d proposed a composite form of C h u r c h government, granted h i m a pension, a n d o n his death ordered S o m e believed that interment i n Westminster A b b e y . a b l e t o t h e a n c i e n t ecclesiastical o r d e r . is l i t t l e o r n o proof. H i s forbearance

protector i n his closing years became m o r e and m o r e favourO f this, h o w e v e r , there even towards heresy

w h i c h m o s t m e n d e e m e d c a p i t a l w a s seen i n t h e case o f J o h n B i d d l e , w h o rejected t h e d i v i n i t y o f C h r i s t , a n d w h o m h e s a v e d f r o m a w o r s e fate b y a n i m p r i s o n m e n t i n t h e S c i l l y Isles. Scobell, 21., 3 5 3*

412

FIRST

PERIOD

OF THE

PROTECTORATE.

1654

CHAP. XVIII.

H i m s e l f a m y s t i c as w e l l as a n o n c o n f o r m i s t , C r o m w e l l felt zealots w h o s c a n d a l i s e d s o b e r p e o p l e . H e treated t h e F i f t h H e interfered M o n a r c h y m e n w i t h extraordinary indulgence.

o n behalf o f the p r i m i t i v e quakers, w h o were apt t o behave i n a way which would not be permitted even n o w and h a d m u c h t o suffer f r o m m a g i s t r a t e s , jailers, a n d t h e m o b . the admonitions of George Fox.
<c

F e w busy m e n

a n d s t i l l f e w e r s o v e r e i g n s w o u l d h a v e s u b m i t t e d so p a t i e n t l y t o A s I spake, h e w o u l d A n d as several t i m e s s a y , i t w a s v e r y g o o d a n d i t was t r u t h . tears i n h i s eyes, s a i d 1

C

I w a s t u r n i n g t o g o a w a y , h e catches m e b y t h e h a n d a n d w i t h C o m e again t o m y house j for i f thou w e should be

3

and I were b u t a n hour o f the d a y together, nearer o n e t o t h e o t h e r j ill than he did to his o w n soul."
1

a d d i n g that he wished m e n o more T h a t C r o m w e l l , whose m i n d

w a s steeped i n t h e O l d T e s t a m e n t , s h o u l d h a v e felt k i n d l y t o w a r d s t h e J e w s is n a t u r a l j b u t h i s p a r t i n e n c o u r a g i n g t h e m t o settle here h a s b e e n o v e r - s t a t e d . Since their expulsion b y Although been E d w a r d I. t h e J e w s h a d scarcely r e v i s i t e d E n g l a n d . allowed t o worship according t o their l a w .

t h e y w e r e n o t e x c l u d e d b y statute, t h e y w o u l d n o t h a v e

U n d e r the com-

monwealth a few stole i n , a n d a learned r a b b i o f A m s t e r d a m , M a n a s s e h B e n Israel, p e t i t i o n e d C r o m w e l l t h a t h i s b r e t h r e n m i g h t h a v e t h e free e x e r c i s e o f t h e i r r e l i g i o n . mitted t h e p e t i t i o n t o a conference C r o m w e l l subi n w h i c h ministers a n d B u t most of his

citizens w e r e j o i n e d w i t h c o u n c i l l o r s o f state, a n d h e appears t o have a d d r e s s e d i t i n f a v o u r o f t h e J e w s . some o n economic grounds. fruitless. hearers w e r e a d v e r s e t o a n y i n d u l g e n c e , s o m e o n r e l i g i o u s a n d A s Cromwell would not contend f u r t h e r w i t h p u b l i c o p i n i o n , M a n a s s e h B e n Israel's p e t i t i o n w a s A t o l e r a t i o n i n fact, so l o n g as t h e y s c r e e n e d t h e i r w i t h t h e a d v a n t a g e s o f L o n d o n as a w o r s h i p f r o m g e n e r a l notice, t h e J e w s d i d e n j o y u n d e r C r o m well ; a n d this, together centre o f c o m m e r c e , w a s e n o u g h t o a t t r a c t J e w i s h i m m i g r a n t s ; so t h a t t h e J e w i s h c o m m u n i t y i n E n g l a n d m a y b e s a i d t o d a t e from the commonwealth.
2

A l l that C r o m w e l l d i d f o r religious freedom m a y seem little * Fox, Journal, pp. i373^* Compare the account of this subject in Gardiner, History of the Commonwealth, chap, xli., with Henriques, The Return of the yews to England, London,
2

IyOjJ.

HIS

LEGAL

REFORMS.

4*3
CHAP.
X V I 1 1

t o t h e m e n o f o u r t i m e , a n d s e e m e d insufficient t o a. few o f h i s c o n t e m p o r a r i e s s u c h as V a n e a n d M i l t o n . B u t when we cons i d e r t h e state o f o p i n i o n i n E n g l a n d a n d i n E u r o p e d u r i n g t h e s e v e n t e e n t h c e n t u r y a n d t h e e x t r a o r d i n a r y efforts n e e d e d i n a later age t o r e m o v e t h e d i s a b i l i t i e s o f n o n c o n f o r m i s t s , w h e t h e r p r o t e s t a n t o r c a t h o l i c , we m a y t h i n k t h a t C r o m w e l l w e n t as far as was p o s s i b l e w i t h o u t j e o p a r d i n g h i s o w n a u t h o r i t y a n d e v e n t h e cause o f t o l e r a t i o n . T h e p r o t e c t o r s h a r e d the p u r i t a n b e l i e f r e s p e c t i n g t h e i n fluence o f l a w s o n m a n n e r s , a n d several o f h i s o r d i n a n c e s w e r e designed for the m o r a l reformation o f the people. cause it w a s accompanied w i t h gaming, drinking, A T h u s he swearing, f o r b a d e c o c k f i g h t i n g , n o t o n t h e g r o u n d o f its c r u e l t y , b u t beq u a r r e l l i n g , a n d o t h e r d i s s o l u t e practices. terest attaches m o r e serious i n -

t o h i s efforts f o r t h e i m p r o v e m e n t o f t h e l a w .

H e w o u l d n o t , l i k e the l i t t l e p a r l i a m e n t , suppress t h e c o u r t o f chancery, but he promulgated a n elaborate ordinance to correct its abuses. A modern expert acknowledges
1

that it

effected

m a n y real improvements, but adds that it d i d h a r m b y reducing equity to a rigid and inflexible system. A n o t h e r ordinance Cromwell knew was d e s i g n e d f o r t h e r e l i e f o f p o o r d e b t o r s .

t h a t a b l e a n d u p r i g h t j u d g e s are as necessary t o t h e p u b l i c w e l fare as g o o d laws, a n d v a l u e d h i m s e l f o n n o t h i n g m o r e t h a n his care a n d i m p a r t i a l i t y i n r a i s i n g t h e fittest m e n t o t h e b e n c h . T h e first j u d g e a p p o i n t e d b y h i m was M a t t h e w H a l e , w h o s e w o r t h a n d l e a r n i n g were a c k n o w l e d g e d b y a l l parties, a n d w h o b e c a m e c h i e f j u s t i c e o f t h e c o m m o n pleas after t h e r e s t o r a t i o n . C r o m w e l l h a s received perhaps m o r e t h a n h i s m e e d o f p r a i s e for this choice o n the g r o u n d that H a l e was a royalist, but it w o u l d appear that H a l e had throughout been a steady although temperate supporter of the parliament. O n his accession t o p o w e r C r o m w e l l h a d t o c o p e w i t h a Scottish revolt. A l t h o u g h t h e S c o t s h a d b e e n o u t w a r d l y subThe malcontents the the dued, their attachment to the house o f Stuart a n d their passion for i n d e p e n d e n c e were as s t r o n g as ever. f o u n d t h e i r o p p o r t u n i t y i n t h e D u t c h war, w h i c h s h o o k succour. Within a y e a r after the defeat of Worcester

E n g l i s h c o n t r o l o f t h e sea, a n d raised t h e h o p e o f c o n t i n e n t a l r o y a l i s t n o b l e s a n d chiefs requested a leader f r o m C h a r l e s , w h o

1

Inderwick, The

Interregnum.

414

FIRST

PERIOD

OF

THE

PROTECTORATE.

1654

CHAP, ^^***

named General Middleton.

U n t i l he arrived, the E a r l o f G l e n M i d d l e t o n was d e t a i n e d

c a i r n was t o c o m m a n d t h e i n s u r g e n t s .

i n H o l l a n d , p a r t l y b y sickness, p a r t l y b y t h e tedious l a b o u r o f e x t r a c t i n g p e t t y c o n t r i b u t i o n s f r o m p r i n c e s w h o professed g o o d w i l l to Charles, for the D u t c h showed n o disposition to hazard anything i n an attempt on Scotland. not to attempt a n y serious operations T h e chiefs a n d n o b l e s before the a r r i v a l o f w h o g a t h e r e d r o u n d G l e n c a i r n i n t h e s u m m e r o f 1653 r e s o l v e d M i d d l e t o n , w h o was expected to b r i n g a large supply o f arms and ammunition. I n F e b r u a r y , 1654* M i d d l e t o n l a n d e d a t X a r b a t n e s s i n R o s s shire, a n d b y A p r i l h e h a d c o l l e c t e d s o m e 5ooo m e n . establishment o f the protectorate w a r c h a n g e d t h e aspect o f affairs i n S c o t l a n d . B u t the a n d t h e close o f t h e D u t c h In April, M o n k known

r e t u r n e d as c o m m a n d e r - i n - c h i e f , w i t h o r d e r s t o m a k e

t h e i n t e n t i o n s o f t h e n e w g o v e r n m e n t r e s p e c t i n g S c o t t i s h affairs. A t E d i n b u r g h he proclaimed the protectorate, a parliamentary union, and freedom o f trade w i t h E n g l a n d . F e u d a l tenures a n d Cromfeudal j u r i s d i c t i o n s were t o cease, a n d p o p u l a r courts w e r e t o b e established i n e v e r y d i s t r i c t t o d e t e r m i n e p e t t y causes. w e l l thus s k i l f u l l y d e v e l o p e d t h e p o l i c y o f t h e l o n g p a r l i a m e n t i n s e e k i n g t o c o n c i l i a t e t h e c o m m o n p e o p l e at t h e e x p e n s e o f their f e u d a l superiors. committed before A n act o f g r a c e p a r d o n e d a l l offences 1652, excepting only twenty-four who Then Monk M a y 1,

persons w h o w e r e t o suffer c o n f i s c a t i o n , a n d s e v e n t y - t h r e e w e r e t o b e fined w i t h different degrees o f severity.

b y a s k i l f u l d i s p o s i t i o n o f h i s forces e n c l o s e d t h e h i g h l a n d s o n t h e east a n d s o u t h , f r o m t h e M o r a y F i r t h t o S t i r l i n g a n d f r o m Stirling to Dumbarton. H e m a r c h e d i n t o t h e enemy's c o u n t r y , O n J u l y 19 M i d d l e t o n w a s t i n g a n d b u r n i n g e v e r y w h e r e , as t h e o n l y means o f r e d u c i n g t h e elusive h i g h l a n d e r s t o s u b m i s s i o n . was f o r c e d t o a n a c t i o n w i t h M o n k ' s l i e u t e n a n t , C o l o n e l M o r g a n , at D a l n a s p i d a l n e a r t h e w a t e r s h e d b e t w e e n t h e G a r r y a n d t h e S p e y , a n d r o u t e d so t h o r o u g h l y t h a t h e c o u l d never r a l l y m o r e than a few hundred men. H e t o o k refuge i n C a i t h n e s s , a n d their By at l e n g t h escaped a b r o a d , w h i l e M o n k c o n t i n u e d t o h a r r y t h e rebellious d i s t r i c t s u n t i l t h e leaders c a m e i n a n d m a d e s u b m i s s i o n , w h i c h t h e y w e r e a l l o w e d t o d o o n easy t e r m s .

M a y , 1655, t h e last e m b e r s o f t h e r e b e l l i o n w e r e e x t i n g u i s h e d . T h e absence o f C h a r l e s , t h e q u a r r e l s a m o n g t h e r o y a l i s t s , t h e

1654

GOVERNMENT

OF SCOTLAND.

415

i n d i s c i p l i n e o f t h e i r forces, a n d t h e l a c k o f h e l p f r o m a b r o a d , J ".i ~ .- :~yr\,-tc> 'fVkilllKA 1

rs i

CHAP. XVIII.

ensured its ignominous ianure. A system o f fortresses t o o v e r a w e t h e country h a d been begun b y the parliament a n d was finished b y the protector. T h e c h i e f s t r o n g h o l d s w e r e at I n v e r n e s s a n d I n v e r l o c h y i n t h e h i g h l a n d s ; at P e r t h , L e i t h , a n d A y r i n the l o w l a n d s ; a n d there were u p w a r d s o f t w e n t y s m a l l e r forts a n d g a r r i s o n s . h i g h l y effective police was organised. A Powerful a n d suspected

persons h a d t o g i v e b o n d s for t h e g o o d b e h a v i o u r o f t h e m s e l v e s a n d t h e i r h o u s e h o l d s \ those w h o w i s h e d t o c a r r y fire-arms h a d t o t a k e o u t licences j those w h o w i s h e d t o t r a v e l h a d t o f u r n i s h themselves w i t h passes. B y these m e a n s s u c h o r d e r w a s est a b l i s h e d as S c o t l a n d h a d never k n o w n u n d e r t h e m o s t v i g o r o u s o f its native kings. welfare o f t h e people. N o r was t h e p r o t e c t o r indifferent t o t h e A council for S c o t l a n d was established The Kirk

t o r e l i e v e M o n k f r o m t h e cares o f c i v i l g o v e r n m e n t , a n d justices o f t h e peace w e r e a p p o i n t e d o n t h e E n g l i s h m o d e l . p r e s e r v e d i t s l i b e r t y , save that m i n i s t e r s m i g h t n o t p r a y p u b l i c l y f o r C h a r l e s S t u a r t a n d t h a t t h e g e n e r a l a s s e m b l y was f o r b i d d e n . T h e a r m y o f o c c u p a t i o n w a s r e d u c e d b y degrees a n d t h e m i l i t a r y e x p e n s e s were l i g h t e n e d . B u t t h e r u i n o f so m a n y g r e a t families, t h e d e v a s t a t i o n a t t e n d a n t o n G l e n c a i r n ' s r i s i n g , a n d the d e c a y o f foreign t r a d e i m p o v e r i s h e d t h e k i n g d o m , a l t h o u g h some parts profited b y the freedom o f c o m m e r c i a l intercourse with England. T h e m o n t h l y assessments became less p r o d u c t i v e a n d a n e x c i s e was i m p o s e d t o m a k e g o o d t h e deficiency." T h e p a r l i a m e n t a r y u n i o n w a s l i t t l e m o r e t h a n a f o r m since t h e S c o t t i s h members represented o n l y that fraction o f the people w h i c h favoured the commonwealth. T h e rule o f the protector i n S c o t l a n d w a s honest a n d e n l i g h t e n e d , b u t i t w a s a f o r e i g n despotism; a n d although the Scots m a d e n o further attempt to s h a k e i t off, t h e y w e r e at heart u n r e c o n c i l e d a n d r e b e l l i o u s . I n Ireland the establishment o f t h e protectorate brought n o relief t o t h e conquered Irish. E v e r since t h e r e i g n o f ]\^ary T h e p a r l i a m e n t i n 1642 t h e p l a n t i n g o f E n g l i s h c o l o n i e s h a d been t h e r e c o g n i s e d m e a n s of securing the E n g l i s h dominion. h a d passed a n act c o n f i s c a t i n g t h e estates o f t h e rebels a n d On Glen cairn's rebellion see Firth, Scotland and the Commonwealth, and the authorities therein cited.
^ Firth, Scotland and the Commonwealth.

416

FIRST

PERIOD

OF

THE

PROTECTORATE-

1652

CHAP,

granting

2,500,000 acres

to

the

adventurers, A

as

they

were

t e r m e d , w h o a d v a n c e d m o n e y for t h e I r i s h w a r 5 a n d t h e t i m e h a d c o m e t o fulfil that p l e d g e . large part o f the a r m y i n A n imI r e l a n d was t o b e d i s b a n d e d , a n d t h e a r r e a r s o f p a y c o u l d m o s t e a s i l y be satisfied b y g r a n t s o f l a n d t o t h e soldiers. m e n s e p l a n t a t i o n was therefore i n e v i t a b l e . T h e act o f settle1

m e n t passed i n A u g u s t , 1652, p u t p r a c t i c a l l y a l l t h e l a n d h i t h e r t o h e l d b y I r i s h c a t h o l i c s at t h e d i s p o s a l o f t h e s t a t e . t h e I r i s h i n t o e i g h t classes. It divided I n t h e first five classes w e r e c o m 100 persons

prised a l l w h o h a d p r o m o t e d t h e r e b e l l i o n o r t a k e n p a r t i n i t d u r i n g t h e first year, a l l c a t h o l i c priests, a b o u t o f sufficient consequence to be mentioned b y name, a l l w h o

h a d been c o n c e r n e d i n k i l l i n g a n y E n g l i s h m a n o t h e r w i s e t h a n as soldiers i n r e g u l a r warfare, a n d a l l p e r s o n s i n a r m s w h o s h o u l d n o t s u r r e n d e r w i t h i n t w e n t y - e i g h t d a y s after t h e act h a d published. estate. been A l l these w e r e e x c l u d e d f r o m m e r c y for life a n d affection but, the has

I n t h e r e m a i n i n g three classes w e r e c o m p r i s e d a l l o t h e r These were t o suffer forfeiture,

Irish catholics w h o h a d not manifested constant g o o d to the c o m m o n w e a l t h .

a c c o r d i n g t o t h e degree o f t h e i r g u i l t , t h e y w e r e t o receive parts o f I r e l a n d as t h e p a r l i a m e n t m i g h t d e t e r m i n e . been l i a b l e t o e x e c u t i o n . intended. It

e q u i v a l e n t o f o n e - t h i r d o r t w o - t h i r d s o f t h e i r estates i n s u c h been c o m p u t e d t h a t u n d e r t h i s act 100,000 p e r s o n s w o u l d h a v e S u c h a slaughter was certainly not sat for t w o y e a r s The and A h i g h c o u r t o f j u s t i c e e s t a b l i s h e d t o t r y those w h o penalty

h a d been c o n c e r n e d i n t h e massacres

c o n d e m n e d t o d e a t h s o m e 200 o r 300 persons.

o f confiscation, o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , w a s r i g o r o u s l y enforced. T h e device o f transplanting the w h o l e catholic population i n t o o n e p a r t o f I r e l a n d w a s a d o p t e d s o m e w h a t later. Warned b y t h e fate w h i c h h a d so often o v e r t a k e n p r e v i o u s c o l o n i s t s , the a d v e n t u r e r s w e r e u n w i l l i n g to accept l a n d s w h e r e t h e o l d proprietors still dwelt. T h e government saw that the plantations w o u l d serve t h e p u r p o s e o f g a r r i s o n s far b e t t e r i f t h e E n g l i s h settlers w e r e n o t i n t e r m i n g l e d w i t h t h e I r i s h natives. A f t e r C r o m w e l l h a d e x p e l l e d the l o n g p a r l i a m e n t , h e a d o p t e d t h e p r i n c i p l e o f t r a n s p l a n t a t i o n o n a l a r g e scale. In July, 1653, it was a n n o u n c e d t h a t a l l w h o h a d o b t a i n e d m e r c y u n d e r t h e act o f s e t t l e m e n t m u s t e m i g r a t e t o C o n n a u g h t a n d C l a r e b y ^ Scobell, ii., 197*

1655

THE

IRISH

SETTLEMENT
1

4*7

May

1, 1654, u n d e r p a i n o f d e a t h .

I n that part o f Ireland The

CHAP,

t h e y w e r e t o receive t h e e q u i v a l e n t s p r o m i s e d b y t h e act.

t e r m s o f t h i s o r d e r are, h o w e v e r , a m b i g u o u s , a n d i t has b e e n c o n s t r u e d as r e f e r r i n g o n l y t o l a n d o w n e r s w i t h t h e i r f a m i l i e s a n d dependants. liament. It was e m b o d i e d i n a n act o f t h e little parI n October the commissioners for the government o f

I r e l a n d issued a d e c l a r a t i o n w h i c h r e q u i r e d a l l persons w h o h a d been e x c l u d e d f r o m p a r d o n b y t h e a c t o f settlement, b u t w h o h a d n o t b e e n prosecuted j u d i c i a l l y , t o t r a n s p l a n t t h e m s e l v e s i n like manner.

2

A s it was impossible for such a multitude t o felt

subsist i n t h e b a r r e n r e g i o n r e s e r v e d f o r t h e m , t h e I r i s h resistance t o t h e o r d e r o f r e m o v a l . The government itself wavered between

t h a t t h e y m i g h t as w e l l d i e a t h o m e , a n d o p p o s e d a passive transplanting all

and transplanting o n l y proprietors a n d soldiers w h o h a d c o n tinued i n arms until the end o f the war. T h e protector e m p o w e r e d t h e L o r d - D e p u t y F l e e t w o o d a n d h i s c o u n c i l t o dispense w i t h t h e orders f o r t r a n s p l a n t a t i o n i n s o f a r as t h e y j u d g e d fit. B u t F l e e t w o o d shared t h e abhorrence o f t h e I r i s h t o use these p o w e r s i n a m e r c i f u l s p i r i t . published o n N o v e m b e r t h e m s e l v e s before M a r c h A common a m o n g t h e officers o f t h e a r m y i n I r e l a n d , a n d w a s l i t t l e a p t new declaration M a n y of 30, 1654, o r d e r e d a l l t o t r a n s p l a n t 1 o f t h e f o l l o w i n g year.

t h e I r i s h t h e n resigned t h e m s e l v e s t o t h e i r fate, a n d t h e w o r k o f t r a n s p l a n t a t i o n w e n t o n s o m e w h a t faster. move. I n M a r c h , 1655, c o u r t s - m a r t i a l w e r e established t o t r y those w h o f a i l e d t o r e T h e y often t o o k t o t h e h i l l s a n d b o g s as tories o r freeA t t h e same t i m e the R o m a n booters, a n d a p e t t y w a r f a r e o f t h e m o s t ferocious d e s c r i p t i o n b r o k e o u t i n m a n y counties. c a t h o l i c s were e x p e l l e d f r o m a n u m b e r o f cities a n d t o w n s w h i c h w e r e destined t o b e t h e m i l i t a r y a n d c o m m e r c i a l s t r o n g h o l d s o f t h e colonists. O r d e r was repeatedly given for transB u t t h e great w o r k o f m o v i n g a p o r t i n g t o the colonies the vagrants a n d beggars w h o swarmed i n t h e miserable country. n a t i o n across t h e S h a n n o n w a s n o t a c h i e v e d . T h e protector mistrusted F l e e t w o o d , a m a n o f small j u d g m e n t a n d a zealous adherent o f t h e baptists, a sect n u m e r o u s
1

Scobell, ii,, 240. Gardiner, " The VOL. VII*

Transplantation to Connaught," 27

English

Historical

Review, xiv., 710 (1899).

418

FIRST

PERIOD

OF THE PROTECTORATE.

1655

CHAP,

i n t h e Irish a r m y a n d noted for u n r u l y spirits.

I n J u l y , 1655,

h e sent h i s y o u n g e r s o n H e n r y t o c o m m a n d t h e I r i s h a r m y as major-general under F l e e t w o o d , a n d hinted t o the lord deputy that he w o u l d be welcome i n E n g l a n d . slipping f r o m h i s grasp, a n d quitted H e n r y C r o m w e l l , w h o succeeded F l e e t w o o d felt Ireland power before i n September.

t o h i s a u t h o r i t y even

h e succeeded t o h i s office, w a s o f a m i l d e r nature, a n d s a w t h a t wholesale t r a n s p l a n t a t i o n w a s i m p o s s i b l e . N o t o n l y were most In of the I r i s h passively determined n o t t o go, b u t the n e w p r o prietors i n s i s t e d o n k e e p i n g t h e m as t e n a n t s a n d servants. no other w a y c o u l d t h e l a n d be cultivated, for E n g l i s h m e n w o u l d n o t m i g r a t e i n sufficient n u m b e r s t o a c o u n t r y f a r less attractive t h a n their o w n . X h e final result o f t h e C r o m w e l l i a n s e t t l e m e n t w a s therefore t h e c o n f i s c a t i o n o f a l l t h e l a n d s h e l d b y t h e I r i s h c a t h o l i c s east o f t h e S h a n n o n , a n d t h e b a n i s h m e n t o f t h e p r o p r i e t o r s and a large into possessed laws. but uncertain number
1

o f other

Irish catholics

t h e r e g i o n west o f t h a t r i v e r . wealth

X h e catholics w h o h a d X h e priests w e r e out-

a n d culture, t h e n o b i l i t y a n d gentry a n d and ruined.

burgesses, w e r e e v i c t e d

X h e catholic peasantry remained for the most part o n A. n a t i o n w h i c h c o n -

t h e l a n d , b u t i t w a s t h a t t h e y m i g h t t o i l f o r a l i e n masters w h o t o o c o m m o n l y h a t e d a n d despised t h e m . thoroughly. tinued t o exist at a l l could h a r d l y b e despoiled and ruined m o r e X h e E n g l i s h a n d S c o t t i s h colonists formed t h e m a i n p o p u l a t i o n o f c e r t a i n d i s t r i c t s , filled a l l t h e m o r e i m p o r t a n t t o w n s , o w n e d n e a r l y a l l t h e fertile l a n d , a n d e n j o y e d a l l t h e w e a l t h a n d c o n s i d e r a t i o n w h i c h t h e c h i l d r e n o f t h e s o i l h a d lost. X h e y w e r e m o s t l y energetic a n d c a p a b l e m e n , a n d t h e y pered e x c e e d i n g l y . conquerors. reappeared
1

pros-

Y e t C r o m w e l l ' s object w a s n o t a c h i e v e d .

X h e p r o l i f i c I r i s h race r e p l e n i s h e d i t s n u m b e r s a n d a b s o r b e d i t s Instead o f a n Ireland two-thirds B r i t i s h a n d p r o the o l d Celtic a n d catholic Ireland i n w h i c h the testant w i t h a C e l t i c a n d c a t h o l i c reserve i n t h e west, t h e r e

The extent of the Cromwellian transplantation has been very differently stated by different historians according to their respective bias. Carlyle in his Letters and Speeches of Oliver Cromwell asserted that only a few landed proprietors were transplanted; Prendergast in his Cromwellian Settlement of Ireland wrote as if the whole population east of the Shannon had been removed. Gardiner's account, which has been followed above, is based on careful examination of the original documents, and appears more consistent with the facts of later Irish history.

1654

PEACE

WITH

THE

DUTCH.

419
CHAP.

B r i t i s h a n d p r o t e s t a n t settlers w e r e l i t t l e m o r e t h a n a g a r r i s o n . T h e strife o f ages was n o t e n d e d b u t e m b i t t e r e d . result some historians have blamed the statesmen F o r this of the

XVIII.

restoration, w h o modified Cromwell's p o l i c y ; but that p o l i c y had been modified b y C r o m w e l l himself, or rather it i n v o l v e d difficulties w h i c h n o e n e r g y o r h a r d n e s s o f h e a r t c o u l d o v e r c o m e . T h e foreign p o l i c y of the protector was b o l d and aspiring, a l t h o u g h n o t u n i f o r m l y fitted t o t h e c i r c u m s t a n c e s o f t h e age, for h i s r e l i g i o u s zeal a n d p a t r i o t i c a r d o u r w e r e n o t e n l i g h t e n e d by a full knowledge of E u r o p e a n politics. The protestant interest a n d t h e g r a n d e u r o f E n g l a n d were h i s s u p r e m e objects, a n d i n h i s m i n d t h e y w e r e inseparable. confederacy o f protestant H e would have made o f t h e i r reof the than with the the E n g l a n d the arbiter o f E u r o p e b y m a k i n g her the head o f a states f o r the defence ligion ; and he w o u l d have w o n ensure t h e d u r a t i o n o f h e r p o w e r . E l i z a b e t h a n tradition, a n d even to h a d s h u n n e d great enterprises, a n d encouraged the martial energy necessary the D u t c h was to the f o r E n g l a n d at t h e c o s t H e longed to renew surpass i t j had rather checked Peace

c a t h o l i c states s u c h a n e m p i r e a n d s u c h a c o m m e r c e as m i g h t for E l i z a b e t h

o f h e r subjects. fulfilment o f

Oliver*s ideal, more than signed

y e t he continued for some time to d e m a n d D u t c h c o u l d concede. until A p r i l 5, 1654. The D u t c h so

T h e t r e a t y o f peace w a s n o t

far a c k n o w l e d g e d

E n g l i s h s o v e r e i g n t y o f t h e seas t h a t t h e y p r o m i s e d t o s t r i k e t h e i r flag t o E n g l i s h s h i p s ; b u t t h e y w e r e n o t c o n s t r a i n e d t o p a y a rent f o r t h e i r N o r t h S e a a l l dead. to fishery. T h e y undertook to p u n i s h t h e a c t o r s i n t h e A m b o y n a massacre, w h o w e r e p r o b a b l y C o m m i s s i o n e r s c h o s e n e q u a l l y b y b o t h states w e r e either for wrongs T h e parties c o n c l u d e d the assess t h e d a m a g e s d u e t o citizens o f

suffered i n t h e E a s t I n d i e s o r elsewhere. enemies.

a defensive alliance, a n d u n d e r t o o k n o t t o h a r b o u r e a c h other's E a c h state h e l d t o its o w n d o c t r i n e r e g a r d i n g r i g h t o f search, a difference w h i c h caused t r o u b l e i n t h e l a t e r y e a r s o f t h e protectorate. T h e D u t c h made n o stipulation for
1

t h e r e p e a l o f t h e n a v i g a t i o n act, n o r t h e E n g l i s h f o r t h e e x c l u s i o n o f t h e P r i n c e o f O r a n g e f r o m office. The protector had

1

l o n g refused
Corps Diplomatique,

to include the K i n g vi., 2, 74*

of

Dumont,

420

FIRST

PERIOD

OF

THE

PROTECTORATE.

1054

CHAP. XVIII.

D e n m a r k i n t h e t r e a t y , b u t y i e l d e d t o t h e perseverance o f t h e j j u t c h , w h o w o u l d n o t desert the amount being H e was s t i l l b e n t power, but thought referred t o it enough their ally, and undertook another if the court of of to compensate the owners o f the ships detained i n the on excluding the house Sound, from

arbitrators. Holland, had

Orange

province of

t h e greatest a n d m o s t p o w e r f u l o f t h e seven, w o u l d u n d e r t a k e not t o choose the prince for stadholder. H e therefore recourse t o t h e p e n s i o n a r y , D e W i t t , a n d let h i m k n o w t h a t o n l y u p o n t h i s c o n d i t i o n w o u l d t h e t r e a t y b e ratified. De Witt, HolAfter w h o was a leader o f t h e p a r t y o p p o s e d t o t h e house o f O r a n g e , m a n a g e d t h e affair w i t h s u c h a d r o i t n e s s t h a t t h e states o f l a n d passed a n act o f e x c l u s i o n . peace w a s p r o c l a i m e d o n A p r i l 26 a m i d g e n e r a l r e j o i c i n g . T h e ratification followed, and

h e r o i c efforts a n d e n o r m o u s losses t h e t w o r e p u b l i c s m i g h t seem t o h a v e r e s u m e d t h e i r p r e v i o u s p o s i t i o n , b u t i n r e a l i t y it was far otherwise. T h e war had shown that the D u t c h were no l o n g e r s u p r e m e at sea, o r i n v u l n e r a b l e i n t h e i r c o m m e r c e , a n d i t m a r k s t h e first stage i n t h e d e c l i n e o f H o l l a n d . O l i v e r was free t o pursue h i s s c h e m e o f a p r o t e s t a n t league. I n his y o u t h he h a d a n x i o u s l y f o l l o w e d Charles, h a d t h e course o f the t h i r t y y e a r s ' w a r , h a d b l a m e d t h e indifference o f J a m e s a n d e x u l t e d i n t h e v i c t o r i e s o f t h e great Gustavus, a a n d h a d l a m e n t e d his u n t i m e l y fall. S w a y e d b y these m e m o r i e s

h e failed t o see t h a t t h e treaties o f W e s t p h a l i a h a d o p e n e d mined the friendship or e n m i t y o f nations. ject o f a league, b u t n o n e w o u l d g o

n e w p e r i o d i n w h i c h secular interests m o r e a n d m o r e deterH e sent a n a g e n t , on the proverbiage. civil J o h n D u r y , to sound the protestant governments beyond

A n embassy to S w e d e n h a d been resolved b y the parliament, a n d C r o m w e l l h a d o b t a i n e d t h e a p p o i n t m e n t o f ^vVhitelocke. Whitelocke's instructions f r o m the council were to negotiate a t r e a t y o f c o m m e r c e , a n d secure t h e o p e n i n g o f t h e S o u n d t o E n g l i s h s h i p s irrespective o f t h e f r i e n d s h i p o r e n m i t y o f D a n e s or D u t c h . Cromwell hoped much more from Queen Christina, a C h r i s t i n a , w h o , w e a r y o f h e r subjects a n d daughter o f Gustavus, and t o l d W h i t e l o c k e to b r i n g back protestant alliance.

o f the L u t h e r a n creed, h a d a l r e a d y r e s o l v e d t o a b d i c a t e a n d t o j o i n the C h u r c h o f R o m e , was n o t l i k e l y t o e n c o u r a g e s u c h a n overture, b u t she m a d e W h i t e l o c k e w e l c o m e , a n d g a v e h i m a

1654

THE TREATY
1

WITH

PORTUGAL.

421

commercial treaty.

I n September a treaty between D e n m a r k Sound

a n d E n g l a n d p r o v i d e d that E n g l i s h ships p a s s i n g t h e

CHAP. XVIII.

s h o u l d n o t p a y dues h i g h e r t h a n those l e v i e d u p o n o t h e r n a t i o n s . T h e Portuguese, w h o had to m a k e g o o d their independence a g a i n s t S p a i n , were eager t o c o n c i l i a t e t h e E n g l i s h . ambassador the C o u n t o f Peneguiao. P o r t u g a l a n d i n all Portuguese W h i l e the l o n g p a r l i a m e n t was y e t s i t t i n g K i n g J o h n sent t o L o n d o n as H e negotiated the premight trade i n them, to pay this liminaries o f a treaty b y which E n g l i s h m e n

possessions, w i t h a g u a r a n t e e

t h a t t h e c u s t o m s duties s h o u l d n e v e r b e raised against unmolested b y the inquisition. H e also undertook

a n d m i g h t h a v e t h e i r o w n w o r s h i p i n t h e i r ships a n d h o u s e s ,50,000 c o m p e n s a t i o n f o r t h e h a r m d o n e b y R u p e r t t o E n g l i s h merchants, but the Portuguese h a p p e n e d t h a t t h e ambassador's h a d a brawl i n the On the following treasury could not afford s u m , s o t h a t the t r e a t y r e m a i n e d i n suspense. A t length it

brother, D o m Pantaleon S a ,

N e w E x c h a n g e with a Colonel Gerard. man

day h e came back w i t h a n armed train to

t a k e vengeance, a n d o n e o f h i s f o l l o w e r s s h o t a y o u n g

n a m e d Greenway, w h o h a d n o concern i n the quarrel. D o m P a n t a l e o n a n d several o f h i s a t t e n d a n t s were t a k e n f r o m the ambassador's house, t h r o w n i n t o p r i s o n , t r i e d for m u r d e r , a n d T h e y pleaded the privilege o f an ambassac o n d e m n e d t o death. for them.

d o r ' s retinue, a n d a l l t h e a m b a s s a d o r s t h e n i n L o n d o n i n t e r c e d e d A s the civilians w h o m the protector consulted h e l d O n e o f his servants, a n E n g l i s h m a n ,

2

t h a t n o p r i v i l e g e e x i s t e d i n s u c h a case, D o m P a n t a l e o n was beheaded o n T o w e r H i l l . w a s h a n g e d , b u t t h e rest w e r e r e p r i e v e d . t h e e x e c u t i o n , J u l y 10, 1654* j5>0> b u t i t was agreed T h e ambassador, in

h i s eagerness t o q u i t E n g l a n d , s i g n e d the t r e a t y o n t h e d a y o f P o r t u g a l was still unable to p a y that a b o d y o f arbitrators, h a l f compensation

E n g l i s h a n d h a l f P o r t u g u e s e , s h o u l d assess t h e

d u e for E n g l i s h losses, a n d t h a t a h a l f o f t h e duties l e v i e d o n E n g l i s h m e r c h a n t s i n P o r t u g a l s h o u l d be a p p l i e d i n p a y m e n t . C r o m w e l l h a d y e t t o d e c i d e t h e q u e s t i o n so l o n g under t h e parliament whether w e r e t o b e preferred as friends.

^ "Whitclocke, Swedish ^ State Trials,

agitated

t h e F r e n c h o r the

Spaniards

M a z a r i n , w h o c o u l d i l l afford
Embassy.

t o q u a r r e l w i t h E n g l a n d , sent t h e B a r o n d e B a a s o n a secret v., 4 6 2 , Thurloe,

428-2Q.

422

FIRST

PERIOD

OF

THE

PROTECTORATE.

1654

CHAP,

m i s s i o n t o assure C r o m w e l l t h a t t h e S t u a r t s encouragement.

should have no agains t for the

C r o m w e l l negotiated w i t h the baron until i n Cardenas, w h o offered t o treat

f o r m a t i o n o f n e w r o y a l i s t p l o t s r e v i v e d a l l h i s anger L o u i s and he turned to a n alliance.

M a z a r i n m a d e fresh advances, a c k n o w l e d g e d

protector a n d w e n t o n t o b i d i n m o n e y agains t S p a i n for t h e E n g l i s h alliance. X h e F r e n c h and the E n g l i s h , notwithstandBaas was was i n g , c o n t i n u e d t o p r e y u p o n e a c h other's c o m m e r c e . if the protector s h o u l d declare war against sent out o f the country. colonists u n d e r M a j o r S e d g w i c k the Spanish government

detected i n a n i n t r i g u e t o raise a m u t i n y a m o n g t h e s o l d i e r s , France, and In July a body of New England i n v a d e d the F r e n c h c o l o n y of O n t h e other h a n d , Eventually

A c a d i a a n d o c c u p i e d t h e F r e n c h forts.

would not purchase Oliver's alliance

b y g i v i n g h i m i m m e d i a t e possession o f D u n k i r k . h o l d aloof from the war i n Europe.

he d e c i d e d t o seek a g o o d u n d e r s t a n d i n g w i t h F r a n c e , b u t t o X h e n , f e e l i n g free t o enforce his d e m a n d s o n S p a i n , he r e q u i r e d f r o m C a r d e n a s that E n g l i s h men i n the S p a n i s h dominions should be allowed to worship after t h e i r o w n fashion i n t h e i r houses, a n d t h a t t r a d i n g i n t h e ^A/est I n d i e s s h o u l d n o t b e m o l e s t e d . answered master's that two it was eyes. as i f the protector had asked resolved to use Cromwell Englishmen Cardenas for his fie Indies, for the force,

t h o u g h t t h a t he c o u l d m a k e w a r o n S p a i n i n t h e W e s t t o equip a n a r m a m e n t time concealed* t o advantage. fortress might H e showed little wisdom o f w h i c h t h e d e s t i n a t i o n was

y e t r e m a i n at peace w i t h S p a i n i n E u r o p e , a n d he g a v e orders

I n h i s t r a n s a c t i o n s w i t h F r a n c e a n d S p a i n C r o m w e l l does not appear acquiring a states, h e i n his for schemes for h e l p i n g t h e H u g u e n o t s a g a i n s t t h e c r o w n a n d on the continent. to condone l u t e a n d shifty.

H i s course was i r r e s o them by offering his

A l t h o u g h h e h a d r e a l g r i e v a n c e s agains t b o t h be h e l d I t has b e e n s a i d

alliance, n o w t o t h e one, n o w t o t h e other.

b y w a y o f e x c u s e t h a t u n d e r t h e i n s t r u m e n t t h e p r o t e c t o r was o b l i g e d t o act i n foreign affairs w i t h t h e c o u n c i l , w h e r e a p a r t y led b y L a m b e r t desired war w i t h F r a n c e w h i l e C r o m w e l l h i m self desired w a r w i t h S p a i n , a n d t h a t t h e i r conflict issued i n t h i s incoherent p o l i c y \ b u t t h e e x c u s e is far f r o m a full v i n dication. Xo suppose^ when he b r o k e w i t h S p a i n , that he

1654

GERARD'S

PLOT.

4 3
2

c o u l d n a r r o w the error.

field

o f hostilities at pleasure was

a grave new

CHAP.

I t is true t h a t E n g l i s h m e n a n d S p a n i a r d s i n t h e

w o r l d h a d v i r t u a l l y been at w a r s i n c e t h e r e i g n o f E l i z a b e t h , a n d t h a t t h e S p a n i s h g o v e r n m e n t i n E u r o p e was b a r e l y able to c o n t i n u e the w a r w i t h F r a n c e alone. B u t n o state t h a t r e t a i n e d a n y sense o f h o n o u r o r i n s t i n c t o f self-preservation c o u l d overl o o k a f o r m a l attack u p o n its t e r r i t o r y s u c h as C r o m w e l l m e d i t a t e d against the S p a n i s h W e s t I n d i e s . W o r s t of all, C r o m w e l l , ostensible dew h i l e p r e p a r i n g t h i s attack, r e m a i n e d o n t e r m s o f spoil.

f r i e n d s h i p w i t h t h e s o v e r e i g n w h o m h e was p r e p a r i n g t o

S u c h c o n d u c t w o u l d be s e v e r e l y b l a m e d i n rulers w h o , i t is even m o r e b l a m e w o r t h y i n a r u l e r w h o professed,

l i k e F r e d e r i c k or N a p o l e o n , a c k n o w l e d g e d n o l a w save r e a s o n of state; n o r w h o l l y i n v a i n , t o regulate h i s actions b y h i s conscience. X h e manifest divisions between the upholders o f the c o m m o n w e a l t h , the e x p u l s i o n o f the l o n g parliament, the failure o f t h e n o m i n a t e d p a r l i a m e n t , a n d t h e signs o f a r e a c t i o n m o n a r c h y gave new heart to the royalists. towards A plot to murder E v e n the most and but

C r o m w e l l was f o r m e d b y y o u n g C o l o n e l G e r a r d , w e l l k n o w n for >the f a t a l q u a r r e l w i t h D o m P a n t a l e o n S a . respectable r o y a l i s t s h e l d t h a t a l l w h o h a d t a k e n p a r t i n t h e d e a t h o f K i n g C h a r l e s were b e y o n d t h e p a l e o f s o c i e t y m i g h t l a w f u l l y be s l a i n b y a n y t h a t w o u l d . duced to Charles II. by a certain Colonel Fitz-James, G e r a r d was i n t r o -

C h a r l e s rejected h i s scheme as futile unless i t w e r e f o l l o w e d b y an insurrection. S o m e of the courtiers, however, encouraged G e r a r d t o persevere, a n d a p r o c l a m a t i o n offering 500, a c o l o n e l c y , a n d k n i g h t h o o d t o a n y one w h o s h o u l d k i l l a c e r t a i n m e c h a n i c fellow, O l i v e r C r o m w e l l , a n d p r o f e s s i n g t o c o m e f r o m C h a r l e s , has been supposed t h e w o r k o f t h e same p a r t y . Gerard returned to E n g l a n d and began Colonel with he thus enlisting men

w h o m t o o v e r p o w e r t h e t r o o p s q u a r t e r e d i n L o n d o n after s h o u l d h a v e despatched t h e p r o t e c t o r . W h i l e t i m e was lost, t h e c o u n c i l received i n f o r m a t i o n o f t h e plot. following days some 500 persons were t h r o w n

O n M a y 21 into prison.

G e r a r d a n d several of his a c c o m p l i c e s w e r e arrested, a n d i n t h e X h e n t h e h i g h c o u r t o f j u s t i c e was r e v i v e d , a n d G e r a r d a n d P e t e r V o w e l l , a s c h o o l m a s t e r w h o h a d been a c t i v e i n r e c r u i t i n g for h i m , w e r e c o n d e m n e d to d e a t h .

t

O n the same

day

^ State Trtals

v.,

5^^*

424

first

period

of the

protectorate.

1654

CHAP, that Dom Pantaleon suffered, Gerard was beheaded and Vowell was hanged, both asserting their innocence to the last. A few others were sent to servitude in Barbados. An innocent victim was a Roman catholic priest named South worth, the last in English history to suffer death merely for his profession. At the elections to the first parliament of the protectorate the presbyterians gained many seats. With them were elected a number of those stem republicans who looked on the protectorate as little better than kingship. A few royalists also succeeded in slipping in. The parliament met on Sunday, September 3, and on the following day was summoned to the painted chamber to hear a speech from the protector. " Healing and settling" he defined to be the end of their meeting. He spoke not as one that assumed dominion over them, but as one that resolved to be a fellow-servant with them to the interest of the people, and he invited them to begin with considering the instrument of government The parliament elected Lenthall as speaker, and then the republicans opened a brisk attack on the new constitution. It was resolved to consider the instrument in a committee of the whole house. Objection was taken to the clause vesting supreme power in a single person and a parliament The presbyterians showed their dislike of religious freedom by a resolution for calling an assembly of divines chosen by the parliament itself to advise on ecclesiastical matters; the prelude to setting up a standard of orthodoxy and persecuting such as would not conform. Cromwell would not let the discussion go further. On the nth the doors of the house were locked, and a guard was set. The members were commanded to meet the protector in the painted chamber. There he expostulated with them long and earnestly. He had not called himself to that place. The instrument was framed without his privity and was pressed on him as the only means of avoiding bloodshed and confusion. It was accepted by him with the approbation, express or implied, of many considerable persons, of the judges, of the army, of London, of various counties and cities. The members before
1 2

Sir Reginald Palgrave in his Oliver Cromwell the Protector, ch. ii., argues that the whole plot was a contrivance of Cromwell's; but he has not satisfied historians generally. Carlyle, Letters and Speeches of Oliver Cromwell, Speech ii.
1 2

1654

MEETING

OF PARLIAMENT.

425

him had come thither in virtue of his writs to the sheriffs obeyed CHAP* by the people, and tne electors naa signed indentures to tne effect that the persons chosen should not have power to alter the government as settled in a single person and a parliament. In every state there must be something fundamental which could not be altered. Government by a single person and a parliament; an assurance that parliament would not perpetuate itself j freedom of conscience, and a divided control of the militia were fundamental under the instrument. I say that the wilful throwing away of this government, such as it is, so owned by God, so approved by men, were a thing which I can sooner be willing to be rolled into my grave and buried with infamy than I can give my consent to." In conclusion Cromwell told the members that they would not be admitted to the house until they had subscribed a recognition to be true and faithful to the lord protector and the commonwealth of England, and not propose or give consent to alter the government as it was settled in a single person and a parliament . The irreconcilable republicans, such as Bradshaw, Hazlerigg, and Scot, gave up the contest for a time and withdrew, while the bulk of the members, 300 and more, signed the recognition. The way was thus opened for a consideration of the instrument with the object of turning it into a bill, which would then be passed by parliament, so that the new constitution would derive its authority from the legislature, not from a mere council of officers. Several amendments were adopted, reducing the power of the protector and augmenting that of the parliament. Councillors were to be nominated by the protector and approved by the parliament, and this approbation must be renewed whenever a new parliament met. At the protector's death, parliament was to dispose of the forces. The house restored the county franchise to the 40s. freeholders, and excluded from the franchise profane, blasphemous, and drunken persons, vague terms which might easily be abused by political or religious rancour. It wished to reduce the army from its actual strength of S7fi S ) * the lowest number fixed by the instrument. It resolved to lower the monthly assessments from 90>ooo to 60,000, and to grant the means of maintaining the army and the navy only until forty days after the meeting of the next
<c <f t o 0 000

* C&rlyle, Letters

and Speeches of Oliver Cromwell,

Speech iii.

426
CHAP,

FIRST

PERIOD

OF THE PROTECTORATEa

1655

parliament. In January, 1 6 5 5 , committee brought up estimates which cut down the expenditure for the current year to less than half the amount contemplated by the protector and council. The house resolved soon afterwards to take the militia under its own control. It claimed full sovereignty for itself, as the long parliament had done; and its sovereignty threatened to bring back the same dangers and inconveniences. For it represented only a part of the nation; it betrayed a wish to impose religious uniformity, and it could easily find some way of perpetuating its power. Thus it was at variance with the protector on points which he regarded as vital. Events outside the house heightened his alarm and displeasure. Although much the greater part of the officers were staunch to the instrument, some were inflexible upholders of the supremacy of parliament. The seamen at Portsmouth sent up a petition to their officers that parliament would be pleased to maintain and enlarge the liberties of the people of England. In December a plot was discovered in the army. Efforts had been made to gain the soldiers in Scotland and Ireland. Such was the alarm of the government that the garrison of the Tower was doubled, and cannon were planted round Whitehall. A number of royalist gentlemen were also imprisoned. The protector resolved to dismiss the parliament at the earliest date allowed by the instrument, calculating the five months of the session as months of four weeks, the month for the payment of wages to soldiers and sailors. On January 22 he summoned the members once more to the painted chamber. Reminding them of the hopes raised by their meeting, he complained that he did not know what they had been doing. W^hat had been the outcome of their session? "Dissettlement and division, discontent and dissatisfaction, together with real dangers to the whole, has been more multiplied within these five months of your sitting than in some years before." He reproached them with their readiness to pinch other men's consciences, and their endeavour to grasp the whole power of the militia, concluding, " it is not for the profit of these nations, nor fit for the common and public good, for you to continue here any longer. And therefore I do declare unto you that I do dissolve this parliament." ^
1

Commons Journals,

vii.,

49 ^*

2Carlyle, Letters

and Speeches of Oliver Cromwell,

Speech iv.

THE CONFLICT
r "1 A <p _ ^Kcfi'ro/~ir r*f -u

OF

PRINCIPLE.

427

Thus the first endeavour after healing and settling had

t-^rMiKliVonc in accpi-finrr fVi

CHAP. XVIII.

taiiea. ine O D S i m a c y 01 uie repuoncans in asserting me supremacy of parliament against the power of a military dictator was natural and respectable. But they ought to have remembered that their principle of the sovereignty of the people could not then be applied without sacrificing what they, as little as Oliver, would consent to forego. All the earnest upholders of the commonwealth taken together were a minority of the English nation, and a minority divided against itself. If they were to hold their ground, if they were to secure the religious freedom won in the civil war and so much political freedom as might be consistent with that at a time when the majority of Englishmen were intolerant, they could not dispense with unity of control or with the power of the sword j and if a head of the state were necessary, they could find none so well qualified by civil and military ability, so large in his views and in the main so noble as Oliver. The origin of the protectorate was not more irregular than the origin of the parliament. After a great revolution to reject a government merely because it was founded by force was pedantry. 1 hose who abhorred the return of Charles Stuart and the bishops should have accepted the instrument as the draft of a new constitution, and trusted to time and opportunity for further progress. Cromwell, regarding the instrument as still in force, sought to govern within the limits which it assigned. He did not profess to issue any more ordinances, as his power in that respect was to end with the meeting of hisfirstparliament. In order to win the taxpayer, he lowered the monthly assessment to 60,000, according to the resolution of the late parliament, although he thus ensured an immense deficit. All the parties opposed to him had drawn new life from his breach with the parliament. The Bifth Monarchists reviled him as a thief, a usurper, a traitor. Harrison and other of their leaders declared in the very presence of the protector that they held it lawful to take up arms against the government, and refused any undertaking to live peaceably. As their recent action had been in keeping with their words, they were sent to prison. The levellers were more dangerous than the rMfth Monarchists, for their democratic creed led them to refer all political questions to a free parliament, which was also desired both by republicans and by

428

FIRST

PERIOD

OF THE PROTECTORATE.

1655

CHAP, royalists. Sexby, who had become the most active of levelling conspirators, was pursued, but made his escape to France. Lord Grey of Groby, son of the Earl of Stamford, but an extreme democrat, was imprisoned at Windsor until he made his submission. The royalists formed an extensive scheme for seizing a number of towns and fortresses, and appearing in arms in different counties. Charles promised to be within call and to join his followers on the first prospect of success. Cromwell, who was always well supplied with intelligence, took prompt measures. On February 12 all horses in London and Westminster were seized by his command. He issued a commission for raising and disciplining the militia of London. He forbade horse-races for six months, as affording an occasion for multitudes to assemble, and gave orders to secure the ports. Nevertheless, the Earl of Rochester and Sir Joseph Wagstaffe contrived to reach London with instructions from Charles, and March 8 was fixed as the date of a general rising. When the time came, fear lay so heavy on the royalists that only in one or two places did a few reckless men assemble, and only in Wiltshire was a blow struck. Wagstaffe, who was to take the command in the western counties, had gone thither; and two of the local gentry, John Penruddock and Hugh Grove, planned to seize the judges of assize who were to open their commission at Salisbury on March 12. W^ith about 180 horsemen they entered the city at dawn, took the judges and sheriff in their beds, and proclaimed King Charles. None of the citizens would join them, and they determined to march westwards in hope of making recruits. In twenty-four hours they reached Yeovil, but nowhere could they enlist a man. Desborough, who had been appointed major-general of the west, was on their track, and on every side those well affected to the commonwealth were rising in arms. The insurgents could only continue their flight towards Cornwall, in the hope that there at least succour might be found. At South Molton, in Devonshire, Captain Unton Croke, with about sixty horse, fell on the dispirited band, and took or scattered them all. Wagstaffe, who had proposed to hang the judges at Salisbury, was fortunate enough to escape. . Grove and Penruddock were beheaded. Three others were hanged at Salisbury and seven at Exeter. About seventy more were transported to the West Indies a few

OPPOSITION

OF THE LA WYEPS.

429
CHAP.
X V I I L

months later without form of trial, a tyrannous practice first begun in the case of Scottish prisoners and then applied to political criminals. The circumstance that none would join the insurgents, while so many took arms for the protector, would imply that a great part of the nation was either reconciled to the commonwealth or at least anxious to avoid another civil war. Yet the weakness of the government was seen in the resistance of the lawyers. Thorpe and Newdigate, the judges commissioned to try the royalists taken in the north of England, denied the validity of the ordinance of treason under which they were to act, and therefore by implication denied the validity of the instrument under which it had been promulgated. They were dismissed, but their successors took care to regard the accused as guilty only of riot or misdemeanour. Cony, a London merchant who had refused to pay the customs duty on silk and had been fined by a committee of the council, refused to pay the fine also and was sent to prison. V^hen he applied for a writ of habeas corpus, his counsel, Maynard, Twysden, and Windham, declared the ordinances under which he had been punished to have no validity and Chief Justice Rolle listened with favour. The barristers were summoned before the council and imprisoned until they made their submission, while Rolle was allowed to resign. Thus the title of the government remained doubtful and its practice arbitrary. Many wished Cromwell to assume the crown as the best means towards a lasting settlement, and in the summer of 1655 it was widely supposed that he would do so. Cromwell, however, preferred to govern under the provisions of the instrument. Fresh information of plots led him to imprison great numbers of suspected persons and to expel from London all who had fought for the royal cause. Hut he had come to the conclusion that more comprehensive measures were necessary to secure his authority. In order to lessen the deficit a committee of officers had advised a reduction in the pay of the soldiers and the formation of a new militia, so that the strength of the regular army might be lowered. The new militia was organised in the course of the summer. It consisted of 6,000 horse and a small number
1

* See Thurloe,

111., 237* 248 State 1 rials,

v., 7^7*

43
CHAP,

FIRST

PERIOD

OF THE PROTECTORATE.

1655

of foot. England was divided into ten districts and a major"^^1^' general was placed over the militia in each. But the instructions issued to the major-generals in the autumn gave them powers which went far beyond mere military command. They were to combine with the maintenance of order the control of the local authorities and the enforcement of the puritan code of morals. They were to suppress revolutionary movements, secure highwaymen, put down horse-races and cock-fights, expel vagrants, close unnecessary alehouses, cause drunkenness and profaneness to be duly punished, and report to the council all justices who were slothful in executing their office. They were to enforce what we may term a penal code directed against the royalists. Royalists who had taken part in any plot or rebellion against the protector were to be banished and their estates were to be sequestrated. Those who by word or act adhered to Charles Stuart were to be banished or imprisoned, but not to suffer in their estates. Those who had fought against the parliament or suffered sequestration in the past were to pay 10 per cent, of their income from land, and if that fell below ;ioo a year, a proportion of their personal property. Roj^alists without estate who could give no account of themselves were to be transported into foreign parts, probably sent to the colonies. No royalist was to keep arms in his house or to entertain any of the ejected clergy as a chaplain or tutor. None of the ejected clergy was to exercise his priestly function or to keep a school. No delinquent might be elected on any municipal corporation. The powers thus conferred on the major-generals were not only unknown to the law, but so comprehensive that if used to the utmost they would have put the whole nation at the discretion of a few military viceroys. The major-generals received their commission in October and continued to act for somewhat more than a year. Among them were several of the most distinguished soldiers of the commonwealth, Lambert, Fleetwood, Desborough, Whalley. Each major-general was assisted by a body of commissioners chosen by the government in the different counties to give him the benefit of their local knowledge and influence. Not many royalists suffered the extreme pen1

* State Papers, Major-Generals,

Domestic,

c. and ci. j see also D. W. Rannie, '* Cromwell's

Review, x., 471 (1895).

English

Historical

1655

THE EXPEDITION

TO THE WEST INDIES.

431
CHAP,

alty of banishment or imprisonment together with sequestration of their estates. A large number indeed were released at the very time when the major-generals entered on their office. But the so-called decimation," the levying of the tax of 10 per cent., was general and stringent, and none ventured to resist. The royalists were everywhere disarmed and forced to give bonds for good behaviour. The instructions aimed at the Anglican clergy seem to have remained a dead letter. But the business of moral reformation was carried with a high hand. Alehouses were closed by the hundred. Beggars, idlers, and debauched persons were arrested in such numbers that some of the major-generals were at a loss where to imprison them and called for wholesale transportation. In London bear-baiting and cock-fighting, which had long been forbidden, were at length suppressed. Thus abruptly and harshly to override the liberty of the subject and to put down the pleasures of the people might seem more apt to breed disaffection than to reform manners, and was certainly unwise in a new and unpopular government. The protector's difficulties at home were not relieved by a glorious issue of that expedition to the West Indies which had been so long in prepaiation. Its scope was large and indefinite, including an attack on the mainland as well as the islands, and, above all, the seizure of the isthmus of Panama, so as to intercept the Spanish gold on the road to embarkation. Its management was entrusted to a commission of five, in which Admiral Penn, who was to command the fleet, and General Venables, who was to command the troops, had only equal voices with their colleagues. Oliver decided that the fleet should act a subordinate part, and gave his fullest instructions to Venables, thereby awakening Penn s jealousy. The military force, consisting of drafts from a number of regiments, eked out with pressed men, was only 2,500 strong. The armament put to sea at Christmas, 1654, and reached Barbados on January 29. There and at other islands recruits joined in such numbers that Venables could muster 9,000 men. But the colonial volunteers, like the men pressed in England, had neither skill nor discipline nor sense of martial honour, and the army as a whole was defective in officers, in organisation,
et

and in esprit de corps.

An attack upon the city of San Domingo in Hispaniola

43
CHAP, XVIII.

FIRST

PERIOD

OF THE PROTECTORATE.

1655

failed shamefully. Sickness broke out, Venables himself was disabled, the men were dying by scores, and the rainy season was at hand. As Jamaica was reported to be almost defenceless, the commissioners decided to sail thither. On May 11 the fleet entered the bay of Caguaya, afterwards known as Kingston harbour. Its guns soon silenced the Spanish forts; the troops were landed, and Santiago de la Vega, now Spanish Town, a few miles inland, was taken without difficulty. The Spaniards, who could barely muster 500 men able to bear arms, made a show of capitulating, but used the time to take refuge in the interior. Supplies were still so scanty that it was resolved to send home the larger men-of-war. Penn, who had quarrelled with Venables and was weary of his task, returned also, and Venables followed his example. They found the protector sorely displeased, for the extent and fertility of Jamaica were imperfectly known. Penn and Venables were called before the council and sent to the Tower, but soon released. Mieanly as Cromwell prized Jamaica, he was resolved that it should not be lost. The garrison had little to fear from the Spaniards, who made no effort to regain the island. But the men, overcome by the heat, could not work, wasted their stores of food, and neglected the simplest precautions against disease. As colonists were not likely to be found in England, they were sought in Scotland, but to no purpose. An order of the council for sending out 1,000 boys and as many girls from Ireland was never executed. The New Englanders were vainly solicited to occupy a country more fertile than their own. At last some hundreds of poor families from the island of Nevis were induced to emigrate to Jamaica, where they formed the first civil population. The protector destined another fleet under Blake to act against the French in the Mediterranean, and to protect commerce from the Barbary corsairs. He wrote to King Philip requesting that Blake might be received as the admiral of a friendly power, and the request was fully granted. Blake sailed in October and his arrival at Naples in December was highly advantageous to Spain by causing the Duke of Guise to abandon a naval expedition which he had planned against that city. Blake then went for provisions to Leghorn where he was made
1

See Venables,

NarraH've,

ed. Firth; Thurloe, v., 66, 3 4 7*

1655

BLAKE

IN THE MEDITERRANEAN.

433
CHAP,

welcome by the Tuscan authorities. Prom Leghorn he sailed for Tunis. The Moors had made many Englishmen captive, and when Blake would have treated for the release of an English crew, the Dey refused his overtures. * The strength of Tunis defied attack, but a few miles to the west, in the harbour of Porto Farina, nine Moorish men-of-war lay under the shelter of a fort and batteries. Before Blake could do more than reconnoitre, the necessity of getting provisions and water obliged him to leave the African coast for some weeks. On his return he found the Dey still inflexible. On April 4 he sailed into Porto Farina to deliver his attack. When he had mastered the fire of the fort and the batteries, he sent his boats to burn the ships. The panic-stricken crews fled, the whole squadron was destroyed with petty loss to the English, and Blake withdrew his fleet almost uninjured. This brilliant exploit first showed what ships could do against fortifications and spread the fame of the English throughout the Mediterranean, but it did not quell the ruler of Tunis. The Dey of Algiers, whom Blake next visited, renewed a treaty of the year 1646 and allowed him to ransom a large number of his countrymen. At this time the King of Spain made a last effort to maintain friendship with England, and sent the Marquis of Lede as ambassador extraordinary to the protector. The negotiation failed on the two cardinal points of the inquisition and the W^est Indian trade, and soon afterwards the English attack on Hispaniola became known in Europe. Hitherto Blake's operations had been useful to Spain, and he had supplied his wants from the Spanish islands of Sicily and Sardinia. But in June, when at anchor off Cadiz, he received secret orders to intercept the Plate fleet as well as any ships carrying troops or supplies from Spain to the West Indies. The Spaniards had taken alarm and had kept back the Plate fleet while preparing a squadron in Cadiz to meet it and escort it home. When the squadron put to sea, Blake followed it for some distance but would not attack it, because the relations between England and Spain were still doubtful. Long service had left his ships so foul and his crews so sickly that he was forced to return to Lisbon before the end of August. Thence he sailed for Eng1
1

Thurloe, iii., 39* 2o

VOL. VII.

434
CHAP,

FIRST

PERIOD

OF THE PROTECTORATE.

1655

land, arriving almost exactly a year after his departure. The Spanish government had resolved that war was inevitable, had ordered Cardenas to quit England, and had laid an embargo on English ships and goods. Thus the protector was awakened from his dream of war with Spain in the Indies and peace with Spain in Europe. English clothiers and merchants were deeply aggrieved by the interruption of trade with Spain, and even in the council some still argued in favour of peace. Cromwell was immovable and on October 26 issued a declaration of the grounds for the war, which were substantial, although they did not justify his indirect and double method of dealing. The negotiation with France had been quickened by the approach of war with Spain, but it was for a while imperilled by a remarkable incident. The Duke of Savoy, Charles Emmanuel II., was a minor, and since his mother Christina, the regent, was a daughter of Henry IV., his state might be regarded as a dependent ally of France. In his territory certain valleys of the Cottian Alps had been inhabited time out of mind by the Vaudois or Waldenses, disciples of a medieval reformer, Peter Waldez, who in the sixteenth century adopted Calvinism. Such was their constancy and such the strength of their fastnesses that Duke Philibert Emmanuel in 1561 granted them toleration within their ancient bounds. Of late, various causes had put enmity between the Vaudois and their rulers. The regent had forced catholic missionaries upon them. They, in pursuit of a livelihood, had spread far beyond their own territory. In January, 1655, Christina commanded them to return thither within three days on pain of death and confiscation, unless they would become catholics or sell their property to catholics. Troops were sent to enforce the regents orders, and, where they met with resistance, burnt the villages and massacred men, women, and children. French regiments quartered in the mountains came to their help and shared in their crimes. In the course of May tidings of these atrocities reached England and roused Cromwell to instant action. He remonstrated with the Duke of Savoy j he called on Louis XIV. to interpose) he wrote to the chief protestant states asking them to co-operate on behalf of the Vaudois. He appointed a day of humiliation and opened a collection for the relief of the sufferers, giving ^2,000 himself. Nearly

THE

TREATY

WITH

FRANCE.

435 CHAP.

40,000 were collected, a sum far larger in proportion to the means of the people than any similar subscription for the victims of a great calamity in modern times. Louis, who could not afford to trifle with the protector's friendship, consented to intercede with the duke. Under the double pressure of France and England Christina at length gave way, and the duke promised to pardon the rebels. He even enlarged somewhat the limits within which the Vaudois might enjoy liberty of conscience, and gave those who were settled elsewhere a longer time to sell their property. The protector, although not fully satisfied, urged the matter no further and resumed the negotiation with France. A treaty of peace and friendship was signed on October 24. The two states undertook not to assist each other s rebels. They agreed to name arbitrators who should assess the damages due to subjects of either government for losses as shipowners or merchants, and should decide whether the forts in Acadia taken by the English ought to be restored to the French. As the arbitrators were never appointed, the damages were never recovered, nor were the forts restored in the time of the commonwealth. Other articles were designed to promote commerce between England and France. By a secret article Charles Stuart, his brother James, Duke of York, and seventeen of their chief followers were excluded from France, while the persons who had negotiated on behalf of Conde and the city of Bordeaux were to be dismissed from England. In another quarter Cromwell had hopes for himself and for the protestant cause. The victories of Gustavus had raised Sweden to the rank of a great power. The Swedish crown possessed the whole of the eastern and parts of the southern seaboard of the Baltic. Charles X. King of Sweden contemplated a war with Poland in order to seize West Prussia and the mouths of the Vistula, where he hoped to raise a large revenue by tolls on commerce. The Elector of Brandenburg, who feared Charles for a neighbour, and the Dutch republic, which feared lest the whole Baltic seaboard should pass under Swedish control, joined to thwart this design. Both the Dutch and the Swedes tried to make an alliance with England. The pro1
1

See the authorities cited by Gardiner,

28 *

History of the Commonwealth,

ch.

xlvn.

436
CHAP,
X V I I L

FIRST

PERIOD

OF THE PROTECTORATE.

1655

tector, imagining that the catholic powers were about to join in a general attack on protestantism, and regarding Sweden as the traditional defender of the protestant cause, suggested to Bonde, the Swedish ambassador, that Charles should attack the emperor, the chief of catholic sovereigns. Such an attack would also disable the emperor from assisting his kinsman, the King of Spain, against France and England. Cromwell was so far from understanding the aims of Charles or the aims of his enemies as to propose an alliance between England, Sweden, Holland, Denmark, and Brandenburg. Charles invaded Poland, overran the whole kingdom, forced the Elector of Brandenburg to a peace, and gained well-nigh absolute control over the Baltic. Between statesmen so completely at variance no combination was possible.

C H A P T E R XIX.
THE T H E S E C O N D PERIOD OFTHE PROTECTORATE.

wax with Spain filled the last three years of the life of C H A P . Cromwell. In that war almost every advantage was on the ^rx. side of England. The English commonwealth was ruled by a great soldier and statesman ; the Spanish empire by a weak and worn-out voluptuary. England possessed thefinestnavy of the age; the Spanish navy had shrunk into insignificance. The English army, although not large, was equalled in excellence by the Swedish alone. The Spanish army was still respectable; but the line of illustrious Spanish captains had ended, and only the energy and resource of Cond6 saved the Spaniards from being driven out of the Netherlands. Spain already had a most formidable antagonist in France, which was well situated for co-operation with England. Under these conditions Spain could neither strike with effect nor even parry the blows of the enemy, and England throughout took the offensive, usually with success. During the winter of 1655 the protector busied himself to equip a powerful fleet. Blake, who was to command once more, had aged under long and hard service. He received a colleague in young Edward Montagu, cousin of the Earl of Manchester, Cromwell's old chief. Montagu had commanded a regiment in the civil war, but he had not yet gone to sea, and although he wanted neither courage nor capacity he owed his advancement to Cromwell's personal friendship. The admirals sailed from Torbay at the end of IVIarch, too late for their first task, the intercepting of the treasure ships, which safely entered Cadiz. They had probably been instructed to seize some defensible post on the Spanish seaboard as a base for future operations. Cadiz and Gibraltar were both considered, and
437

438
CHAP,
X I X

SECOND

PERIOD

OF THE PROTECTORATE.

1656

'

were thought too strong. The English cruised off Cadiz for a time in some doubt how to damage the enemy, since the Spaniards would not come out to fight. The dwindling trade of Spain was almost wholly conducted by foreigners and in foreign ships, so that Blake and Montagu, who did not think fit to establish a blockade of the Spanish ports, made scarcely any prizes. King John of Portugal felt a scruple of conscience about ratifying the treaty of 1654, which allowed Englishmen in his dominions to worship as they would in their own houses. Cromwell sent Philip Meadowe to insist on ratification, and ordered the admirals to support the demand. In May, therefore, Blake appeared at Lisbon, and King John, in fear lest he should seize the approaching Brazil fleet, ratified the treaty without more delay. Then Blake returned to his station off Cadiz, and the admirals spent the summer in desultory movements, hoping to intercept the next treasure fleet, which had been detained in American ports by orders from home. After long waiting in vain for a squadron from Cadiz to escort it, the Plate fleet sailed from Havana on July 14* as the Spanish government was in urgent need of money. It consisted of eight ships, and spent nearly two months on the voyage. Captain Stayner, who had been left to watch Cadiz with the frigates, sighted it on the evening of September 8, pursued it through the night, and attacked the next morning. In the action which ensued, all the Spanish ships, except three of little value, were taken, burnt, or driven ashore. The Marquis of Baydes, sometime viceroy of Peru, with his wife and daughter perished in one of the burning galleons. Out of the treasure on board the fleet more than half went to the bottom of the sea \ the residue became the prize of the victors. From a prisoner they learnt that the second Plate fleet lay in the harbour of Havana, and might be expected by the end of the year. In October Montagu returned to England with the prizes and the spoil. The silver was loaded on eight and thirty carts, and conveyed to the Tower amid ringing of bells andfiringof cannon. The Spanish government tried to employ against the protector whatever royalist feeling might remain in England. In July, 1654* Charles, who had long felt uncomfortable in Paris,
1

Review,

* See Firth, * Blake and the Cattle of Santa Cruz/' * xx., 2 3 8 ( 1 9 0 5 ) ) and the authorities therein cited.

English

Historical

1656

TREATY

BETWEEN

CHARLES

AND PHILIP.

439
CHAP, XIX.

saw that Mazarin and Cromwell were gradually drawing together, and determined to quit France of his own accord before he should be requested to do so. After a brief stay at Spa and Aix-la-Chapelle he settled at Cologne. Upon the breach between England and Spain, he opened a negotiation with the Archduke Leopold, the governor of the Netherlands, and went incognito to Brussels, where a treaty was concluded on April 2, 1656. Philip promised to give Charles 4*000 Spanish troops whenever Charles should have secured a port at which they might disembark. In return Charles undertook that when he became king he would help Philip to reconquer Portugal, would renounce all the West Indian possessions gained by the English since 1630, and would allow no more English colonies either in the islands or on the mainland. He also promised to suspend the penal laws against the catholics, and use his best endeavour for their repeal. Charles received a pension, and was allowed to reside at Bruges. Some time afterwards the Spanish government assisted him to raise six regiments of his own, chiefly by summoning English, Irish, or Scottish subjects to quit the French service. When the English and the French were both at war with Spain, it was natural that they should form an alliance. The harm done to English shipping by Flemish privateers quickened Cromwell's desire to secure Dunkirk, which he could not do without French assistance. But Mazarin and Louis XIV. did not wish for closer ties with England. They might reasonably hope to prevail over Spain without binding themselves to place Dunkirk in the hands of their dangerous neighbour. Mazarin, who had already given scandal to devout Frenchmen by contracting so many alliances with protestant states, was loth to contract another. Finding the French thus reserved, Cromwell sent as ambassador to Paris Sir William Lockhart, a capable and adventurous Scot, who had attached himself to the English interest. Although Philip at last bowed himself to yield those territories which Louis demanded, he required in the high temper of Spanish chivalry that the Prince of Conde* who had served Spain so well should be restored to all the honours, offices and estates forfeited by his treason. Neither
1

Abreu y Bertolano, 305$ cited by Gardiner.

1

Colleccion

de los Tratados

de Paz de Espaha,

viii.,

440
C

SECOND
n o r o n

PERIOD
u b l i c

OF THE PROTECTORATE.
r o u n d s c o u l d

1656

XIX "
P

P g Mazarin submit to such a requisition. He felt the necessity of ending as soon as possible a war which had lasted twenty-one years and had exhausted France only less than Spain. He therefore yielded to the protector's importunity and undertook that, in return for an auxiliary corps, Dunkirk should be conquered and handed over to England. The instrument required that, in case of war with any foreign state, a parliament should forthwith be summoned to give its advice. The Spanish war involved heavy expense at a time when there was already a large deficit, and the government was afraid to levy new taxes by mere arbitrary power. The major-generals were at hand to overawe the disaffected and to influence the elections. Cromwell therefore resolved to call another parliament and issued the writs in July. The result was disappointing. Those who condemned the protector's government on principle were reinforced by those who detested the austere sway of the major-generals. Vane could not offer himself for election, having been imprisoned on account of a pamphlet in which he urged that a convention should be freely chosen to settle the form of government. But among the republican leaders were Hazierigg, Bradshaw, Scot, and Ashley Cooper, who had gone over to the opposition before the close of the last parliament. On September 17, Cromwell opened the parliament with a speech more than usually discursive. He laboured to justify the war with Spain, which had never been popular. The Spaniard, he declared, was the natural enemy of the English nation, " because of that enmity that is in him against whatsoever is of God He went on to justify the powers bestowed on the major-generals and the " decimation " of the royalists. For the future, security and reformation were to be endeavoured; security by vigorous prosecution of the war with Spain 1 reformation by continuing the good work already accomplished for the Church, by care for public morals and by the amendment of the law. " The truth of it is, there are wicked and abominable laws that will be in your power to alter. To hang a man for sixpence, thirteen pence, I know not what; to hang for a trifle and to pardon murderis in the ministration of the law through the ill-framing of it. I have known in my experience abominable murders
n p r i v a t e

1656

SECOND

PARLIAMENT

OF PROTECTORATE.

44 T

acquitted. And to come and see men lose their lives for petty CHAP, matters ; this is a thing that God will reckon for." Doubting, hesitating men, he warned the house, were not fit for their work. He besought them not to dispute of unnecessary and unprofitable things, and reminded them significantly that he was by the voice of the people supreme magistrate. Nor did he trust to exhortation merely. Under the instrument it was the duty of the council to examine whether the persons returned to parliament had the necessary qualifications. The council took an unfair advantage of the requirement that they should be of known integrity, fearing God, and of good conversation" to exclude all the rigid republicans, however irreproachable for morals and piety. When the members repaired to the house, they found a guard at the door, and only those who had received a certificate of approval were allowed to enter. Many of the excluded members signed a remonstrance which was read in the house and occasioned a debate. The house resolved to demand of the council why certain members had been denied admittance, but when the council alleged the provisions of the instrument, it pressed the demand no further. A hundred had been shut out and some fifty more refrained from taking their seats, so that the parliament was reduced by one-third of its full strength. Those who remained did as the government wished. They passed one bill declaring void the claim of the house of Stuart to the English throne, and another to secure the person of the protector. They voted the war with Spain to be just and necessary, and promised to support it with vigour. They hoped that the rich booty taken by Stayner would make further taxation needless; but its net value proved on inquiry to be no more than 225,000 in bullion, and cochineal to the value of 25*000) the rest having been embezzled by the captors. After long discussion the parliament voted in January, 1657, a sum of "400,000 for the Spanish war. At this time a political reaction was spreading over England. That great multitude who were neither adherents of the house of Stuart nor republicans on principle craved for a stable government acting by known laws. They did not hate Cromwell himself; indeed they generally regarded his power as their best
1 <(
1

Carlyle, Letters

and Speeches of Oliver

Cromwell,

Speech v.

44
c

SECOND

PERIOD

OF THE PROTECTORATE.

1656

3?' XIX.

defence

against anarchy. The furious enmity of the levellers and Fifth Monarchists recommended the protector to conservative minds. But Cromwell was advancing in years * his robust frame was beginning to give way under toil and anxiety, and he might at any moment be murdered. So long as the office of protector remained elective, his death might cause new convulsions, for none of his lieutenants would be willingly accepted as master by the rest. Many, therefore, desired to make it hereditary. Others wished to go further. The protectorship was unknown to the law of England; kingship was presupposed by that law. The protector's powers were indefinite ; the regal prerogative had been defined by statute and custom. Those who upheld a king de facto were by an act of Henry VII. secured from penal consequences ; those who upheld a protector had no such defence if monarchy were restored. For these reasons many would have made Cromwell king. The officers had pressed the crown upon him after the dissolution of the little parliament. In the first parliament of the protectorate it had been moved to offer him the crown. In the same parliament it had been proposed to substitute hereditary succession for election to the protectorate. Cromwell had discouraged both propositions, yet he had reasons for desiring a change. The instrument had been neither a successful nor a popular constitution. It derived its force from no national consent, but from the mere will and pleasure of the army. Cromwell must have desired that the legislature should supply the defects of the instrument and confirm his own position as head of the state. He showed himself more and more anxious to win over those who were eager for monarchy, an established Church, and the maintenance of public order. The understanding between Charles and Philip and the residence of Charles so near to England gave new courage to zealous royalists. They conspired afresh and, although their plans were discovered and thwarted, it was desirable to do more and extinguish their hopes. It might be supposed, therefore, that Cromwell would not as formerly discourage proposals which tended to ensure his own power and magnify his family. In October, Colonel Jephson, member for Cork and Youghal, raised the question of making the protectorship hereditary. Most of the officers opposed the change while
f

1656

CASE OF JAMES

NA YLOR.

443

the other friends of the government favoured it. Cromwell CHAP, declared himself adverse, and recommended the house to put * off the discussion. It obeyed, and was soon absorbed in a wholly alien subject, the punishment of a crazy quaker, James Naylor. James Naylor was one of those enthusiasts who collect a small band of admirers, especially women, and become intoxicated with their admiration. Either he imagined himself the Son of God or he believed that Christ dwelt within him in some eminent and peculiar way. On October 24, 1656, he made a triumphal entry into Bristol in imitation of Christ's entry into Jerusalem. He was arrested with some of his followers and sent to London for trial. Xhe parliament appointed a committee to examine him. After it had reported, Naylor was called to the bar and examined by the speaker. Although he disclaimed any pretension to be the Messiah, his answers excited such horror that the house determined to punish him in spite of dissuasion by some of the more reasonable members. Assuming that it had all the powers formerly enjoyed by the two houses, and therefore the judicial power of the house of lords, it sentenced Naylor to be twice set in the pillory, to be whipped, to be branded, and to have his tongue bored with a hot iron, then to be sent to Bristol for a second scourging, and finally to be imprisoned in Bridewell, restrained from all society, and kept to hard labour with no relief but what he earned by that means. "When the first part of the sentence had been executed, compassionate men and women began to petition for mercy, and, finding no response from the parliament, turned to Cromwell. Cromwell, although declaring his abhorrence of Naylor's fault, desired the parliament to state the grounds of their proceeding. Xhe parliament adjourned the consideration of his letter, which they never resumed for fear of raising an insoluble question. Had the parliament only so much power as the instrument conferred, or had they all the. powers ever possessed by any parliament ? Was the parliament only a partner in sovereignty with the protector, or was it sole and absolute sovereign ?
x x

After this outbreak of intolerance the parliament went on

English

* See the first of Professor Firth's two articles, Cromwell and. the Crown, ' Historical Review, xvii., 429 (1902), and the authorities therein cited.
u 1

444

SECOND

PERIOD

OF THE PROTECTORATE.

1656

CHAP, to consider the best way of maintaining the new militia. The XIX. military members of the council advised a continuance of the decimation," and Desborough obtained leave to bring in a bill for that purpose. A strong party in the house opposed the bill, arguing that a general taxation of royalists, irrespective of their behaviour, violated the act of oblivion passed in 1651. Cromwell himself perceived that the sense of the nation condemned this tax as part of the military rule personified in the majorgenerals. When the bill came up for a second reading, his own son-in-law, John Claypole, moved its rejection, and his bosom friend Lord Broghill seconded the motion. The bill was accordingly lost. About the same time a new murder plot was detected. Sexby had suborned for this purpose an old soldier named Miles Sindercombe, who found accomplices in Cecil, another old soldier, and Toope, one of the protector's lifeguards. They laid various plans to shoot Cromwell, but courage or opportunity always failed them, and at length Sindercombe tried to fire Whitehall in the night of January 8, 1657* Toope had betrayed him, and he was arrested before he could accomplish anything. He was tried and sentenced as a traitor, but killed himself on the eve of execution. The parliament ordered a public thanksgiving for the protector s escape, and went in a body to tender their solemn congratulations. Sindercombe's plot showed once more how precarious was a government which depended on the life of one man, and strengthened the wish to render it more secure. When the parliament was debating how it should express its concern for the protector's danger and joy at his deliverance, John Aske, member for Somerset, and one of the leaders of the presbyterian party, moved that he should be requested to accept the government according to the ancient constitution, so as to baffle the plots of their enemies. Several of the officers resisted the motion, which was allowed to drop. But the project was revived on February 23, when Sir Christopher Packe, one of the members for the city, presented to the house a so-called address and remonstrance, drawn up by some of the chief men in that party which desired to make Cromwell king, possibly by Lord Broghill and Chief Justice Glyn. After a sharp debate, it was agreed that the paper should be read. It was thefirstdraft of the famous document known as the Humble Petition and
u

THE ADDRESS

AND

REMONSTRANCE.

445

Advice. It provided that Cromwell should take the title of king, that there should be a second house of parliament, and that persons chosen to serve in parliament should not be excluded otherwise than by the judgment of that house to which they belonged. The second house was to consist of not less than forty nor more than seventy persons, who were to be nominated in the first instance by the protector, but no new member was to be admitted save by the consent of the house. No man was to be admitted to the council without its consent, ratified by both houses, nor was any councillor to be removed without the consent of parliament. A yearly revenue of ; 1,000,000 was to be settled for the support of the army and navy, and a yearly revenue of ^300,000 for the civil administration, parliament having power to grant from time to time what further supply might be necessary. The protector and parliament were to settle a confession of faith, which none might revile. Dissenters were to be tolerated if they held the doctrine of the Trinity and acknowledged the Scriptures to be the word of God j but this toleration did not extend to popery or prelacy, or to those who published horrible blasphemies or practised licentiousness or profaneness under the profession of Christ. Disturbers of public worship were to be duly punished. The address and remonstrance narrowed the religious freedom granted by the instrument, but by so doing it soothed the prejudices of the presbyterians. It lessened in some respects the powers which Cromwell had exercised, for it made the houses arbiters of their own composition, it gave them a much larger part in the choice of councillors, and it extended their control over taxation. But it gave him the title of king with all the traditional majesty and influence annexed to the crown, and it interposed another house between him and that elective chamber which had proved so unruly. It gave his authority the sanction of law, it lessened the danger to his life by ensuring a successor, and it extended to all his supporters the protection of the statute of Henry VII. Some royalists, according to Clarendon, believed that making Cromwell king was the best expedient towards the restoration of Charles j but the wiser royalists, he adds, thought that it would destroy all hope of that restoration, because the people were more attached to monarchy than to any particular person, and would gladly ad-

CHAP,

446
CHAP,

SECOND

PERIOD

OF THE PROTECTORATE.
1

1657

here to a king however unlawful. From this we may perhaps inter that tne address and remonstrance was not unwelcome to the public. Lambert, supported by Fleetwood and Desborough, and most of the officers in the house, opposed the address and remonstrance, which was defended by the lawyers and the court party so-called. After another keen debate the house resolved to discuss the paper clause by clause. On February 27 Lambert and a hundred other officers had an interview with the protector to urge that he should abide by the instrument. Cromwell answered them in a singular speech. He disclaimed all previous knowledge of the address and remonstrance, and added that the kingly title was to him a mere feather in the hat. But he asserted that they had made him their drudge upon all occasions; that they had urged him to expel the long parliament, to call a convention named by themselves, to call the parliament which followed, to appoint the major-generals, and, lastly, to call the parliament then sitting. The instrument had proved faulty, and the people were tired of arbitrary rule. The proceedings of this parliament showed the need of a second house as a check or balance, since the case of Naylor might be any man's case, while there was no limit to their judicial power. This round reproof took effect, for some days afterwards a committee of officers waited on the protector and declared themselves ready to acquiesce in whatsoever he should think for the good of the nation.^ March was spent by the house in debating the clauses of the address and remonstrance. Notwithstanding all that the officers could do, the revival of the kingly office was carried by 123 votes to 62. Finally the draft was adopted, with some small additions, but with few alterations save that of the name, which was changed to a " humble petition and a d v i c e O n the 31st, the parliament waited on the protector in the banqueting house of ^Whitehall, and tendered him the fruit of its labours. Cromwell desired a short time to take counsel of God and of his own heart. Three days afterwards he declared his refusal of the kingly title. The parliament resolved that it
^Clarendon, xv., 32> 33 the whole passage is remarkable. See the second of Professor Firth's articles, English Historical Review, . .*' ( 93) the text of the speech is in the Additional MS., 6125* p 285* British Museum.
2
11 I

xvl

1657

CROMWELL'S

REFUSAL

OF THE CROWN.

447

would continue to urge the petition and advice upon him, and CHAP, presented to C r o m w e l l its reasons tor so d o i n g , rie r e p l i e d m terms o f hesitating refusal, but added that there were many other things in the document beside the title of king which needed elucidation. Then the house named a committee of ninety-nine to confer with the protector, and to report the particulars on which they could not satisfy him. Several conferences ensued, the protector raising difficulties in a manner which betrayed the agitation of his mind. The kingly title, he urged, had not been found necessary to effective government; it might give scandal to many loyal upholders of the commonwealth; it might seem to have been blasted by Providence. Other rulers who had accepted the crown from the parliament had some degree, at least, of hereditary right \ he had none, but had undertaken the government from the necessity of keeping order. Cromwell's hesitation was such that the members of his own family and his most trusted servants did not know how he would resolve \ but from the tone of his speeches many inferred that he would end by accepting the crown, and the house spent a week in amending the petition and advice, so as to meet his wishes. It also confirmed the acts of the little parliament and the protector's ordinances made in the first nine months of his government. When it asked for a positive answer, Cromwell at length fixed on May 8 as the day. After commending the petition and advice as a whole, he declared that he could not accept the title of king. Deep was the disappointment of the majority, and severe was the blame bestowed on Cromwell for going thus far and then recoiling. Cromwell had been held back by the repugnance which so many of the soldiers felt for kingship. As late as May 6 he is said to have privately told some members of the committee that he would accept the entire petition and advice. Meeting Desborough, he learnt that if he took the crown Desborough and Fleetwood and Lambert would resign, and so, they believed, would other officers of high rank. Desborough set on Colonel Pride, who resolved to petition the house against reviving kingship. The petition was signed by some thirty officers, and
1

See Carlyle, Letters and Speeches of Oliver Cromwell, Speeches vii.-xiv.; Whitelocke, Memorials, pp. 655-57; Professor Firth's second article and the authorities cited therein.
1

448
CHAP,

SECOND

PERIOD

OF THE PROTECTORATE.

1657

presented by Colonel Mason, for the military chiefs would take no overt part, Fleetwood even declaring that the petition ought not to be considered at a time when the house was expecting the protector's reply to its offers. Nevertheless, the petition served its purpose, since Cromwell, knowing that as yet there was no sure foundation for the commonwealth without the army, would not divide the army against itself. Several of the officers had already declared themselves willing to accept all the other clauses of the petition and advice, if the offer of the crown were omitted. After some fruitless debate the parliament acquiesced in Cromwell's refusal and substituted the title of protector for that of king. The petition and advice with this amendment was accepted by Cromwell on May 25. On June 26 his second inauguration was celebrated in Westminster Hall with the utmost pomp. In presence of a great assembly of councillors and judges, soldiers and members of parliament, Cromwell took his stand on the dai's under a rich canopy. The speaker clothed him in a robe of purple lined with ermine, presented him with a richly gilt Bible, girt him with the sword, and placed in his hand a sceptre of massy gold. Then he administered the oath to maintain the rights and privileges of the people, and to govern according to law. Cromwell seated himself in the chair of state, with the ambassador of France on his right hand and the ambassador of the United Provinces on his left, the councillors and officers of the household standing about him, while the trumpets sounded and the people shouted, and the heralds proclaimed the lord protector. At the close of the ceremony he was escorted in solemn procession to Whitehall, and the parliament adjourned itself until January. Thus monarchy was returning to England in the usual order of progression j first the power, then the splendour, and last of all the name \ but even the name might be judged not far distant. At the same time that Cromwell's authority received the sanction of parliament, it was glorified by success in war. After Montagu had returned to England, Blake continued his watch of Cadiz throughout the winter, an achievement then unparalleled and only possible because he had access to the friendly port of Lisbon. On February 18 he heard from an English
1

Scobell) ii.) 37^*

1657

THE BATTLE

OF SANTA

CRUZ.

4 4 9
CHAP.
XIX.

skipper that the Plate fleet had been seen steering for the
/-* -011 ^ j .
A

J .

,;*u

"U.*

resoivea to go m quest 01 it witn nis wnoie force, but he was obliged to wait for supplies, and when at last his ships were victualled he learnt that the galleons had disembarked their treasure at Teneriffe and lay at anchor in the bay of Santa Cruz. He sailed for the Canaries, and on April 19 he was off Santa Cruz, where every preparation had been made to repel his attack. A strong castle mounting forty guns defended the mouth of the harbour, and seven forts, linked by breastworks for musketeers, commanded the space within. Sixteen Spanish ships, seven of them upwards of 1,000 tons burden, were moored under cover of the forts. Blake, who remembered Porto Farina, did not hesitate for a moment. Early on the next morning he called a council of war and laid down the plan of battle. Stayner with twelve frigates was to destroy the ships, while Blake himself with the rest of the fleet assailed the fortifications. Stayner led the way into the harbour and cast anchor within a pistol shot of the Spanish admiral. The Spaniards had placed their ships so awkwardly as to shelter the English from the fire of their own land batteries. At such short range Stayner's well-directed fire told fearfully. The Spanish admiral and vice-admiral blew up, and as the remaining ships fell silent and were abandoned by their crews, Stayner sent in his boats to burn them. Some the English sought to carry off as prizes, but these were also burned by Blake's express order. Meanwhile Blake had mastered the fire of the forts. After a contest of seven hours there remained of the Spanish fleet nothing but a few charred wrecks floating on the water. The English had lost no more than 50 men killed and 120 wounded. There was yet some danger, for several of the ships were almost disabled, the wind blew straight into the bay, and the Spaniards manned their forts afresh and reopened fire. Blake's veterans, notwithstanding, warped out their ships and brought them all off. The treasure, which had been carried inland, was not taken, but it was useless to Spain, and the Spanish operations against Portugal and in Flanders were crippled for want of money. In June Blake was ordered to return with part of
Canaries. .Blaise
1
1

See Firth, " Blake and the Battle of Santa Cruz," VOL. VII. 29

English

Historical

Review, xx., 228 (1905).

45
CHAP,

SECOND

PERIOD

OF THE PROTECTORATE.

1657

the fleet. A three years' campaign had broken his health, and he died on August 7 as his ship was entering Plymouth Sound. He was honoured with a public funeral and a grave in Westminster Abbey. By his devotion to duty, his unflinching courage, and his power of inspiring the men under his command, he had renewed the great tradition of the Elizabethan admirals, and had set an example rarely equalled until the days of Hawke and Nelson. An alliance between the French and English governments was for some time retarded by discordant views. Xhe protector was unwilling to furnish troops. The French demurred to beginning the joint operations with an attack on Dunkirk, and Turenne alleged that it would be needful to defeat the Spanish army before besieging any of the Flemish ports. The protector wished to enlarge the alliance by inducing the Swedes, the Danes, and the Dutch to join in a grand attack upon both branches of the house of Austria. Mazarin raised the objection that the Dutch at least were better disposed towards Spain than towards France or England. ^When these difficulties had been overcome, the treaty of alliance was signed on March 23. It stipulated that England and France should join in attacking Gravelines, Dunkirk, and Mardyke by sea and land j that France should contribute 20,000 troops and England 6,000, who were to be paid by France j that when taken Gravelines should belong to France, Mardyke and Dunkirk to England; but that if Gravelines were taken first, the English should hold it as security for Dunkirk. The English soldiers, although acting with the French, were to form a separate corps under a general of their own. The Roman catholics were to have the free exercise of their religion in towns acquired by the English. By a secret article each state undertook not to conclude a separate peace with Spain for a year from the signing of the treaty. In this alliance each party sacrificed something: the English, by helping what formerly they had always tried to hinder, a French conquest of Flanders, and the French, by assisting to plant the English power on their own side of the Channel. But^ since France was much more likely than England to keep whatever she might win, there is some truth in the reproach so often made against Cromwell that he laboured

CAMPAIGN

IN

FLANDERS.

45*

to aggrandise a strong and ambitious neighbour at the expense CHAP, XIX. of one that was decrepit and harmless. The campaign should have been opened in April, but the English and French were not ready, and the Spaniards who took the field first were able to strengthen the garrisons of Dunkirk and Gravelines. When Turenne at last put his army in motion and assailed Cambrai, Conde raised the siege and forced him to retire to St. Quentin. There he was joined in May by 6,000 English soldiers under General Reynolds. Although a large proportion were new recruits, their robust soldierly appearance was warmly praised by Turenne and by King Louis who passed them in review. Turenne laid siege to the inland towns of Montmedy and St. Venant. The Englishmen fought well, but were apt to sicken if food ran short or desert if not punctually paid, so that by September the corps had lost one-third of its strength. Dissatisfied with the employment of his troops, Cromwell addressed such sharp remonstrances to Mazarin, that Turenne at length approached the coast, hoping to make the Spaniards fight a battle. He declared that Mardyke only could be taken so late in the year. Cromwell sent him a reinforcement of 2,000 men and fitted out a squadron to co-operate with the besiegers. Mardyke fell on September 23 and was delivered to the English, who thus gained control of the canal leading from Dunkirk to the sea. In November Don John of Austria, the new governor of the Netherlands, with Charles II. and the Duke of York, made a vain attempt to recover the place. A long series of bickerings about the defence of Mardyke ensued between the protector and the French.* The Swedish king, who had provoked so many enemies, desired to have at least one friend. In July, 1656, he made a commercial treaty with England to the effect that the tolls levied in the parts of Poland and Prussia subject to his authority should never be raised higher than they were in 1650, and that if they were lowered in favour of any other nation, the benefit should extend equally to the English. Soon afterwards the many princes who hated and feared Charles X. joined in a formidable confederacy to pull him down. The Emperor Ferdinand
See letters in Clarke Papers, iii., and Firth, " Royalist and Cromwellian Armies in Flanders," Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, N.S., vol. xvi
1
z

oc\ * 9

45
CHAP.

SECOND

PERIOD

OF THE PROTECTORATE.

1657

III. having died in April, 1657, his successor Leopold made an alliance with the Poles against the Swedes. The Tsar Alexis invaded the Baltic provinces of Sweden. Frederick III. of Denmark declared against Charles in July 5 the Elector of Brandenburg changed sides once more j and the Dutch seemed about to pass from ill-will to active enmity. Calvinists and Lutherans, papists and the adherents of the Greek Church were arrayed side by side against Charles; a clear warning to Cromwell that foreign policy could no longer be based on difference of religion. Thus hard beset, Charles quitted Poland, which was well-nigh lost, transferred the war to Denmark, and tried to make an alliance with England. Cromwell was ready to mediate on behalf of Sweden, but would not promise to declare war on Denmark, and could not afford that help in money which Charles most urgently required. In England unusual quiet followed Cromwell's second installation as protector, although Sexby still wove conspiracies against the tyrant. With the help of Captain Titus, a presbyterian exile, he wrote the famous pamphlet Killing no Murder, which was printed in Holland and thence smuggled into England. As it did not prevail upon any man to risk his own life in trying to take the life of Cromwell, Sexby came over to hearten his friends, but was betrayed and arrested when embarking for the return voyage to Holland. He was sent to the Tower, where he fell sick and died in January, 1658. Cromwell formed a new council of state, re-appointing most of the old members. Lambert refused to take the oath required of a councillor by the petition and advice, whereupon Cromwell dismissed him from his command as major-general and took away all his other commissions. The fall of this brilliant soldier and aspiring politician seems to have passed without notice. In the autumn Cromwell began to select the members of the new house of lords. He nominated seven peers of England, one of Ireland, and one of Scotland, certain sons of peers, and several baronets and country gentlemen. The rest of his lords were members of his own family, soldiers, and officials. Of the peers two only, Lord Fauconberg, his sonin-law, and Lord Eure, who had sat in the little parliament, would obey the summons. Even such puritans as Manchester, Saye, and Wharton disdained to sit beside men who had fought

1658

A NE W SESSION

OF

PARLIAMENT.

453

their way up from the condition of draymen or cobblers. In CHAP, all sixty-three persons received writs, of whom forty-two accepted and were sworn in, some of the rest being absent on the public service. On January 20, 1658, the parliament met for its second session. As the petition and advice had taken from the council power to test the qualification of members, the excluded members mostly came back and were admitted on taking the oath of fidelity to the protector. About thirty of his staunchest adherents had been withdrawn to the new house of lords, so that the temper of the commons was profoundly modified. The protector's speech, brief and weary, betrayed his failing strength. The republicans were determined not to accept without cavil the petition and advice which had been passed by shutting them out, and they found in the new house of lords the most assailable part of the constitution. ^Vithin three days the houses began to wrangle. "When the lords sent a message to the commons proposing a public fast, the commons merely replied that they would send an answer by messengers of their own. Then they debated whether they should address the new body as the lords or " the other house ". According to the republicans the style of lords would imply that it inherited all the powers of the former house of lords and was co-ordinate with the commons, thus re-establishing a hindrance to the will of the people expressed through their representatives. The term * * other house " would limit it to the powers expressly conferred by the petition and advice, mere judicial powers without any voice in legislation. Scot and Cooper with Hazlerigg, who, although summoned to the house of lords, preferred to keep his seat in the house of commons, wereforemostin the attack. The old house, they said, was mischievous, but it at least represented property in land which the new house could not pretend to do. The court party, as they were called, dwelt on the need of a check to hasty legislation, and recalled the public services of many of the new lords. Cromwell, in alarm, summoned the houses to W hitehall on the afternoon of January 25. He dwelt on the combination of catholic powers against protestantism, on the cavalier preparations, on the divisions in England, on the unrest of Scotland
1 r
1

Carlyle,

Letters

and Speeches of Oliver

Cromwell,

Speech xvi.

454

SECOND

PERIOD

OF THE PROTECTORATE.

1658

CHAP, and Ireland. He reminded them that the pay of the army, their sole defence, was several months in arrear, and exhorted them to unity as the only means of averting a new civil war, which must be fatal to an exhausted people. It was all in vain. Between him and full half the house of commons no principle of co-operation could be found. He took an early opportunity to declare that he was bound by an oath to maintain the privileges of both houses. Xhe republican leaders went on discussing the other house and rejected every curb on the resolutions of the commons. Xhey sought to form an alliance with the malcontents in the army and with the fifth monarchists everywhere. Xhey set on foot a petition to the commons asking for a parliament with unrestricted powers, and for security that officers and soldiers should not lose their employment save on due trial before a court-martial. When it should have been presented, they would demand the recall of the long parliament and the restoration of the republic. Xhis ferment gave new courage to the royalists. Charles sent Ormond to London, and prepared on his favourable report to sail with such troops as he had collected. Cromwell learnt that the petition was to be presented on February 4* and resolved to strike first. Without notice and without ceremony he went down to parliament that morning in a hackney coach, sent for the commons to the house of lords and spoke in terms of trenchant rebuke. Xhey had not only disjointed themselves but the whole nation j they had endeavoured to engage the army; they were playing the King of Scots' game \ and he thought himself bound before God to do what he could to prevent it. "I think it high time that an end be put to your sitting. And I do dissolve this parliament. And let God be judge between you and me." "Amen," said his adversaries, and Cromwell's last parliament vanished. His controversy with it was the same as with the former parliament. He held that, unless the puritans could agree to accept a constitution with checks on the power of a single elected house, they could not hope to rule the three kingdoms and absorb the indifferent or hostile masses. Xhe republicans held that such a constitution was unsound in principle, and that the petition and advice, not having been adopted in a full and free
1 2
1 2

Carlyle, Letters and Ibid., Speech xviii.

Speeches of Oliver

Cromwell,

Speech xvii.

1658

ROYALIST

PLOTS.

455

parliament, was null and void. As there was no way of recon- CHAP, ciling such a difference, Cromwell went back for the third time to the rule of the sword. Two days after the dissolution he addressed a meeting of the officers in defence of what he had done, and invited those who could not approve to speak their minds. Most of his hearers expressed their readiness to live and die with the protector \ but the officers of his own regiment of horse owned themselves unsatisfied, and, after conferring with him several times to no purpose, were cashiered. The army as a whole proved faithful j and Cromwell's prompt measures extinguished all the hopes of the royalists. Ormond, finding that he could do nothing, and that his presence in London was known, went back to Flanders. Soon afterwards papists and delinquents were required by proclamation to leave London and West minster. Cromwell always had good information of the royalist plots, and in April many of the conspirators were arrested. Seven of the leaders were sent before a high court of justice, five were condemned, and two, Sir Henry Slingsby and Dr. Hewit, a clergyman, were beheaded on Tower Hill. During the trials some foolish cavaliers planned a rising in the city for May 1 At the appointed hour they met at the Mermaid Tavern only to be surrounded and carried off by the train-bands. Three of the ringleaders were afterwards hanged. Disaffection and conspiracies at home did not abate the vigour of the protector's policy abroad. In March he concluded a new treaty with Mazarin, prolonging the French alliance for another year. Reynolds having been drowned when returning to England in the winter, the command of the troops in Flanders passed first to Morgan and afterwards to Lockhart, the ambassador. As the men had been reduced by hard service to one-half of their original number, they were strongly reinforced before joining Turenne s army in the middle of May. Turenne immediately laid siege to Dunkirk. The Spanish army commanded by Don John and Conde and swelled by the English and Irish regiments which Charles had raised and entrusted to the Duke of York, came to relieve the town. In the decisive battle of the Dunes, fought on June 4> Cromwell's soldiers distinguished themselves by their valour. Despite the efforts of their officers to hold them in, they charged
1

* Clarke Papers,

I39 14^*

45

SECOND PERIOD
a s t e e a s c e n t a n c

OF THE PROTECTORATE.

1658

Xl^

^ P * broke the Spanish infantry. They routed their royalist countrymen with such heavy loss that Charles could barely muster 1,000 men after the battle. Ten days later Dunkirk surrendered and was given up to the English. By the occupation of the best port in Flanders and the ruin of the force which Charles had collected, the protector was secured from any descent upon England under Spanish patronage. Lockhart became governor of Dunkirk, while the rest of the troops under Morgan followed Turenne in the field and gained new honours at the sieges of Bergues and Ypres. Spain could no longer resist the combined forces of France and England or save any part of the Netherlands unless by suing for peace. In Northern Europe the victories of Charles X. had forced the Danish king to implore the mediation of the protector and Louis XIV., and their envoys negotiated the peace of Roeskilde, which was signed on February 15. Cromwell still took every occasion to serve the protestant cause in Europe. He instituted a national subscription for the Polish protestants who, having welcomed Charles X., were persecuted more bitterly than ever when he had been driven out. He sought, with Mazarin's help, to hinder the election of Leopold as emperor and to carry the imperial crown out of the house of Hapsburg. He failed in that and in his endeavour to dissolve the alliance between Leopold and the Elector of Brandenburg. Nor could he reconcile the elector with Charles of Sweden. The protestant princes of Germany would not marshal themselves under that ambitious king, whom they distrusted and feared, in order to overthrow the house of Austria which could no longer do them injury. Instead of accepting the part of an unselfish protestant hero, Charles renewed the war against Denmark in the hope of subduing that kingdom altogether. The relations of the English with the Dutch grew more and more unfriendly. Knowing that France was far more dangerous than Spain, they saw with alarm the progress of the allies and gave Philip what secret help they could. In defence of their establishments in Brazil, they declared war against Portugal, thus indirectly assisting Spain, although they did not venture to refuse the mediation of France and England. Afraid of vexations to their com1

ClcLYhc Papers,

iii., I 3 5 * 5~^

1658

STRENGTH

OF THE

PROTECTORATE.

457
CHAP.

merce if one powerful king gained absolute control of the Sound and the Baltic, they favoured Denmark in its rivalry with Sweden. They still differed from the English regarding the right of search, and still clashed with the English in the oriental world. Cromwell, however, was slow to break with a protestant power and the Dutch shrank from another war with England. Notwithstanding his disappointments, Cromwell was more feared and courted than any other sovereign of his time. Even before the fall of Dunkirk, a magnificent French embassy, headed by the Duke of Crdqui, came to congratulate him on the success of the allied arms and to declare the respect and friendship with which Louis XIV. regarded the lord protector. Victory abroad seemed to insure his authority at home. Every plot had been crushed so easily that the most sagacious royalists despaired of effecting aught while Cromwell lived. Charles, who had gone into exile when yet a boy, was unknown to the public and awoke scarcely any interest. If the unflinching republicans, the levellers, the anabaptists, and the fifth monarchy men hated Cromwell worse than ever, their strength was dwindling and their enmity recommended his rule to quiet citizens. He had by degrees removed so many of the sternest enthusiasts from the army that the officers gave him no more trouble, and he could count on the obedience of the privates. In seeking to revive old political institutions he humoured the lawyers, the presbyterians, still the most numerous puritan sect, and all those who, with no very definite bias, liked a system that they could understand and a government strong enough to ensure tranquillity. As he believed that the republican opposition had lost ground, Cromwell intended to call a new parliament and obtain a grant for the prosecution of the war. A peace, which could not be far distant, would enable him to make large economies, to balance income with expenditure, and to redress the grievance most widely felt, the heavy burden of taxation. The permanence of Cromwell's work might seem ensured by a hopeful family. Three sons had died early, but Richard and Henry were in the full vigour of manhood. Richard had led a private life until his father resolved that he should be the next protector. He was then made colonel of a regiment of

45&
CHAP,

SECOND

PERIOD

OF THE PROTECTORATE.

1658

horse and a member of the council of state, and in 1657 succeeded Oliver as chancellor of the university of Oxford. Henry had fought in the Irish war, had been appointed major-general to the army in Ireland, and had become lord deputy in succession to Fleetwood. Both were married and had children. Of Cromwell s daughters the eldest, Bridget, was married, first to Ireton, and afterwards to Fleetwood 5 Elizabeth to John Claypole, a Northamptonshire squire who became a member of the protectoral house of lords; Mary to Thomas Bellasyse, Lord Fauconberg j and Frances to Robert Rich, grandson of the Earl of Warwick. Under the influence of her husband, who was a zealous baptist and a political malcontent, Lady Fleetwood became estranged from her father and shunned his house. Frances lost her young husband in February, 1657. A grief more acutely felt was the lingering and painful sickness of Lady Claypole, a graceful and charming woman, generally beloved and her father's favourite. In her last days he forgot all public business to watch by her bedside, and her death on August 6 , 1 6 5 8 , gave him a shock from which he never recovered. For a long time Cromwell's strength had been declining. The story that his nerves broke down under the constant peril of assassination, that he never slept twice in the same room, nor returned from a journey by the way he went, rests only on the evidence of enemies and is so improbable that it may be rejected. No conspirator against his life had ever come near success, nor can we suppose less firmness in Cromwell than is found in those sovereigns of the present day, who follow their business or their pleasure under the constant menace of a horrible death. But Cromwell had endured much hardship in the field and as a ruler had borne far more than the common load of toil and anxiety. The political fabric which he had reared could be upheld only by unremitting personal exertion. Although he prevailed over all his enemies, he bought success at the cost of life. After his daughter s death he fell into a tertian ague or intermittent fever which consumed his vital force. On August 20 George Fox, who met him entering Hampton Court Park at the head of his guards, " felt a waft of death go forth against him". That very day the ague returned more violently than before. When it abated, the physicians advised his removal to Whitehall, where he took to his bed. At first

DEATH

OF

CROMWELL.

459

he was hopeful of recovery in answer to the prayers offered on CHAP, his behalf, but as his strength sank, he resigned himself to death. " I would be willing," he said, " to live to be further serviceable to God and His people, but my work is done." During these last hours he bore himself with the devout courage of a puritan soldier. In answer to a question put by Thurloe as the end drew near, he named or seemed to name Richard his successor. On the afternoon of September 3, the anniversary of Dunbar and Worcester, the day which he had always kept as one of thanksgiving, Cromwell died. His body, after it had been embalmed and had lain in state, was privately interred in the chapel of Henry VII., but the ceremony was followed some time afterwards by a public funeral more magnificent than beseemed the stern and simple greatness of the man. At the present day it should be possible to judge Cromwell with equity. No reasonable person now believes that he was a conscious hypocrite or a downright self-seeker. None will now deny that religious conviction gave the original impulse to his whole career. To him as to so many other puritans the form which Charles and Laud strove to impress on the Church of England was thoroughly unedifying and unscriptural, a hindrance not a help to the Christian life, and a means of leading the people back into errors which they deemed pernicious. As they were not allowed to remain outside the Laudian system, they resolved on its destruction. At the same time they resented the steady encroachment of the crown on the liberties of the subject, and naturally took the side of a puritan house of commons against an Arminian king. When the king had been overthrown, Cromwell and his friends found that the majority of their own puritan brethren grudged them that spiritual freedom which they had done so much to conquer. They quelled the presbyterians also, but they could keep the fruits of their second victory only by remaining masters of the three kingdoms. The commonwealth rested on such a narrow basis that it was in constant danger, and yet its friends could not agree among themselves. ^Vhat was left of the long parliament could no longer pretend to represent any large part of the nation, yet would not agree to dissolution. In setting it
1
1

Charles Harvey,
Oliver

A Collection

of Several of his

Passages Sickness.

Concerning

his late

Highness

Cromwell,

in the Time

460

SECOND

PERIOD

OF THE PROTECTORATE.

165S

^ H A P . aside and grasping supreme power Cromwell might honestly believe that he was doing the greatest possible service to " the people of God, to puritan England, that he was averting anarchy and preparing a reconciliation of parties. So far as we can judge, he was not a man of miraculous foresight. Circumstances moulded his conduct, each step led to the next, and his saying that no man rises so high as he who knows not whither he is going was best exemplified in his own elevation. When Cromwell had expelled the parliament he was still guided by practical considerations. The army would not have bome, nor did he desire the establishment of an absolute monarchy. He was too English, too conservative not to deem parliaments a necessary part of any enduring political system. But he was not a republican on principle like Ludlow or Sidney, still less a democrat of the modern type. In the political debates of 1647 he had propounded " the general good of all the people of this kingdom" as the true aim of the lawgiver. " That's the question, what's for their good, not what pleases them." He was not, he avowed, " wedded and glued to forms of government". Moreover, he regarded " the interest of the people of God ' as the supreme object to which the interest of the greater part of the nation must in case of conflict give way. He first convened an assembly roughly representing "the people of God," the little parliament. When that proved unreasonable, he adopted the plan of a balance between a " single person and a parliament, only to find that the parliaments which he called would not overlook the irregular origin of his power or consent to treat him as a co-ordinate authority. Thus he was forced upon the alternative of governing by the sword or of resigning his office and exposing to the most imminent danger the spiritual freedom for which he and his brethren in arms had fought. He parted in anger from both his parliaments, but with the instinct of a statesman he saw that a military rule must be precarious, and would doubtless have renewed the attempt to harmonise the protectorate with English tradition and with popular feeling. Meantime he was in that dilemma which often embarrasses the successful leader of a revolution. He could not maintain his power save by methods even more arbitrary than those of the king whom he had resisted in the name of the law. He

1658

CHARACTER

OF CROMWELL.

461

needed a great army and therefore imposed heavy taxes without the shadow of parliamentary assent. He invested his major-generals with such power as put every Englishman s freedom at their discretion j he imposed severe restraints and penalties upon whole classes; he imprisoned great numbers of suspected persons without bringing them to trial. He sent rebels to the plantations by mere administrative order, and tried conspirators for their lives before extraordinary tribunals unknown to Coke or Selden. He continued that interference with the amusements of the people which began under the long parliament. A great part of the nation must always have regarded him as a tyrant. Yet those who judge him with due allowance for the standard of that age will not think Cromwell naturally cruel or vindictive. Even Clarendon expressly owns that he was not a man of blood. The conduct of his Irish campaign and the ensuing settlement of Ireland illustrate not so much his peculiar hardness of heart as the passions common to his whole party. In other cases he showed himself economical of life. He was slow to resolve on the trial and execution of the king. He refrained more than once from inquiry into the conduct of those whom he knew to be intriguing with Charles II. He repeatedly suffered the escape of inveterate enemies when they were in his power, and even sent Ormond an indirect hint to leave London. Like most great men of action he was a considerate master. We can only conjecture a statesman's motives; we can number and measure his acts. The unwilling praise of bitter foes like Clarendon is proof of Cromwell's greatness as a ruler. Although he failed in his enterprise of reconciling parties and basing a new order upon the general will, he upheld the puritan commonwealth while he lived and he saved England from a premature reaction which might have undone all that had been accomplished since the meeting of the long parliament. Although he failed to quell the national instinct of the Scots and of the Irish, he effected the first complete union of the three kingdoms. He gave a precedent of religious toleration, which, however imperfect, went far beyond anything yet known in England. He sought to effect improvements in the law which after his death were postponed for nearly two centuries. Without any pretension to learning, he respected it in others,

9*^?'

462
CHAP,

SECOND

PERIOD

OF THE PROTECTORATE,

1658

XIX.

defended the universities of Oxford and Cambridge against f tics of his own party, and founded a new college at Durham for the education of the northern youth. He showed his regard for letters by the favour which he extended to Hobbes, Cowley, and Cleveland, all of them political adversaries. His administration might be costly, but it was not wasteful, and under him all the public services were wound up to the highest pitch of strenuous performance. Whatever exception may be taken to some parts of his foreign policy on grounds of wisdom or of justice, it bore the stamp of large ideas and daring ambitions. He saw the full value of colonies and commerce to England, and he enlarged the foundations of her empire in the new world. He taught the continental powers to dread her enmity and court her alliance. By making a protestant commonwealth arbiter of Europe he raised all protestant states in their own opinion and in the opinion of mankind. The politicians of our day may wrangle as to where his statue should be placed \ for him as for all great statesmen his country is his monument.
ana

CHAPTER XX.
ANARCHY A N D REACTION. CHAP.

R I C H A R D C R O M W E L L succeeded his father without any disturbance and was at once proclaimed protector of the commonwealth of England, Scotland, and Ireland, and of the territories pertaining to them. Foreign states hastened to recognise his title, and addresses of congratulation poured in from all quarters. Richard was thirty-three years of age. His enemies could not deny that he was gentle and virtuous, nor his friends affirm that he possessed uncommon abilities. He lacked the vigour necessary to a ruler whose title was so recent. The fervent royalists, indeed, were too few to be dangerous. The various political and religious sects which had harassed Oliver, the pure republicans and the levellers, the fifth monarchy men and the anabaptists, were still hostile to the government, but they had lost influence, for the people was swaying towards old ideas in Church and State. The great majority, feeling that lassitude which ensues on a train of revolutions, were willing to obey any authority which could maintain peace. They felt however no positive loyalty towards the reigning house, nor any awe for the young protector. Active support Richard could expect only from that group of public men who, whether from interest or conviction, had attached themselves to his father's fortunes, such as Thurloe, Broghill, and Lockhart, and from the army. There Richard, when compared with his father, was at a disadvantage. As the greatest captain of the age, Oliver wielded a direct and irresistible control over officers and men. As a mere civilian, Richard could govern the army only through his generals. The most powerful among them were bound to him by family ties, for Fleetwood had married his sister, and Desborough his aunt, and under no other government could they reasonably expect

4^3

464

ANARCHY

AND REACTION.

1658

CHAP, to be so influential or so highly considered. Xhey might, not* withstanding, be tempted to sell their services at the highest possible rate and to make the civil ruler, if possible, their 1 nst rument. An army which feels itself the umpire of the state loses by degrees the civic spirit and learns to claim a privileged position. From Richard's accession onwards the officers resorted to London in great numbers and held weekly meetings at Fleetwood's residence, Wallingford House. Xhere too the chief officers, "the army grandees," met in select committee, sometimes resorting to Desborough s house for greater privacy. Xhe outcome of these debates was a petition that Fleetwood might be made commander-in-chief in the three kingdoms and be authorised to grant commissions to all but field officers and also that no officer might be admitted or cashiered otherwise than by court-martial. Xhus the army would become a self-governing corporation and its chief would stand almost on an equality with the chief of the commonwealth. At a meeting held on October 8, Fleetwood told the officers that he had imparted the petition to the protector who refused to abandon his control of the army. He therefore advised them to lay aside the matter for the present, and this was done. Nevertheless they went on to hold weekly meetings at St. James's " to seek God for a blessing on the affairs of the nation," and a very eminent spirit of prayer appeared among them,' an omen of rising political excitement and meditated revolution. In November they began to break out and to hint at some alterations in the army, as if good men were put out and worse were put in On the 19th, therefore, Richard summoned all the officers in London to attend him at Whitehall, and reminded them that both the civil and the military government were vested in him and that, as they had acknowledged ^ him protector, he had a claim on their loyal assistance.* His modest and persuasive tones affected his hearers and gained him another respite. He summoned a new parliament in order to obtain supplies and raise a barrier against the dictation of the army. Xhe elections were held, not according to the Instrument but on the old system, and the parliament met on January 27, 1659. Although the most distinguished opponents of the Cromwellian
XX c< 1c

Clciyke JPcipe/Sf iii.,

1659

THE PROTECTOR

RICHARD'S

PARLIAMENT

4 6 5
CHAP.

dynasty. Vane, Ludlow, Lambert, Cooper, Scot, and Hazlerigg, found seats in the new house of commons, the total number of republicans was small. After the protector had opened the session, Secretary Thurloe brought in a bill recognising his title, which the republicans tenaciously opposed. They threw doubt on the nomination of Richard by Oliver; they declared that his office could be conferred by parliament alone; they argued that the petition and advice, as the work of a mutilated house of commons, was invalid, and that it required amendment since it made the protector virtually absolute. The court party, however, prevailed, the house agreeing to recognise Richard's title, and in the same bill to provide for the rights and' liberties of the people. Then the position of the other house was keenly debated. The commons at last resolved to recognise it during the present parliament. They further resolved that they did not intend to exclude such peers as had been faithful to the parliament from the privilege of a summons. On the other hand, some arbitrary acts of the late protector were reversed, and several political prisoners regained their liberty. Defeated in parliament the republicans had recourse to the army. By so doing they forswore their own principles, since they appealed from a representative assembly to the power of the sword 5 but they were too angry for reflection on the consequences. The ferment among the troops had broken out again in February. The officers and soldiers generally were impatient for their arrears of pay, and loth to forego the privilege of interfering in State affairs. The chiefs feared lest they should be called to account for their actions as majorgenerals. Such of the army as were austere puritans took offence at Richard's careless temper. He had asked a malcontent, rumour ran, whether he was to prefer none but the godly, subjoining " Here is Dick Ingoldsby, who can neither pray nor preach, and yet I will trust him before ye a l l L a s t l y , there were in the inferior ranks many republicans who had held their peace under Oliver but were open to solicitation under Richard. The republican statesmen might therefore hope to make the army their lever in overturning the protector, and Ludlow,
1

Ludlow, Memoirs, ii., V O L . VII.

1

48-61; Commons

jfouyH&ls, vii.,

593*^44"

30

466

ANARCHY

AND REACTION.

1659

CHAP* Vane, and Hazlerigg opened a correspondence with the generals at Wallingford House. On April 5 some officers assembled there. After a fiery harangue against the sons of Belial, Desborough proposed to cashier all who would not swear that they held Charles Stuart to have been lawfully and justly executed. Broghill resisted, arguing that if any oath were required, it should be one of fidelity to the established government. Finally the meeting agreed on a humble representation and petition, which was laid before Richard and by him forwarded to the speaker. After leaving it unnoticed for several days, the commons resolved that there should be no more general meetings of officers without the leave of the protector and of both houses, and that none should be allowed to retain a command who would not subscribe a promise to respect the freedom of parliament. Richard, on April 19, went to Wallingford House and declared the council of officers dissolved. Thus the crisis had come when the army must either submit to the parliament or turn it out of doors. Richard was advised to arrest Fleetwood, Lambert, and Desborough, but forbore. Fleetwood ordered all the regiments in London to rendezvous at St. James's, and few soldiers obeyed the protector's countersummons to rendezvous at Whitehall. Next morning Desborough went to Richard and declared that, if he would dissolve his parliament, the officers would take care of him \ but that, if he refused, they would act on their own authority and leave him to shift for himself. After a hard struggle Richard gave way. A commission to dissolve the parliament was drawn up that night and delivered to Fleetwood and Desborough. When the commons met the next morning they rather suspected than knew what had passed, but when black rod came to summon them to the house of lords they sought to avoid the ignominy by adjourning to the day after. A proclamation made known that the parliament was dissolved, the doors were locked, and a guard was set in the court of requests to turn back obstinate members. The army was once more supreme, but the officers would not venture to raise taxes by their own authority, and there1

Clarhe

Papers,

p. 677.

iii., *9*~93J Ludlow,

Memoirs,

ii., 63"7*> "Whitelocke,

1659

RESTORATION

OF THE LONG PARLIAMENT.

4 7
6

fore deemed it necessary to restore a form of civil government, C H A P . The republicans proposed to recall the long parliament, but the military chiefs were unwilling to depose Richard. In conference with the republican leaders at Vane s house, they demanded an indemnity for themselves, a confirmation of Richard as protector, with a suitable maintenance, government by a representative assembly and a select senate, and the oftpromised reformation of the law and the ministry. Although the republicans would not agree to continue the protectorate in any form, the officers consented to restore the rump. A. deputation waited on old Speaker Lenthall, and declared the wish of the army that the parliament should return to the discharge of its duty. Lenthall hesitated, for he was one of Cromwell's lords; yet on May 7, amid the congratulations of the officers, he led the way into the house of commons, attended by forty-two members of the long parliament. The commons appointed a committee of public safety, and announced their resolution to maintain a commonwealth without a single person or a house of lords. Richard lingered a few days at Whitehall, but soon retired to Hampton Court and thence into obscurity, unbroken until his death in 1712. His tame withdrawal banished the fear of civil war. In Scotland, Monk, who might have supported him in resistance, acknowledged the new rulers. In Ireland, Henry Cromwell, who was suspected of meditating an appeal to arms, wrote on June 15 to Lenthall declaring his submission, and a few days afterwards sailed for England. Lockhart and the troops in Flanders followed the example thus set. Louis XIV. and Mazarin, who had proffered their help to Richard, soon recognised the new government, and the other sovereigns of Europe did likewise. So easy and inglorious was the fall of the house of Cromwell. The restored parliament consisted of about 120 members, but it was rarely that half of this number took part in a division. The excluded members, still upwards of 200, sought to return, and addressed to the speaker a protest which was left unheeded. It is singular that the most formal republican could have regarded a body so small and so much out of date as a truer representation than the parliament which the army had expelled, yet such men as Vane and Ludlow had no misgiving
x x 1
1

Ludlow, Memoiys, ii., 73~^3

0

468
CHAP,
1

ANARCHY

AND REACTION

1659

'

about itsrightto speak on behalf of the people. Having voted that it would dissolve on May 7 1660, a year after its restoration to power, it began to consider the details of a new form of government. Some time was spent in renewing the administration and providing for current expenses. Little change was made in the conduct of affairs at home, but abroad the policy of Cromwell was abandoned. Before Cromwell's death the Dutch, fearing the ambition of Charles X., had sent a fleet to assist the Danes. Richard and his council sent Montagu with a fleet to observe the course of events and support Meadowe, the English envoy, in mediating between Danes and Swedes. The parliament sent x^lgernon Sidney and two others to succeed Meadowe and instructed them to use their influence on behalf of Denmark, not as Cromwell would have desired, on behalf of Sweden. In so doing it sought amongst other things a good understanding with Holland. N egotiations for a peace having begun between France and Spain, it was anxious that England should be included, and therefore accredited Lockhart once more as ambassador to Louis XIV. Lockhart went to St. Jean de Luz, where Mazarin was conferring with Don Luis de Haro, and was well received, although he did not accomplish his purpose. The parliament had a double reason for this pacific temper. When Europe should be at rest it could remit taxes and it could disband a great part of the army. No sooner had the army restored the parliament than the old schism between the two powers broke out afresh. In May eighteen of the principal officers carried up to the house a petition asking, among other things, for a select senate co-ordinate with the commons, a council of state, and a provision for Richard. The house agreed to name a council, referred the provision for Richard to a committee, and ignored the request for a senate. In June it gave Fleetwood command over all the forces in England and Scotland, but withheld the plenary power of choosing officers. Lambert, Desborough, Berry, Ludlow, Hazlerigg, and Vane were joined with him to nominate persons for the approval of parliament. Every commission was to be signed by the speaker, who was tc present it with his own hands. These regulations caused much discontent, for with the change of government every officer had to take out his commission afresh, and if his loyalty were doubtful was

1659

A ROYALIST

INSURRECTION.
1

469
CHAP,

removed, without even the form of a hearing. The army, finding that the house meant to keep it in subjection, might have revolted at once but for a common danger. The overthrow of the house of Cromwell had redounded greatly to the advantage of the house of Stuart. The public, finding no term to revolution and disliking military rule, began to regret that old order which alone seemed to promise stability. Charles and Hyde sought to gain the most eminent of Richard's partisans and in many cases were successful. They expected that IVEonk would bring the army from Scotland and Montagu the fleet from the Sound to support the restoration. A simultaneous rising in many parts of the kingdom was planned, and Charles himself, with Ormond and a few others, went secretly from Brussels to Calais that he might be ready to cross at the right moment. But the parliament had inherited Cromwell's excellent system of intelligence with the able and zealous official who worked it, and Secretary Thurloe was well informed of the motions of the conspirators. The fear of the army still lay heavy on the malcontents. "When August 1, the day fixed for the general insurrection, came, the outbreaks were rare and, with one exception, trivial. John Mordaunt and a few friends tried a rising in Surrey. Gloucester was to have been surprised by its old defender Massey along with Lord Herbert and other royalist and presbyterian leaders, but they were quietly arrested the day before. In Cheshire, Sir George Booth and the Earl of Derby raised their standard at Warrington, gathered some 5,000 men, and seized the city of Chester. They dared not breathe the name of Charles, only declaring their wish to ensure a free parliament and a government according to law, and when some eager royalists proclaimed the king, many of the insurgents went home. The commotion, however, spread into Flint on the one side and Lancashire on the other, and caused grave alarm at Westminster. Lambert was despatched against Booth with three regiments of foot, three of horse, and one of dragoons, and reinforcements were summoned from Ireland and Flanders. On August 19 Lambert attacked the rebels at Winnington Bridge near Warrington and dispersed them with little loss. Booth and several otherringleaderswere taken either then or a few days later and lodged in the Tower, but lenity was shown
1

Ludlow, Memoirs^ ii., Sj-gi.

47

ANARCHY

AND

REACTION

CHAP,
x x

and no blood was spilt. Monk and some of his friends had framed a remonstrance to parliament, which they were careful to destroy on hearing of these events, and Montagu, who had suddenly returned with his whole fleet, as he said to get pro~ visions, found no party to support. The general insurrection failed as pitifully as all other attempts had failed since the battle of Worcester. Success banished the fear which for a little while had reconciled the parliament with the army. Lambert was indignant that the house would not reward his service with the rank of major-general. His officers, assembling at Derby, named a committee which drew up a petition to parliament. It demanded that the petition tendered in May should be taken into consideration, that Fleetwood should be appointed permanent commander-in-chief, that Lambert should be made a general officer and be given the second place, and that Desborough and Monk should rank next after them. A copy having first been sent to Fleetwood, the matter came to the knowledge of the house, which called for the original, and in high displeasure resolved that to have any more general officers was needless, chargeable, and dangerous to the commonwealth. Fleetwood was ordered to inform the petitioners of this resolution and to reprimand them for their indiscipline. Enraged at the rebuff the officers began afresh their meetings at Wallingford House. On October 5 they sent up a petition protesting their fidelity to the commonwealth, but asking that the command in chief might be settled and .that no officer or soldier should be cashiered} save after a due proceeding at courtmartial. While considering the petition in no friendly spirit, the house learnt that the officers had been circulating it throughout the country and pressing their comrades to obtain subscriptions. As Monk had sent unreserved assurances of his loyalty, the members thought that they might safely mark their indignation. They passed a bill annulling all acts of the single person and his council save in so far as confirmed by parliament, and declaring it treason to levy any tax without their consent. They annulled the commissions of Lambert and several other officers who were parties to the letter inviting sig1
1

Ludlow,

Memoirs,

ii., 107-114;

Clarke

Papers,

iv., 34-48; Clarendon, xvi.,

22-40*

1659

THE LONG PARLIAMENT

AGAIN

EXPELLED.

471
CHAP,

natures, and they vested the supreme command in a committee of seven, whereof Fleetwood was but one. On October 12 Lambert called a meeting of officers who promised their help. On the next morning he invested the parliament house with his troops and denied all access to members. Little more than five months after its restoration the long parliament was expelled a second time by the army. The officers appointed Fleetwood commander-in-chief, Lambert major-general, and Desborough general of horse, and resolved that they, with three others, should have the power of nominating to commissions. What political order to establish was a more embarrassing question. The army tried to negotiate iwith tthe leaders of the rump, and, failing them, with the council of state which continued to sit for a fortnight after the parliament had been driven out. One or two sincere republicans, such as Vane and Ludlow, while condemning all that had been done, were willing to act with the army sooner than risk a restoration of the Stuarts, and a few temporising politicians, such as Whitelocke, were prepared to comply with irresistible power. Finally the officers named a committee of safety, consisting of twenty-three persons, mostly military, although Whitelocke was president and Ludlow and Vane were members. This body named a sub-committee to prepare the draft of a new constitution, for it was recognised that government by the sword could not be lasting. England remained quiet, and the army in Ireland made little demur to accepting the latest revolution, but the army in Scotland proved less tractable.^ Always doing his professional duty while seeming to ignore politics, Monk had successively served the king, the parliament, the protector Oliver, the protector Richard, and the restored parliament. Wfiatever he might feel, he had not interfered to save Richard or to aid the recent insurrection. Impelled perhaps by conscience, more probably by ambition, he at length abandoned this passive behaviour and stood forth as the champion of the liberty and authority of parliament. He wrote to the speaker protesting his loyalty and to Fleetwood and Lambert rebuking their lawless violence. When the officers at Wallingford House sent Colonel Cobbett to satisfy the
1 1 1
1

Clarke Papers^

Ludlow,

Memoirs,

iv., 60-63 , Whitelocke, pp. 684-85' ii., 131-49; Whitelocke, pp. 685, 686.

47
C

ANARCHY
n

AND REACTION.

1659

XX "
P

arm

> ' * Scotland that the expulsion of the rump was just and necessary, Monk had him arrested at Berwick and thrown into prison. The committee of safety sent Monk's brotherin-law, Dr. Clarges, and Colonel Talbot to treat, and various officers and clergymen lent their aid to effect an understanding. Even then Monk's opponents imputed to him the design of restoring Charles, and in after years he was glad to have this believed 5 but it is unlikely that he saw so far into the future or aimed at more than the power and popularity to be gained by asserting the supremacy of the law against the passions of the camp. He began to purge his army of those officers whom he could not trust and to draw his scattered forces together. As the weaker party he was obliged to temporise, and named three commissioners for a treaty. He could not risk calling the Scots to arms, but in order to secure the country in his absence and obtain what help he might, he summoned commissioners from the shires and burghs to meet him at Edinburgh on November 15. After telling them that he had a call from God and His people to march into England and assert the liberty of parliament, he empowered them to suppress all tumults and unlawful assemblies and required them not to correspond with Charles Stuart, engaging at the same time that he would do his best to procure an abatement of their burdens. They returned a cordial answer, for in any event the Scots were likely to be gainers. The officers in England distrusted Monk, and while they consented to negotiate they agreed that Lambert should march northwards with all the troops available. Lambert met Monk's commissioners at York and declared that he had powers to treat with them. As they insisted upon the restoration of the parliament, he acknowledged that his powers did not extend so far and sent them on to London, where a treaty was concluded on November 15. It provided amongst other things that a parliament should be summoned as soon as possible, and that meantime the forces on either side should be drawn back. When Monk was informed of the treaty he declared it insufficient, and proposed to increase his commissioners to five, who should begin a new negotiation with a like number from
1

Clarke Papers, iv, 64*1x8.

1659

MONK

AND

LAMBERT.

473
c p

the army in England. The proposal was accepted, and New- ^ * castle was chosen for the place of meeting. Instead of falling back, however, the troops on either side advanced, and Lambert and Monk fixed their headquarters at Newcastle and Berwick respectively. Monk, who could dispose of 6 ooo foot and 1,500 horse and dragoons, was weaker than Lambert, who had thrice as many horse and dragoons, although no more than 3,000 foot. Monk had no available reserve, whereas Lambert could draw upon a great force of regular troops and militia. In other respects Monk had the advantage. He could trust his men, while Lambert's troops were lukewarm and divided in opinion. He could meet his expenses, as the Scots had agreed to prepay the assessment, but Lambert, for want of money, was obliged to levy taxes by his own authority or to let his soldiers live at free quarter, thus causing general disaffection. Monk knew by the report of friends in England that time was working in his favour and he was therefore content to spin out the negotiation. It was barren, for he could demand no less than the recall of the parliament, which his adversaries could never willingly allow. Clearsighted friends advised Lambert to break off the treaty and take the offensive, but he seems to have been benumbed by those scruples which so often haunt the soldier who has set himself above the law. Meantime the committee appointed to draft a constitution agreed that there should be a new parliament of a single house. The constitution, when finished, was ratified by an assembly representing the army and navy, and a proclamation ordered that the parliament should meet in February. But already the power of the committee of public safety was undermined. The nation had long been weary of its masters, and the army was disunited. That sacred fire of enthusiasm which had conquered three kingdoms was burning low. The soldier had no great idea, no intelligible cause for which to fight, nor any leader whose personal ascendency could supply that want. Fleetwood was a weak enthusiast, Lambert an unscrupulous politician. Many officers who, like Ludlow, were staunch republicans, blamed the expulsion of the rump, others who were attached to the house of Cromwell had not forgiven its dethronement. Colonel Whetham, the governor of Portsmouth, undertook to receive Hazlerigg, Morley, and Walton, whom the parliament
y

474 CHAP,
x x

ANARCHY

AND

REACTION.

had named commissioners for the army. When they joined him on December 3 he pronounced for the restoration of the parliament. The troops sent to besiege Portsmouth passed over to his side. Admiral Lawson and thefleetin the Downs declared for the parliament, and the army in Ireland took the same side. The city of London showed such a temper that a rising against the soldiers might take place at any moment. Whitelocke advised Fleetwood either to make common cause with the city and declare for a free parliament, or to gain Charles Stuart by offering to effect his restoration upon terms. "While Fleetwood was lost in irresolution, certain members of the old council of state met at Lenthall's, ordered a rendezvous of the regiments in London, and bade the general surrender the keys of the parliament house. On Monday, December 26, the long parliament, a second time restored, met at Westminster. Two days before Monk had broken off the negotiation with Lambert. He had concerted with Fairfax a rising of the northern gentry to take Lambert in the rear, and the news which reached him from the south of England gave every ground to hope that an invasion would be successful. On January 2, 1660, he crossed the Tweed at Coldstream. When tidings of the restoration of the parliament was brought to Newcastle, Lambert's officers lost courage, his soldiers dispersed, and in a little while he was reduced to some fifty followers. At York Monk received the orders of the council of state to come on to London, enrolled some of Lambert's men in his army, and sent some of his own troops back to Scotland. On the 16th he set out from York through a country deep in snow. Near Leicester he was met by Scot and Robinson, the commissioners of the parliament, who came ostensibly to render thanks and congratulations, really to observe his actions and divine his plans. He received them with profound respect, but he did not disclose his intentions. All along his line of march he received addresses calling for the reinstatement of the secluded members and the ejection of a full and free parliament, and to all he returned brief and evasive answers, for he was still uncertain how to act and would not commit himself until he had felt the pulse of the nation. When he reached St. Albans he invited the parliament to ensure the p e a c e of London by sending away
1
1

W h i t e l o c k e , pp. 690-92; Clarke Papers, iv., 219-21.

i66o

MONK

AND THE

PARLIAMENT

475
c p

all but two of the regiments then in garrison. It complied, and ^ on February 3 Monk and his troops marched into the capital. The parliament had not really desired the presence of the soldier to whom it owed its restoration. It was even weaker than before the last expulsion, for members who, like Vane and Whitelocke, had condoned that act of violence, no longer dared to take their seats, and the house never mustered more than fifty-three on a division. Its first act was to appoint a new council of state consisting of twenty-one of its members with ten others. Monk, Lawson, and Morley were among the councillors, but most of the body were civilians. In the council and in the house Hazlerigg and Scot had the largest share of influence. Many officers were cashiered for the part which they had taken in the recent usurpation. Lambert, who had surrendered, was ordered to reside at a distance from London. Members of the council of state were required to abjure the house of Stuart and government by a single person. The house resolved to fill up its numbers to 400, and then proceeded to settle the qualifications. Monk was rewarded with an estate of ifiOO a year. He was solemnly received by the commons and was thanked by the speaker. In his reply, while he forbore any words which might seem to adopt the wishes so often expressed to him during his march from Scotland, he dwelt on that earnest desire for a settlement which he had observed in the nation, and hinted that the fewer the oaths and engagements required the sooner such a settlement would be attained. The house was not altogether pleased with his evident anxiety to wait on public opinion. Outside the house men called more and more loudly for the re-admission of the secluded members. It was especially desired by the presbyterians, who would thus regain their supremacy. But the rump, which would lose power and the means of defending all those principles, political and ecclesiastical, which it most valued, would not hear of re-admitting the secluded members, and persevered with the alternative plan of filling up vacant seats. The city of London, the stronghold of the presbyterians, was well-nigh in a state of rebellion, and the common council resolved that the citizens were not bound to pay taxes until their representatives were restored to the house.
* Whitelocke, p. 695*

47
CHAP.

ANARCHY

AND

REACTION.

1660

The council of state ordered Monk to chastise the city by removing the posts and chains in the streets, by unhinging the gates and wedging the portcullises, and by arresting the citizens who had been foremost to encourage resistance. He marched into the city and executed these orders, while the house resolved on the dissolution of the common council and the election of a new one by its own adherents. Monk returned to Whitehall with the conviction that he had done enough to gratify the oligarchs and that public opinion summoned him to adopt a new policy. On the 1 ith he marched into the city once more, invited himself to dine with the lord mayor, harangued the common council, excused what he had done under constraint, and announced that he had written to the parliament requiring it to fill up vacancies and to dissolve by May 6 at the latest. Then the passions so long repressed by fear broke out in a frenzy of delight; the soldiers were feasted by the people, the bells of all the churches were rung, the streets were all aglow with bonfires, and at every bonfire a rump was roasted in mockery of the parliament. Yet Monk had not fully complied with the desires of the citizens. Not until a conference at his quarters between the chiefs of the hostile parties had proved fruitless did he yield to the rising demand for the restoration of the secluded members to their seats. He invited them to meet at ^Whitehall on the 21st, and sent them back under a guard to the parliament house. Thus the independents, who had ruled England for upwards of eleven years and had done so many great and so many questionable things, fell from power and became once more a weak and unpopular sect which might deem itself happy if it could escape proscription. The presbyterian majority treated as null and void all that had been done in parliament since December, 1648. It named a new council of state, reconciled itself with the city, which advanced 60,000 to meet current expenses, and released a number of political prisoners. It did not, however, show a vindictive temper. Lambert was summoned before the council, and on failing to give security in an enormous sum for his good behaviour, was committed to the Tower, but no other person suffered punishment, and the leaders of the rump were allowed to keep their seats. New honours
1
1

Pepys, Diary,

February 11, 1660.

1660

DISSOLUTION

OF THE LONG PARLIAMENT

477
CHAP,

and rewards were heaped upon Monk, who was made commander-in-chief of all the forces in England, Scotland, and Ireland. None yet muttered a word about restoring Charles, and Monk himself declared loudly and repeatedly for a commonwealth. On one point, indeed, the house had learnt nothing and forgotten nothing. Still bent on a rigidly presbyterian settlement of the Church, it adopted the Westminster confession and ordered the Solemn League and Covenant to be set up in every parish church and to be read once a year. It fixed April 25 for the meeting of a new parliament and named a committee to settle the qualifications. Royalists who had borne arms against the parliament were allowed to vote at elections, although they might not be chosen unless they had redeemed their fault by giving some proof of their good affections. Members were no longer obliged to promise that they would be faithful to the commonwealth as established without king or lords. The parliament passed an act disbanding the militia and providing for its re-organisation by persons who could be trusted. Finally it dissolved itself on March 16 after an existence of nearly twenty years. It had long outlived its usefulness, but the result of its labours is still felt by England and by all the states which have copied English institutions. The presbyterians, who were again in the ascendant, had always been adherents of monarchy, and the Solemn League and Covenant provided for the defence of the king s person and authority. Those who had no definite political opinions were tired of frequent revolutions, heavy taxes, insecurity, and the rule of the sword. The royalists were full of hope and bestirred themselves to gain a majority in the new parliament, while the republicans were powerless, for they had no recognised leader, and their friends in the army had been displaced to make room for officers whom Monk could trust. In despair some thought even of restoring Richard or of investing Monk himself with supreme authority, but such schemes were visionary. Monk began to think that the restoration of Charles II. was inevitable, and that he would do well to gain the merit of effecting that which would otherwise be accomplished without his help. Sending privately for Sir John Grenville, a son of that Sir Bevil who fell at Lansdown, a kinsman of his own and

47&*

ANARCHY

AND

REACTION.

1660

CHAP, high in the confidence of Charles, he entrusted him with a ^ * verbal message for the king. It recommended Charles to open the way for his own return by promising an entire oblivion of all past offences, a confirmation of sales of land effected under the commonwealth, and a general toleration. It also advised that Charles should quit the Spanish dominions at once and go to Breda where he might await the event in security. Charles took this advice and removed with his little court to Breda. He was not prepared to grant Monk's requests in their full extent \ but since all that he learnt from England led him to believe that the new parliament would be passionately loyal, he could safely refer to its decision the matters at issue. By his famous declaration from Breda he promised an indemnity to all offenders not excepted from pardon by parliament, his consent to an act for the liberty of tender consciences, the determination by parliament of the validity of all sales of land made during the revolution, and the satisfaction in full of arrears due to the soldiers. Letters in harmony with the declaration were addressed to Monk as general \ to Monk and Montagu as admirals * to the speakers of both houses in the coming , parliament, and to the mayor and common council of London. Grenville carried these documents to Monk, who was satisfied with their tenor, and thenceforward directed all his measures to a restoration, but still maintained profound secrecy, although the city of London had sent a formal address to the council of state asking that the king should be invited to return on conditions substantially the same as those which he had suggested to Charles. Before the parliament met a last effort was made to shake Monk's control of the army. Its old leaders were either in prison or on parole to remairf quiet, but they had not lost all their influence. The officers who had been cashiered were ready for desperate courses, and many of the rank andfilewere enraged to think that the commonwealth and with it their own supremacy in the state were drawing to a close. Lambert escaped from the Tower on April 9, made for Buckinghamshire, and sent emissaries in all directions to rally his old companions in arms. Some days were lost before Monk knew where he was hiding, and despatched Colonel Ingoldsby in pursuit. Lam1

^ Clarendonj xvi.,

TG^-JO*

i66o

THE CONVENTION

PARLIAMENT.

479 CHAP,

bert had been joined by several officers of note, but he had only been able to rally a few troops of horse and one company of foot when Ingoldsby with a superior force overtook him near Da vent ry. A parley ensued. Lambert's men who had lost heart and hope surrendered orfled,and Lambert himself was made prisoner by Ingoldsby, who brought him back to London and lodged him once more in the Tower. An engagement to accept whatever the parliament should resolve as to the future government of the country was tendered to all the troops. The staunchest republicans laid down their arms and went home sooner than subscribe, and the army, whatever discontent might linger in the ranks, gave no further trouble. On the 25th the new parliament, better known because of its irregular origin as the convention, met. It was thoroughly royalist and perhaps half presbyterian. Nothing had yet been determined as to the house of lords, save that the act for calling the parliament recognised the right of those peers who had engaged on the parliamentary side to sit as formerly. Public feeling, however, ran so strongly in favour of a return to the old constitution that ten peers met in their house and chose Manchester to be their speaker, and thenceforwards the lords resumed all their powers. After transacting some necessary business, both houses adjourned to May 1. Monk still maintained the strictest reserve. When Grenville, to all seeming without his cognisance, presented the letter from Charles to the council of state, they decided that they might not read it save by permission of parliament. As soon as the houses reassembled, therefore, Grenville tendered to the lords the letter addressed to them, which they received with the utmost deference. Then the commons, hearing that a messenger from the king was at their door, called Grenville in. He delivered the letter to the speaker j it was read, and the house with one voice resolved to return their humble thanks and professions of loyalty and duty to his majesty. Both houses agreed in a declaration that according to the ancient and fundamental laws of the kingdom the government is and ought to be by king, lords, and commons. Order was given by the lords to pull down the arms of the commonwealth wherever they were found and to put up the king's arms in their stead. The report of these proceedings
1

* Ludlow, Memoirs, ii.,

257-60.

480
C

ANARCHY

AND

REACTION

1660

^ A P . called "forth a general rejoicing in London and throughout the kingdom. By Montagu's order the king's letter and declaration were read to the fleet and, although many of the captains and seamen were republicans at heart, their scruples were drowned in the universal shout of loyalty. On May 8 Charles was proclaimed in London with the ancient ceremonial King of England, France, Scotland, and Ireland. The crisis was over, and what further delay occurred was due to the preparations for the king's return. At Breda Charles was overwhelmed with applications from persons offering to do him service and seeking for his favour, among them some even of the regicides. Foreign governments, so long cold and disdainful, began to court his friendship. The Spaniards invited him to Brussels 1 the French begged that he would visit Paris or at least embark at Calais \ the States General sent a solemn deputation to congratulate him on arriving in their territory, and the States of Holland requested that he would come to the Hague, an invitation with which he readily complied. A few days afterwards the fleet commanded by Montagu cast anchor off Scheveningen and welcomed the Duke of York as lora high admiral. On the 16th Charles received in solemn audience the six peers and the twelve commoners whom the parliament had sent to solicit his return. The spokesman of the commons was that Denzil Holies who had been impeached once by Charles I. and once by the army, and had survived the power of both. With the deputies of the parliament came a deputation from the city of London and another deputation of presbyterian ministers, who fancied that it was still possible to make terms with a king sure of his throne. Charles welcomed them all with the grace and good nature which were his only virtues, but kept himself free from engagements which were needless and might prove embarrassing. On the afternoon of the 23rd Charles embarked on the fleet and performed almost his earliest act of regal power by rechristening the ships which still displayed the names of the heroes and victories of the parliament and commonwealth. He bestowed his own name on Montagu's flagship, the Naseby, which bore him to England. The slow and unruffled passage he beguiled with telling all who might approach his person the
1
1

-^ py * Diary, May
e s

3-41 X66Q.

i66o

THE

RESTORATION.
1

481

story of his adventures after the battle of ^Vo^cester. Not CHAP, until the second morning did he land at Dover, where a vast concourse lined the shore and Monk was waiting to receive him. At Canterbury he paused for two days, assembled his council, and conferred the garter on Monk and Montagu. His next stage was Rochester, whence he set out on his birthday, the 29th, to make the solemn entry into his capital. The whole distance of twenty-five miles was lined by multitudes who had wrought one another up to an ecstasy of clamorous and unreasoning joy. On Blackheath the army of the commonwealth was mustered for the last time to swell the triumph of the house of Stuart. At two o'clock Charles entered London. The ways were strewn with flowers, the houses were hung with tapestry, the windows and balconies were crowded with spectators in their richest attire, the bells pealed, the conduits ran with wine, and so slow was the march that the brilliant procession took seven hours to reach Whitehall. In that immense apartment through which his father had passed to the block the lords and commons were ranged to welcome Charles. Wlien he had acknowledged their loyal addresses he was allowed to repose, if after such a day sleep were possible. By one of those strange ironies which abound in human affairs, it was reserved for an amiable, faithless man of the world, a Roman catholic in his creed, a voluptuary in his practice, to close the tale of the puritan revolution. The consequences of that revolution were, notwithstanding, permanent. It arrested the growth of absolute monarchy in England. The personal government of the Tudors had been merely one example of a tendency at work all over Europe. Everywhere on the continent the ill-defined liberty of the middle ages had been receding before the power of the prince with his soldiers and his officials. In England, where free institutions were more coherent than in other countries and where there existed no regular army, this process was not complete when James ascended the throne, but it had gone far. Such was the power of the crown and such the awe which it inspired that only religious enthusiasm could nerve the subject to inflexible resistance. Puritan zeal turned the scale in the conflict between
2
1 3

Pepys, Diary, May 23, 1660. Evelyn, Diary, May 29, 166c

VOL.

VII,

4o2 CHAP,

ANARCHY

AND

REACTION

1660

divine right and the authority of parliament The commonwealth passed away and the Stuarts returned but they could not revive the star chamber or the council of the north, the use of torture in political cases, the claim to levy taxes or to imprison by prerogative, or the custom of legislating by proclamation. They could not induce parliament to confine itself within those limits which Elizabeth had maintained. They could not protect ministers who had incurred the hatred of the house of commons. When they sought to undo the results of the civil war and the interregnum, they only effected their own banishment and a further restriction of monarchy. The puritan revolution also prepared the ground for the establishment of freedom of conscience. During the middle ages the catholic Church had enforced conformity to one standard of belief, and had called on the state to help where its own means were insufficient. The Reformation asserted spiritual liberty rather for nations than for individuals. Each sovereign arrogated to himself the power lost by Rome and imposed his own creed upon his subjects. In the seventeenth century most men, puritan or anti-puritan, still approved of persecution and tried to use the civil government foi the suppression of heresy. Chillingworth, Falkland, and Selden on the one side, Vane, Milton, and Roger Williams on the other, stood almost alone in preaching toleration and would not have agreed with each other in applying their common principle. Nevertheless, the puritans by their stubborn assertion of their own freedom did good of which they were unaware. The long parliament by abolishing the court of high commission and restraining the powers of the other ecclesiastical courts shattered the machinery of intolerance. As private judgment in religion leads to difference of belief, the victorious puritans could never organise an effective tyranny in place of that which they overthrew, and the weaker sects were led irresistibly to proclaim the right of spiritual freedom. First among English sovereigns Cromwell allowed different forms of public worship. Thenceforwards the best minds accepted the principle of toleration, at least for all forms of protestantism, which was embodied in the famous statute of William III.

APPENDIX.
ON AUTHORITIES. Original State Papers,Their bulk is much greater in the seven- APP. teenth century than in the sixteenth. The Domestic State Papers have been calendared for the whole of this period j four volumes of calendars for fames I., twenty-two volumes for Charles P., thirteen
volumes for the Commonwealth. The calendars of Treasury Papers

are complete, and a new calendar of Treasury Books is in progress.

The Calendar of the Proceedings of the Committee for Compounding, and the Calendar of the Proceedings of the Committee for the Advance of JHoney, 1642-56, are also important. The State Papers Relating

to Ireland have been calendared from 1603 to 1660.

The Colonial

State Papers for America and the West Indies have been calendared for the whole period; the Papers Relating to the East Indies, etc., as far as 1634. The State Papers Relating to Foreign Affairs are not

yet calendared. Much is to be gathered from the Calendars of Papers in the Venetian Archives relating to English affairs down to 161 3J which we owe to Mr. H . F. Brown. As ministers in the seventeenth century on resigning office frequently carried away their official papers, a large proportion of the national archives became private property. Many of these documents are now to be found in the great MS. collections in the British Museum, the Cottonian, the Shane, the
Harleian, the Lansdowne, and the Stowe Collections and among the

Additional MSS. so-called. The residue still remain as a rule in private hands. Their nature and value are set forth in the numerous
Reports of the Historical HISS. Commission. Printed Collections of Original Papers.Among the more important are the Winwood Memorials (three volumes, 1725); the Sidney

Papers, edited by A. Collins (two volumes, 1746) \ the Sidney Papers,

edited by R. W. Blencowe, 1825 ; the Strafford Letters and Despatches, edited by W. Knowler (two volumes, 1739); the Ormond Papers, edited by T. Carte (two volumes, 1739); the Clarendon State Papers (three volumes, 1767-86) \ the Portescue Papers, edited by S. R. Gardiner for 483 3^

484

ON A

UTHORITIES.

APP.

the Camden Society; the Nicholas Correspondence (four volumes, 1886), edited by G. F. Warner for the Camden Society; and, most valuable of all, the Thurloe Papers, edited by T Birch, (seven volumes, 1742) a main source of our knowledge of the commonwealth and protectorate. The most recent of these collections is the Clarke Papers, edited by C. H . Firth for the Royal Historical Society (four volumes, 1891-19^^)* and relating chiefly to the army and its political action during the civil wars and under the commonwealth. Parliament and Parliamentary Proceedings.The chief original
authorities are t e Journals of the House of Lords and the Journals of h*

tlie House of Commons, which become much fuller in this period. These show the whole course of the business transacted, although giving scanty notices, where they give any, of what individuals said. They also contain, especially the Lords Journals, many important letters and papers. Although the rule of secrecy was enforced during most of this period and the taking of notes in the house might be treated as an offence, such notes were frequently taken. In the house of commons we have Notes of Debates in the Year 161 o, edited by S. R. Gardiner for the Camden Society, 1862 j Report of Debates and Proceedings in the Parliament of 1621, first edited by T. Tyrwhitt (two of Proceedings m the Long Parliament, edited by John Bruce for the Camden Society, 1845 j the notes of parliamentary proceedings under the protectorate in Burtons Diary, edited by J. T. Rutt (four volumes, 1828, etc.), and other material of this sort still in MS., especially the Diary of D Ewes. For the house of lords we have Notes of the Debates in 1621 and in 1624 and 1626 by H E N R Y ELSING,, clerk of the parliament, 1621, edited by S. R. Gardiner for the Camden Society, 1870 and 1879. The long parliament for a time allowed its proceedings to be published, and advantage was taken of this permission by a certain W, Cook in his Diurnal Occurrences and
i

volumes, 1766); Notes of Debates in the Year ^^25^ also edited by Gardiner for the Camden Society, 1874 i Sir R A L P H V E R N E Y'S Notes

Speeches and Passages of this great and happy Parliament, 1641. The Old Parliamentary History, so-called (twenty-four volumes, 175*"62),

published without the name of any editor, goes down to the restoration, and the bulk of it relates to this period. It reprints many orders, declarations, letters, etc. The Parlzame?itary History of England (thirty-six volumes, 1806-20)9 nominally edited by W. Cobbett, covering a much larger space, is less full for this period, but still useful. These compilations contain many errors of detail. Acts of parliament in the proper sense axe to be found in the Statutes at Large. But the numerous enactments of the years

CONTEMPORAR

HISTORIANS.

4^5

1642-60 will not be found there, since for lack of the royal assent they APP. were not statutes in the legal acceptation of the term. These must

published by E. Husband, printer to the parliament, in 1646, and in A Collection of Acts and Ordinances, 1658, by H. S C O B E L L , at one time clerk to the house of commons. Husband also published the controversial papers exchanged between the parliament and the king between December, 1641, and March, 1643, under the title An Exact
Collection of all Declarations, Remonstrances, Ora i?iances etc. Conte?nporary Historians.'Clarendon's History of the Rebellion
r J

be sought in A Collection of all Public Orders, Ordinances, etc.,

a?id Civil Wirs in England is our best example of history written by a distinguished actor in the events which he records. It has long been known that this work, however valuable, is to be used with extreme caution. Many things of importance are omitted and mistakes and confusions abound. The genesis of the History and its relation to the Life of Clarendon, by himself, have been fully traced for the first time by Professor F I R T H in three articles contributed to the English Historical Review for 1904. He has shown that its defects are chiefly due to the times at which and the conditions under which it was written and imply no peculiar disregard of truth in the author, although a strong party bias is indisputable. The admirable edition by W. D. Macray (six volumes, Oxford, 1888) affords the only trustworthy text, and illustrates the general conclusions reached by Professor Firth. BXTLSTRODE W H I T E L O C K E ' S Memorials of English Affairs covers the years 1625 to 1660. The first full edition was published in 1737 and the references in the present volume are to its pages. A new edition, a mere reprint, in four volumes, appeared in 1853* The work is in form a diary. In substance it is made up of two elements. First, notices of events in which Whitelocke bore a part or of which he had first-hand knowledge, and these are numerous and important, since Whitelocke w s more or less in the centre of affairs from the a meeting of the long parliament to the restoration. Secondly, a compilation of news and gossip of all kinds, derived from contemporary newspapers, pamphlets, etc., useful and illustrative in many respects, but of less authority. Whitelocke was not a fervent partisan either in politics or in religion, but his extreme caution may sometimes have led him to suppress or distort matters of consequence. T. H O B B E S '
JBehemoth j the History of the Causes of the Civil TVars of England

(best edition by F . Tonnies, 1889) is the work of a very acute, although partial writer. T H O M A S M A Y , History of the Long Parliament (best edition that of 1853)* after a brief notice of events since the death ot Elizabeth, records more fully what occurred from the meeting of the

4o6

ON

AUTHORITIES.

AFP.

long parliament down to the first battle of Newbury. It is thus a fragment and largely concerned with military matters. It was written by the desire of the parliament and with an inevitable bias, but in a moderate tone. J O H N V I C A R S , Englands Parliamentary Chronicle in three partsI. Jehovah Jireh, II. God's Ark, III. The Burning Bush1644-46, is useful chiefly for military history and as exhibiting the mind of a typical puritan zealot at that time. J O S H U A SPRIGGE, Angha Rediviva, 1647, is a narrative of the achievements of the new model under Fairfax down to the end of the first civil war. The author was Fairfax's chaplain and his work is of considerable value. J. R U S H W O R T H , Historical Collections (eight volumes, ^59"9)> is t so much a history in the strict sense as an assemblage of speeches, state papers, pamphlets, and even newspapers loosely strung upon a thread of narrative. Hence its value* Rushworth, a barrister who filled different official positions, had the means of accurate knowledge, and his reproduction of documents may generally be trusted, although he was himself for the parliament against the king. J. N A L S O N ' S An Impartial Collection of the Great Affairs of State, 1639-49 (two volumes, 1682), is a work somewhat similar in character, but containing many documents not found in Rushworth.
x 2 n

Contemporary Lives.P.

HEYLYN'S

Life of Laud

(Cypnanus

Anglicus), 1668, is valuable as written by one who had exceptional means of information, and admired his hero without reserve. It also affords many glimpses of ordinary clerical feeling at that time. The D U C H E S S OF N E W C A S T L E ' S Life of her husband, the Duke of Newcastle, previously Earl and Marquis of Newcastle, (best edition by C . H. Firth, 1886), gives no political and not much military information, but is an interesting picture of a great nobleman. Mrs. H U T C H I N S O N ' S Memoirs of the Life of Colonel Hutchinson (best edition by C . H. Firth, two volumes, 1885) is famous as a portrait of the ideal puritan gentleman. The book illustrates the local character of the civil war, the manner in which it divided each neighbourhood, and the conditions under which it was waged. As enthusiastic republicans the Hutchinsons were unable to do justice to men of other parties, and Mrs. Hutchinson was further biassed by conjugal love. G. W I S H A R T ' S Deeds of Montrose (best edition by A. D. Murdoch and H. F. M. Simpson, 1893) is a principal authority for Montrose's career. The Lives of Cromwell; H. D A W B E N Y , History
and Policy reviewed in the Life of Oliver Cromwell, 1 6 5 9 ; S. C A R R I N G T O N , History of the Life and Death of Oliver Cromwell* I ^59 ^* F L E T C H E R , The Perfect Politician, 1660) and J. H E A T H , 1 Plagellum, or the Life and Death, Eirth and Burial of Oliver Crom-

AUTOBIOGRAPHIES,

MEMOIRS,

DIARIES,

ETC. 487

well, 1663, are all in different ways and degrees unsatisfactory. T . APP. G U M B L E ' S Lift of Monk, 1671 > is valuable for its account of the events leading to the restoration. It should be compared with J . P R I C E ' S
Mystery and Method of His Majesty s Happy Restoration, 1680, and with T. S K I N N E R ' S Life of Monk, 1723. T H O M A S F U L L E R ' S Worthies of E?igland, 1662, A N T H O N Y W O O D ' S Atlience Oxomenses (best edition by P. Bliss, four volumes, 1813-20), J O H N A U B R E Y ' S Brief Lives of E7ninent Men (best edition by A . Clark,

two volumes, 1898), contain much miscellaneous information about notable persons m this penod.
Autobiographies, Memoirs, Diaries, etc.The Life of Lord Herbert of Cherbury, written by himself (best edition by Sidney L . Lee, 1886),

illustrates the ideas and manners of the nobility as well as the methods of diplomacy and the habits of diplomatists. The Autobiography of Sir Simonds dEwes, which ends unfortunately in 1636, edited by J . 0. Halliwell (two volumes, 1845), gives the record of a puritan country gentleman, somewhat narrow in his views, but studious, a learned antiquary and full of interest in politics. L U D L O W ' S Memoirs (best edition by C. H. Firth, two volumes, 1894; the references in the present volume are to its pages) are of the utmost value for the years 1640-60. They afford much information about the civil war in the south of England, about the conquest of Ireland, and about the interval between Oliver's death and the restoration. Ludlow is the very type of the inflexible republican, brave and honest, although edited by D. Parsons, 1836, short and artless, gives a glimpse of the life and way of thinking of the ordinary cavalier squire. The Memoirs of Captain Hodgson, edited by H. Turner, 1882, afford a companion picture of what Carlyle calls an honest-hearted, pudding-headed Yorkshire puritan." Society by Lord Braybrooke, 1845, is of some use for this period, although more useful for the period following the restoration. More printed in the Maseres Tracts), illustrating the temper and policy of the Presbyterian party in the long parliament, and the Short Memorials of Fairfax (also reprinted in the Maseres Tracts), dealing with his own part in the civil war, and the events following down to the execution
of Charles I. The Memoirs of Sir John Berkeley (reprinted in the Maseres Tracts), John Ashbumham's Narrative of his attendance on
BERT

doctri?iaire and shortsighted.

T/ie Diaiy of Sir Hemy Skngsby,

The Autobiography of Sir John Bramston, edited for the Camden

or less autobiographical are the Memorial of Denzzl Lord Holies (re-

Charles I., edited by his descendant, 1830, and Sir T H O M A S H E R s Memoirs, afford materials for a life of Charles I. See also Charles

4oo

ON

AUTHORITIES.

APP.

Maria, edited by J . Bruce for the Camden Society, 1856, and Letters of Queen He?irietta Maria, edited by Mrs. Everett Green, 1857. Clarendon's Life, by himself (best edition, two volumes, Oxford, 1857), was largely used by the author in composing his history, but there remain a few passages of historical interest. B U N Y A N S Grace Abounding, 1666, and G E O R G E F O X S Journal, 1694? spiritual autobiographies, and as such illustrate certain aspects of puritanism. Evelyn's Diary (best editions by H. B. Wheatley, four volumes, 1906, and by Austin Dobson, three volumes, 1906), besides the picture of an accomplished gentleman gives some information of the condition of the royalist and Anglican party under the commonwealth and protectorate. Pepys Diary (best edition by H . B. Wheatley, ten volumes, 1893-99) contains many particulars about the time immediately preceding the restoration. Biographies of more recent date containing a large proportion of original matter: J . SPEDDING'S Letters and Life of Lord Bacon (seven volumes, 1868-74) is most valuable as collecting all that remains of Bacon's writings and speeches on political subjects. The biographical part, learned and careful, manifests an inability to see any fault in Bacon or in James I. T. D. W H I T A K E R , Life and Original Corresp07idence of Sir George Radcliffe, 1810, is valuable as well on other grounds as for what it tells about Strafford. C A R L Y L E ' S Letters and Speeches of Oliver Cromwell is at once a collection of original documents and a biography distinguished by Carlyle's deep sympathy with puritanism and with Cromwell, but suffers from his imperfect knowledge of the period and his constant endeavour to wring a moral out of the facts. The latest edition by Mrs. Lomas (three volumes, 1904) adds everything that can be traced in the way of letters or speeches, and an introduction by Professor Firth shows to what extent Carlyle may be trusted as a biographer. Pamphlets and Newspapers. In this period newspapers were small, and were chiefly what their name implies : means of circulating the news of the day. Serious discussion of current topics was mostly carried on by pamphlets. These multiplied after the suppression of the Star Chamber, and it is said that 25,000 were published between 1640 and 1660. The Thornasson collection in the British Museum contains some 21,000. Prynne is said to have written 160 tracts and Lilbume 100. Various collections have been printed from time to time, such as the Phoenix (two volumes, 1707), the Harleian

I in 1646, Letters of King Charles the Pirst to Queen Henrietta

PAMPHLETS

AND

NEWSPAPERS.

489

which pamphlets of this period may be found. The Select Tracts

Relating to the Civil Wars, edited by F . Maseres (two volumes, i 8 i 5 )

Miscellany, edited by T. Park (ten volumes, 1808-13), and the Somers APP. Tracts, edited by Sir Walter Scott (thirteen volumes, 1809-15), in
?

are not for the most part pamphlets in our sense, but short autobiographies, etc. Of this immense pamphlet literature, the only writings that remain well known are Milton s, but their influence at the time may easily be overrated. Newspapers were multiplied after the meeting of the long parliament, and still more after the outbreak of the civil war. About 170 were set on foot between 1642 and 1649 (see list given by Nicholls, Literary Anecdotes, iv., 33 et sea.), but many had a brief career. Among the most notable were Mercunus Aulicus and its successor Mercurius Academicus, royalist organs, edited by P. Heylyn abovementioned and John Birkenhead; Mercunus Bntanntcus, Mercurius Pragmaticus and Mercurius Politicus, all edited by Marchmont Needham, the first taking the side of the parliament, the second that of the king, and the third an official paper of the commonwealth \ the ate, an organ of the levellers. After the establishment of the commonwealth the freedom of the press was curtailed and newspapers dwindled, until under the protector only two official journals survived. See A. A N D R E W S , History of British Journalism (two volumes, 1855), and H . R. F O X B O U R N E , English Newspapers (two volumes, 1887). Foreign Affairs.In the original authorities information on foreign affairs is for the most part mixed with other matters. Some diplomatists (see above) have left accounts of their own labours, and m a few cases their letters have been printed, e.g., Sir D U D L E Y C A R L E T O N ' S Letters, published i755> Sir H E N R Y W O T T O N ' S Letters and Despatches, published 1850, etc. B U L S T R O D E W H I T E L O C K E ' S Journal of the Swedish Embassy, edited by H . Reeve (two volumes, 1855)* gives much information about the methods of diplomacy, the hardships suffered by diplomatists, and the merits of Bulstrode Whitelocke. Treaties are given in Dumont's Corps Universel Diplomatique, 1726-31. Among modern writers Ranke and Gardiner have done most in this department. Sir J. R. S E E L E Y ' S Growth of British Policy (two volumes, 1887) is able and interesting, although not founded on exhaustive knowledge nor always accurate. Grosart for the Camden Society, and Letters and Papers Relating to the First Dutch War, edited for the Navy Records Society by S. R. Gardiner and C. T. Atkinson (three volumes published, 1898, etc.).
Naval History. The Voyage to Cadiz in 1625, ed. by Dr. Moderate Intelligencer, an organ of the independents, and the Moder-

49 ^
APP.

0A

UTHORITIES.

Among modern books M . O P P E N H E I M S History of the Administration of the Royal Navy, vol. i., is extremely useful. Sir W . L A I R D C L O W E S ' Histoiy of the Royal Isavy, vol. ii., 1603-17*4; is the fullest general work on the subject. Professor
LAUGHTON'S

lives of distinguished

seamen in the Dictionary of National Biography are valuable.

Military Histoiy. In the original authorities military history is often mixed with other topics. R I C H A R D S Y M O N D S ' Diary of the Marches of the Royal Army, edited by C. E. Long for the Camden
Society .; Hopton's Narrative of His Campaign in the West, edited by and the Memorials of tlie Great Civil IVar, edited by H. Cary (two volumes, 1842), are useful. So also is the Narrative of General
1655*

C . E. H. Chad wyck-Heal y, for the Somerset Record Society, 1902,

Venables and other papers relating to the Jamaica expedition of edited by C- H. I*irth for the Camden Society, 1900. Something may be got from the Clarke Papers, although these are chiefly concerned with politics. Among modern books C. H. F I R T H s Cromwell s Army, 1902, at once affords a large store of information and makes an excellent introduction to the military literature of the seventeenth century, which is considerable. See also his papers in the
Transactions of the Royal Historical Society" The Raising of the

Ironsides, N.S., xiii. ( 1 8 9 9 ) ; " The Later History of the Ironsides, N.S., xv. (1901); " The Royalist and Cromwellian Armies in Flanders,' N.S., xvi. (1902); " Marston Moor, N.S., xii. ( 1 8 9 8 ) ; " The Battle ot Dunbar," N.S., xiv. (1900). F. G R O S E , Military Antiquities; Sir S. SCOTT, The British Army; J. W . F O R T E S C U E , History of the British Army ; and Colonel B A L D O C K , Cromwell as a Soldier, 1899, consulted with advantage. See also W . B. D E V E R E U X , Lives and Letters of the Devereux, Earls of Essex (two volumes, 1 8 5 3 ) ; G . M A R K H A M , Life of the Great Lord Fairfax, 1 8 7 0 ; and R. B E L L , The Fairfax Correspo?idence (two volumes, 1849)WARBURTON's Memoirs of Prince Rupert and the Cavaliers (three volumes, 1849) owe all their value to the original documents which they contain. Church Histoiy.Of the older Church histories the most important are T H O M A S F U L L E R ' S Church History of Britain (best edition by J. S. Brewer, six volumes, 1845)5 and J E R E M Y C O L L I E R ' S Ecclesiastical History of Great Britain (best edition by T. Lathbury, nine
m a v D e

Church (six volumes), edited by W . Hunt and W . R. W . Stephens. The volume dealing with the reigns of Elizabeth and James I. is by W . H. F R E R E , 1903, that dealing with the later Stuart reigns is by W . H. H U T T O N , 1904. The point of view is decidedly Anglican. See

volumes, 1852). The best modern work is the History of the English

MODERN

HISTORIANS.

49

also The Life of Laud, by W . H . H U T T O N , 1895. W . A. SHAW'S English Church during the Civil War a?id tinder the Commonwealth (two volumes, 1900) is a most laborious and useful work. See also,
by the same writer, Minutes of the Manchester Presbyterian Classis, edited for the Chetham Society, 1890-91, and Minutes of the Committee for tlie Relief of Plundered Ministers, etc., Relating to Lan-

APP.

cashire and Cheshire, edited for the Lancashire and Cheshire Record Society (two volumes, 1893-97). The Library of Anglo-Catholic Theology (eighty-one volumes, 1843-60) contains the works of all the most noteworthy divines of the Arminian school, among which L A U D S Works (six volumes) are the most important for general history.
Life of Laud, J . H A C K E T ' S Life of Williams, IZAAK Life of Geoige He?-bert, 1670, are all instructive. See also J O H N W A L K E R ' S Sufferings of the Clergy in the Great Rebellion, 1714For the puritan side D. N E A L E ' S History of the Puritans (four volumes, 1732-38), R. B A X T E R ' S Remains, 1696, The Minutes of the
HEYLYN'S WALTON'S

Westminster Assembly, edited by A. Mitchell and J . Struthers, 1874,

Robert Baillie s Letters and Journals, edited by ID- Laing

are useful.

(three volumes, Edinburgh, 1841), are concerned mostly with Scottish affairs, but they are a principal authority for the relations between the English and the Scottish puritans, and for the influence which the Scots exercised upon English history under Charles I . and subsequently. Modern Historians.S. R. G A R D I N E R ' S History of England, 1603cover the period from 1603 to 1656. They are of the highest value. Gardiner may be termed the greatest of English historical investigators. His industry, his skill in sifting evidence, his constant endeavour to find the truth and do justice to all historical personages are alike admirable. He was the first to perform that work of research without which the history of the period could not be put upon a sound basis, and he has thus rendered obsolete all previous histories. He has done especial service in elucidating English foreign relations, and the growth of political ideas during the first half of the seventeenth century. Grave defects of style and arrangement will always repel the general reader from these monumental works. Gardiner s judgments upon individuals are sometimes difficult to accept. L. V O N R A N K E ' S Englische Geschichte (seven volumes, 1859-69) (English translation, edited by C. W . Boase and G. W . Kitchin, six volumes, 1875? etc.) affords, next to Gardiner's works, the most elaborate account of this period. Ranke's knowledge of international
42 (ten volumes) , History of the G?eat Civil IVar (four volumes), and History of the Commonwealth and Protectorate (four volumes)

49

ON A

UTHORITIES.

APP.

relations was consummate, and his treatment of English foreign policy is therefore highly instructive. As a foreigner he did not share the party feelings, political or religious, of Englishmen, and his treatment of internal history is therefore impartial. For the same reason much is an object of learned research to him which is obvious to an English historian. Professor M A S S O N ' S Life of Milton, narrated in connexion with the history of his time (six volumes, 1859-80), is as much a history of England as a life of the poet, and is a work of much labour and knowledge, particularly valuable for the events of those years when Milton was a servant of the state. It exhibits a strong puritan tinge. F. A. INDERWICK'S The Interregnum, 189I9 is valuable for the history of law and institutions between 1649 and 1660. HALLAM*S Constitutional History of England still remains valuable for the seventeenth century, although his unenthusiastic temperament and his Whig cast of thought hindered his full comprehension of the ecclesiastical and political conflicts of that time. The best general analysis of that system of government which the Stuarts inherited from the Tudors is to be found in the introduction to O . . P R O T H E R O ' S Select Statutes and other Constitutional Documents
Illustrative of the Reigns of Elizabeth and fames I,, third edition, 1906. See also Miss C. L. A. ScoFIELD, A Study of the Court of Star Chamber (published by the Chicago University Press, 1 9 ) ? and Miss 0. A. J . S K E E L ' S learned monograph, The Council in the Marches of Wales, 1904.
00

The best history of the English colonies in the new world during this period is J . A. D O Y L E ' S History of the English m America (five volumes, 1882-1907), and the fullest account of the English in India is given in H U N T E R ' S History of British India (two volumes, 1899-1900). For the economic history of the period T H O R O L D R O G E R S History of Agriculture and Prices (six volumes, 1866-87), and W. C U N N I N G H A M ' S Growth of English Industry and Commerce in Modern Times, 1903) are the principal works of reference. J . H. B U R T O N ' S Histopy of Scotland (eight volumes, 1873) still retains its place as a standard work, but the more recent histories by P. Hume Brown (two volumes, 1899-1902) and by A. Lang (four volumes, 1900-7) must be read also. Each of these valuable works displays a different bias, so that they correct each other. See too C. H. F I R T H ' S Scotland under the Commonwealth and Scotland under the Protectorate, both published for the Scottish Historical Society, and C. S. T E R R Y ' S Life and Campaigns of Alexander Leslie, for trie Scottish Historical Society, 1902.
1899, and Cromwellian Union of Scotland with England, published

MODERN

BIOGRAPHIES.

493

Ireland,In

addition to the authorities already quoted, Sir J ,

APP.

DAVIS, A Discovery of the State of Ireland, 1612 ; V . GOOKIN, The Great Case of Tra?isplantation in Ireland Discussed, etc., 1655 \ Sir W . PETTY'S Political Anatomy of Ireland, 16915 tixtLismore Papers, edited by A. Grosart (ten volumes, 1886-88) \ T. C A R T E , History of the Life of James, Duke of Ormond (three volumes, 1736); J - T. G I L B E R T , Aphorismical Discovery of Treasonable Faction, or A ContemporaTy History of Affairs m Ireland, 1641*52 (six parts, 1879-80)9 and History of the Irish Confederation, etc. (seven volumes, 1882-91),

are noteworthy.
Historical

Among modern books may be noted G.

HILL'S

Account of the Plantation in Ulster, Belfast, 1877 J Miss M. H I C K S O N , Ireland in the Seventeenth Century (two volumes, 1 8 8 4 ) ; Mrs. T O W N S H E N D , Life and Letters of the Great Earl of Cork, 1904. C . L I T T O N F A L K I N E R ' S Illustrations of Irish History and Topography, 1904; Lord F I T Z M A U R I C E ' S Life of Sir William Petty, 1 8 9 5 ; J . P . P R E N D E R G A S T ' S Cromwelhan Settlement, second edition, 18705 are

all useful, but there is no general history of Ireland in the seventeenth century adequate at once in scale and in research. Modern Biographies.Among these may be noted W . S T E B B I N G , Life of Sir Walter Raleigh, second edition, 1 8 9 9 ; M. A. S. H U M E ,
Bife of Sir Walter Raleigh, 1897 * J FORSTER, Life of Sir John Eliot (two volumes, 1864) J S. R. G A R D I N E R , Oliver Cromwell, 1899 j C . H . F I R T H , Oliver Cromwell and the Rule of the Puritans m England, 1 9 0 0 ; Sir R. PALGRAVE, Oliver Cromwell, the Protector, 1890.

The lives of persons of note in this period contributed by

G A R D I N E R and F I R T H to the Dictionary of National Biography are

especially useful both on their own account and for the bibliographies annexed. The Memoirs of the Verney Family, edited by F . P . and M. M. Ladies Verney (four volumes, 1892-99), enable us to follow in detail the life of a leading county family for many years of this period, and incidentally shed much light on political, social and economic history.
Works of King James I., 1616; M I L T O N ' S J . H A R R I N G T O N S Oceana, 1656; R. F I L M E R ' S Observations Concerning the Original of Government, 1652, and his Patnarcha (not published until 1680) j the treatises of T. H O B B E S , De Cive, 1647, and Leviathan, 1651, should be studied, Political

Theory.The

political pamphlets generally,

A good sketch of the political speculation of this time will be found

in W . A. D U N N I N G , A History of Political Montesquieu, 1905* Theories from Luther to

INDEX.
Abbot, George, Bishop of London, his Antigua, 379* early history and appointment as Antinomians, 250. Archbishop of Canterbury, 4 2 ; his Antrim, Randal Macdoneil, Earl of, conduct in the divorce of the Count5 J 3^-3* ess of Essex, 6 4 ; uses his influence Apology of the commons, the, 15-17. with the queen on behalf of George Appello CcBsarem, theological treatise Villiers, 7 2 ; his advice to Richard by Richard Montagu, 133Montagu, 133 5 forbidden to take his Aremberg,^ Count of, 8, 21. place in the house ^of lords, 147 J AreopagiticcL, a pamphlet by Milton, 383prived of his jurisdiction for refusing Argyle, Archibald Campbell, Earl of, to license Dr. Sibthorpe's sermon, becomes the leader of the Scottish 153" allowed to resume his jurisdicresistance to Charles I., 2 0 9 ; protion, 1 7 0 ; dies, 176. posals of his friends, 222 ; is accused Aberdeen, general assembly of Kirk at, of treason by Montrose, 2 4 6 ; supreme prorogued, 5 5 general assembly held in Scotland, 249 1 is created a marthere in x6x6, 871 Montrose s victory quis, 2 5 0 ; defeated by Montrose at at, 3 - " ^4 Inverlochy, 315 > resolves that Charles Abingdon, 295. must not come to Edinburgh, 3 5 > Acadia, the French colony of, 422, 435overborne by Hamilton in parliaAdamites, 250. ment, 3371 regains power after the Addled parliament, the, 69. defeat of _ Hamilton, 3 4 2 ; correAddress and remonstrance, the, 445* sponds with royalist leaders, 357 J Adwalton Moor, battle of, 2S1. makes offers to Charles II., 365 j will African company, the, 17. not ally himself with the Hamilton Agitators, the, 3^7J 333? 5 ^ party or join in the invasion of EngAgreement of the people, the, 333* land, 373 5 submits to the English Albert, the Archduke, 8. parliament, 375Alexis, Tsar of Russia, 45 2 Arminians, the, 128. Alford, battle of, 315. Armyn, Sir William, 246. Altham, Sir James, a baron of the ex- Arundel Castle, 292. chequer, joins in Coke s opinion re- Ascham, Anthony, the English resident garding proclamations, 4* at Madrid, murdered, 3^7* Alyth, 375* Ashburnham, John, 321, 334Amboyna, the massacre of, 389, 419. Ashburnham, William, 237. Andrewes, Lancelot, Bishop of Ely, Aske, John, 445* concerned in Legate's case, 6 2 ; a com- Astley, Sir Jacob, commands the king's missioner for Essex divorce case, 64foot, 2 7 4 ; at the battle of _ Naseby, Anglo-Catholic movement, the, 129. 3 1 0 ; defeated and made prisoner at Anne, Queen of England, daughter of Stow in the Wold, 320. Frederick II. of Denmark, marries Aston, Sir Arthur, 361, 362. James VI. of Scotland, 2 ; her incli- Athlone, 37^* nation to Catholicism, 1 8 ; wishes her Augsburg, treaty of, 89. son Henry to marry a Spanish prin- Auldearn, battle of, 3^5* cess, 22 y uses her influence on behalf Authorised version of the Bible, the> 11. of Villiers, 3^ her death, 124. Axtell, Daniel, colonel, 347* Anstruther, Sir Robert, 94, X67. Aylesbury, 281. Ante-nati, the, proposal to naturalise in Ayr, 4 x 5 . England, 34. Ayscue, Sir George, 3^ 39^i 393*
2 2

495

49^

ENGLAND,
2

1603-1660.

Baas, Paul, Baron de, 421 4 ^ * Bacon, Francis, urges forbearance towards puritans, 1 0 ; in favour of closer union with Scotland, 34 J asserts the right of the crown to levy impositions, 4^ his early history, 58 , appointed solicitor-general and attorney-general, 5 9 ; his character and political opinions, 6 0 ; advice to James I. regarding the new parliament, 6 7 ; activity in Peacham's case, 71 J appointed lord keeper, 7 6 J his relations with Buckingham and Coke, 77 7 appointed lord chancellor and created Baron Verulam and Viscount St. Alban's, 7 7 ; justifies proceedings against Raleigh, 82 ; his action with regard to the monopoly of gold and silver thread, 96 5 charged with judicial corruption, 98 5 his confession, 99 5 his sentence, zoo j. ^nis punishment remitted by the king, Baillie, William, 3*5* Balfour of Burleigh, Lord, 3*4* 3 * 5 \ Balfour, Sir William, appointed lieutenant of the Tower, 239 ; his conduct at Edgehill, 275 ; at Lostwithiel, 300. Balmerino, John Elphinstone, Lord,
Banbury, 276, 301 356*
TOO*

3 9 governor of Exeter, 3 9 intermediary between Charles and the officers of the army, 3 3 accompanies Charles in his flight from Hampton Court, 334. Berkeley, Sir Robert, a justice of the king s bench, 1 8 4 ; impeached, 247. Bermudas, the, 379Berry, James, major-general, 468. Berwick, Charles I. at, 212 \ treaty of, 213 surprised by the royalists, 339 restored to the parliament, 342 ; Monk
I 1

Bamfield, ]oim, colonel, 337*

175 J 207*

Barbados, island of, 3 4 375 379 3^0,

I

Bancroft, Richard, Bishop of London, takes part in the Hampton Court conference, 1 1 ; becomes Archbishop of Canterbury and insists on the clergy subscribing the canons of 1604, 2 0 ; Bodmin, 277* Bolingbroke, Oliver St. John, Earl of, dies, 4 *
2

Biddle, John, 3^5* 4^^ Bilson, Thomas, Bishop of Winchester, a commissioner for the Essex divorce case, 64* Blainville, Sieur de, X43* Blake,' Colonel Robert, one of the generals at sea, blockades Rupert in Kinsale harbour, 3 6 0 ; pursues him to Lisbon and subdues the Scilly Isles, 3 7 8 ; summons Tromp to strike his flag, 3 9 1 ; captures the Dutch herring fleet, 3 9 2 ; gains battle of the Kentish Knock* and loses battle of Dungeness, 393 > gains battle of Portland and destroys a French fleet, 394 3 member of the little parliament, 3 9 9 ; gains battle of the Gabbard, 405 J is sent with a fleet to the Mediterranean, 432 > destroys Tunisian ships at Porto Farina, 433 ; cruises off Cadiz, 4 3 8 ; destroys a Spanish fleet at Santa Cruz, 449 I dies, 45
223.

at, 473*

Basilicon

Booth, Sir George, 469. Bordeaux, city of, 4 6 , 4^7* Bourchier, Elizabeth, wife of Oliver Bate, John, case oy 36. Cromwell, 408. Bates, Thomas, 26, 29, 30. Boyne, river, 362. Bath, 282, 312. Braddock Down, battle o 279. Batten, William, vice-admiral, 33^* Bradford, William, 108. Baydes, Marquis of, 438Bradshaw, John, president of the high Baynham, Sir Edward, 27. court of justice, 347 ; president of the Beaumont and Fletcher, 125* council of state, 353 protests against Bedford, Francis Russell, fourth Earl of, its expulsion by Cromwell, 3 9 8 ; in 223. the first parliament of the protectorBedford, William Russell, fifth Earl of,
parliament, 229*

Barwalde, treaty o 167. Doron, treatise by James I, 4* Basing House, 30I) 3-^3" Basingstoke, $ox, Bastwick, John, condemned in the Star Chamber, 188 ; released by the long

_43-^*

Bolton stormed by Rupert,

Bolton-le-Moors, 375*

297*

Booh of CotftfHOii Ofdsy, Knox's, 176, 205. Book of Routes^ new in 1608, 37*

Brandenburg, Electoral Prince of, claims succession of Cleves, 54* Benburb, battle of, 3^7* Berkeley, Sir John, besieges Taunton, Breda, siege of, 123 , treaty of, 365 declaration from, 478.
Belfast, 360*

247* ^77*

ate, 4 5
2

1 1 1

the second, 44<

INDEX.

497

Brentford, 276. I Carbisdale, 366. Brereton, Sir Thomas, commander^ of Cardenas, Alonzo de, ambassador of the parliamentary forces in Cheshire, , Philip IV., 3 6 0 , 394 4^ 434* gains the battle of Nantwich, 294 j Carey, Sir George, lord deputy of Ireraises the siege of Chester, 39 land, 44* Brickhill, 281. Carleton, Sir Dudley, is created VisBridgwater taken by Fairfax, 3 * 2 . count Dorchester and appointed secBrighthelmstone, 375* retary of state, 166 j dies, 177* Bristol taken by Rupert, 283 ; retaken Carlisle, James Hay, Earl of, 119. by Fairfax, 312. Carlisle, surprised by the royalists, 3 3 9 J Broghill, Roger Boyle, Lord, 3^3 3^4> restored to the parliament, 342. Carnarvon, Robert Dormer, Earl of, 444> 463* 280, Brooke, George, y, 9 Brooke, Robert Greville, Lord, refuses Carnwath, Robert Dalzell, Earl of, 310. an oath tendered by Charles, 213 ; Carr, Robert, attracts notice of James and is created Viscount Rochester, signs the petition for calling a parlia63 ; and Earl of Somerset, and marries ment, 223. _ Frances Howard, Countess of Essex, Brotherly assistance, the, 232. 6 5 ; is charged with the murder of Brownists, the, 231. Overbury, 7 3 ; is found guilty, but Broxburn, the, 37^* receives a pardon, 74. Broxmouth House, 37 Buckeridge, John, Bishop of Rochester, Carrickfergus, 360. concerned in case of Legate, 62 ; com- Carver, John, xo8. missioner for Essex divorce case, 64. Cary, Sir Robert, 5 Casaubon, Isaac, 62. Buckingham, Countess of, 170. Buckingham, Duke of. See Villiers, Case of the Army truly stated, the, 333* Case, Thomas, 373* George. Castle, Cornet, 377 379* Bucquoi, General, g2. Burghley, William Cecil, Lord, 10, 58. Catesby, Robert, conceives plan of blowing up the parliament house, 2 5 ; Burroughs, Jeremiah, 3^*3* his preparations, 26 ; scheme for an Burton, Henry, condemned in the Star insurrection, 27 * flight and death, Chamber, 1 8 8 ; released by the long parliament, 229. 2Q. Butler, Sir ^Valter, 364* Catholic league of German princes, Bye plot, the, 7. 54 93* Byrnes, clan of the, X94. Cautionary towns, treaty for the restituByron, Sir John, appointed lieutenant tion of, 79* of the Tower, 2 5 8 ; occupies Oxford Cavalier and Roundhead, 258. and Worcester for Charles I., 2 7 4 ; at Cavendish, Charles, 281-282. Newbury, 286 j is created Lord Byron Cawood, 297. and commands for Charles in Che- Cecil, Sir Edward, commands English shire, 2 9 2 ; defeated at Nantwich, contingent in the affair of Cleves and 2 9 4 ; commands right wing at MarJuliers, 54 is created Viscount Wimston Moor,^ 298. bledon and entrusted with the comByron, Sir Nicholas, 286. mand of the expedition against Spain, *34 ? attacks Cadiz without success,
2

Cecil, Sir Robert, secretary of state, Caerlaverock Castle, 21 z. and created Baron Cecil of Essendon, Caguaya, bay of, 43_ * 5 ; one of Raleigh's judges, 8 ; one of Callander, James Livingstone, Earl of, the negotiators of the treaty of peace 339~34 \ Calvert, Sir George, 84* 95 ^^4 ^*^5 > with Spain, 2 1 * accepts a pension from Spain, 2 2 ; created Viscount is created Lord Baltimore and founds Cranborne, 221 Earl of Salisbury, colony of Maryland, 379* 2 4 ; informed of the Gunpowder plot, Calvin or Colville, Robert, case of, 35* 28 ;^ lord treasurer, 3 7 to neCambrai, 451. gotiate suppression of military tenures Cambridge, the university of, 187, 322. with the house of commons, 4 1 ; dies, Campbell, Sir Duncan, 3 5 57* Canons of 1604, 1 9 ; of 1640, 220. Chaderton, Lawrence, 10. Canons, Scottish, 204. Chalgrove Field, skirmish of, 280, Capel, Lord, 3^8, 354* V O L . VII. 3
2 0

Cadiz, 135* *3^> 37^> 433 437 43^.

Z35"^36-

49

ENGLAND,

1603-1660.

makes cessation of arms with the Chaloner, Richard, 283. Irish, 288 j gains battle of Cropredy Chambers, Richard, I59 184. Bridge, 2 9 6 ; reduces army of Essex Chancery, the court of, 386, 400, 413Chard, 282. to surrender at Lostwithiel, 3 0 0 ; fights second battle ^ of Newbury, Charles I., Prince of Wales, a Spanish marriage thought of for, 7 7 ; his 3025 rejects the parliamentary profriendship with Buckingham, 1 1 0 ; posals, 304 leaves Oxford for the they plan a visit to Madrid, n o ; north, 3 0 9 ; loses battle of Naseby, extort the king's consent, i n ; reach 3 1 1 ; of Rowton Heath, 3 1 3 ; sends Madrid, 112 ; Charles signs the marGlamorgan to negotiate with the riage treaty, 1 1 4 ; leaves Spain reIrish, 3 1 7 ; goes to the Scottish solved to break it off, 115 J desires a j army, 321 ; rejects propositions of war with Spain, 116 ; succeeds to the Newcastle, 3 2 4 ; is surrendered to the throne, 1 2 6 ; Charles I.'s characterEnglish parliament, 325 ; is carried istics, 1 2 6 ; religious beliefs, 130 \ off to the army, 3^9 ? evades the marries Henrietta Maria, 13^ calls Heads of the Proposals, 333 ; leaves a^ parliament, 1 3 2 ; dissolves it, 1 3 4 ; Hampton Court and goes to Carishis misunderstanding with Louis brooke Castle,^ 334 signs^ the engageXIII., 1 3 7 ; calls a second parliament, ment, 3 3 5 ; his negotiation with the ^391 protects Buckingham against parliament at Newport, 343 J hrought the commons, 141 ; dissolves the up to Windsor,^ 3 4 6 ; his trial, 3 4 7 parliament, 1 4 2 ; goes to war with 348 ! his execution, 349* France, 143 J calls a third parliament, Charles II., gives Montrose his com1 4 6 ; accepts the Petition of Right, mission and fails to make terms 151; further disputes with the comwith the Scottish commissioners, mons, 1 6 0 ; dissolves the parliament, 35S ; signs the treaty of Breda, 365 ; 1 6 1 ; determines not to call another, and the treaty of Heligoland, and 1 6 3 ; makes peace with France, 166; goes to Scotland, 3 6 7 ; flees from with Spain, 167 ; his policy in Perth,^ 37* *s crowned at Scone, Scotland, I74"^76j towards Roman 3 7 2 ; invades England, 3 7 3 ; is decatholics, 190-193 ? his personal feated at Worcester, 3 7 4 ; escapes to government, 2 0 1 ; sanctions book of France, 375 > sends Cottington and canons and service book for Scotland, Hyde on an embassy to Philip IV., 204* tries to punish the resistance of 3 8 7 ; prompts a rising in England, Edinburgh, 2 0 6 ; offers concessions, 428 5 leaves Paris and settles at Co2 0 8 ; prepares to invade Scotland, logne, 4 3 9 ; makes a treaty with 210 j advances to the border, 212 j Philip IV., settles at Bruges and makes the treaty of Berwick, 213 \ collects troops, 439 takes part in an calls an English parliament, 2 1 5 ; attempt on Mardyke, 4 5 1 ; hopes for dissolves it, 218 ; his difficulties, a rising m England, 454 prepares to 2 2 1 ; calls a great council at York, land in England, 4 6 9 ; removes to 2 2 3 ; calls a parliament and accepts Breda and puts forth his declaration, the treaty of Ripon, 2 2 5 ; ^ tries to 4 7 8 ; returns to England, 481. hinder the prosecution of his ministers, 2 2 9 ; makes concessions, 2331 Charles X., King of Sweden, 435 436, 4519 456> 468. tries to save Strafford, 2 3 9 ; assents to the bill of attainder, 241 j goes to Charles Emmanuel II., Duke of Savoy, 434-435Scotland, 247 \ his ill success there and his return, 2 5 0 ; his answer to Charles Lewis Elector Palatine (son of the grand remonstrance, 2571 ^is Frederick), 167, 225. impeachment of the five members, Lnepstow Castle, 337* 2 5 9 ; his visit to the commons, 2 6 1 ; Cheriton, battle of, 295* leaves London, 263 ; consents to Cherwell, river, 296. bishops exclusion bill, 264 * goes to Chester, city of, 3^9 3-*-3* York, 2 6 5 ; prepares for war, 2 6 7 ; Chichester, Sir Arthur, lord-deputy of raises his standard at Nottingham, Ireland, 4 4 ; his policy of pacifying 2 6 8 ; fights battle of Edgehill, 2 7 5 ; the country, 45 severity against takes up winter quarters at Oxford, recusants, 45 J scheme for a planta2761 rejects the propositions of the tion in TJlster, 46 his advice disreparliament, 279 besieges Gloucester, garded, 4 8 ; calls a parliament, 86 ; - * 5 ; fights battle of Newbury, 2 8 6 ; is recalled, 87* Cholmley, Sir Hugh, 280.
8

INDEX.

499

Christian I*V., King of Denmark, 124, j Colnbrook, 276, 285 case o 75* i 3 ^ 3 > 43> 4 5 166I Comniendams,
: : s r I

Christir*a, Duchess of Savoy, 434~435* Christina, Queen of Sweden, 420. Christina, sister of Louis XIII., 77* Church of England, attempt to remodel on presbyterian principles, 384*385 5 Owen's project for a new remodelling, 385 * Cromwell s re-organisa-

C o n d 6 , Prince of, 38S, 406, 435, 439 45 * 455*

437

Conn, George, 192. Coniiaught plantation, the, 196.

Connecticut, 379*
2

Conway, Viscount, 220, 223* Cony, George, 4 9 * Cook, John, 347* tion of, 4*o~4*** Cooper, Anthony Ashley, a member of Cirencester, 279* 285. the little parliament, 399 joins the Clanricarde, Ulick de Burgh, Marquis republican party, 440 ; attacks the of, 376* new house of lords, 453 ; and the Clarges, Dr., 47*^* title of the Protector Richard, 405* Clarke, Robert, baron of the exchequer, Copley, Axithony, takes part in the Bye his judgment in Bate's case, 36. plot, 7 i s condemned and banished, g. Clarke, William, Corbet, Sir John, 145. 7 9* Cork, 363* Classes, Act of, 35 7> 37-** Claypole, John (Lord Claypole), 444' 458' Cork, Richard Boyle, Earl of, 195. Corkbushfield, meeting at, 335* Clement VIII., Pope, 24. Corstorphine, 369* Cleves and Juliers, duchies of, 54, 78. Cosin, John, 129- ^ Clifton, Richard, 107. Cottington, Francis, opposes the prince's Clonmacnoise, 3^3* visit to Madrid, 111 j chancellor of Clonmel, 3^4* the exchequer, 165 ; sent by Charles Cobham, Henry Brooke, Lord, takes I. as ambassador to Philip IV., 166 ; part in Main plot, 8 ; is condemned, controversy with Laud, x 8 i ; secretly reprieved and dies in the Tower, 9. a Catholic, i g 3 ; sent by Charles II. Cockburnspath, 3^9as ambassador to Philip, 387. Coke, Frances, 77Coke, Sir Edward, attorney-general, Cotton House, Westminster, 347* language of at Raleigh s trial, 9 ; Council of the north, the, 155, 168, 169, 242.^ opposes bill for throwing open the foreign trade, 1 8 , chief justice of the Council of state, erected, 353 ; a newone established, 3 7 8 ; another nomicommon pleas, asserts right of comnated by the little parliament, 4 0 0 ; mon law judges to fix bounds of constitution of, under the instrument other jurisdictions, 3 8 ; his opinion of government, 403 j modified by the regarding proclamations, 4 0 ; chief advice and remonstrance, 445 ; a new justice of the king's bench, his one named, 468 ; another, 475 ; opinion in Peacham s case and proanother, 47^* test against auricular and particular " taking of the judges' Council of Wales, the, 38, 242. opinions, yi ; charged with the Courten, Sir ^William, 379* inquiry into the death of Overbury, Covenant, the Scottish National, 207. 73 ; in conflict with James I., 7 5 ;Coventry, Sir Thomas, appointed solicitor - general, 76 ; lord keeper, dismissed from his office, 76I his ^38 J dies, 215. relations with Buckingham, 77 ? member of the house of commons, Cowell, Dr., 38, 39* Viscount. See Cecil 9 4 ; his motion against Michell, 9 7 ; Cranborne, Robert. attacks the King of Spain, 1 0 4 ; is imprisoned, 1 0 6 ; elected to parlia- Cranfield, Lionel, in the king s service, 85 ; created Baron Cranfield, apment of 1624, 1171 to parliament of pointed treasurer and created Earl of 1625, r 3 2 ; made a sheriff to prevent Middlesex, 103 ; at _ variance with his re-election, """38 j denounces Buckingham in parliament of 1628, Buckingham, 1 1 8 ; his impeachment and sentence, 119. 151 Crawford, Ludovick Lindsay, Earl of, Coke, Sir John, I33 166, 2x5* Coke, Thomas, 373* 249* Colchester, 338 34** Crawley, Francis, a justice of the comColeraine, county, of, granted to the mon pleas, X84. city of London, becomes known as Crqui, Duke of, 457* Londonderry, 4 8 . 3-2
i l

5 oo

ENGLAND,

1603-1660.

Cre\ve,_Su* Randal, lord chief justice, - his foreign policy, 419-423 5 ^ calls a dismissed, X42. parliament, 4 4 dissolves it, 426; Croke, Sir George, a justice of the institutes the major-generals, 43Q~43* kings bench, 1^3,^184. declares war on Spain, 434; conCroke, Unton, captain, 428. cludes a treaty with France, 435 Cromwell, Bridget, 458. i calls a second parliament, 440 \ reCromwell, Elizabeth, 458. fuses the kingly office, 447; accepts Cromwell, Frances, 458* j the amended petition and advice, Cromwell, Henry, a member of the; 448 \ concludes an alliance with little parliament, 3 9 6 ; lord deputy in 1 France, 450; forms a house of lords, Ireland, 4*8, 458 J resigns his office, I 452; dissolves^ the parliament, 454 ; his great position in Europe, 457 > 467* s dies, 459Cromwell, Mary, 458Cromwell, Oliver, returned to parlia- Cromwell, Richard, 457 5 named his successor by Oliver, 459 his accesment of 1628 and to the short parliasion to the protectorate, 463 ; calls a ment, 2 1 6 ; promotes root and branch parliament, 464 ; is forced to dissolve bill, 243 i nis remarks on the soldiers it, 466 * abdicates, 467* , of the parliament, 2 7 2 ; raises the Ironsides, 278 \ victorious at Gains- Cromwell, Robert, 408. borough, 2 8 2 ; at Winceby, 2 9 1 ; ^ at Cromwell, Sir Henry, 408. Marston Moor, 2 9 8 ; his quarrel with Cromwell, Sir Richard, 408. Manchester, 3 0 1 ; accuses him in the Cropredy Bridge, battle of, 296. commons, 303 ; a proposal to accuse, Culpepper, Sir John, avows his attach3 0 4 ; is sent against Oxford, 3 0 9 ; is ment to primitive episcopacy, 243 ; named lieutenant-general and helps opposes the grand remonstrance, 256; to gain the battle of Naseby, 3 * 0 ; is is appointed chancellor of the exemployed to appease the soldiers, chequer, 259; sent into the west 3 2 8 ; becomes the political leader with the Prince of Wales, 30S ; adof the army, 329 > *s iri favour of al- vises Charles II. to go to Scotland, lowing Charles a personal treaty, 358* 3 3 3 ; turns against Charles, 3 3 5 ; is sent against the Welsh rebels, 337 J Dalnaspidal, 4*4* against Hamilton, 339 ? defeats the Darnel, Sir Thomas, 145Scots at Preston, 3 4 0 ; comes to Dartford, 338* an understanding with Argyle, 3 4 2 ; Daventry, 3^9 3 * ^ 479* declares his approval of Pride's Deal Castle, 338* Purge, 345^ _ member of the high Deane, Colonel Richard, 394> 45* court of justice, 348 ; quells the Declaration of Sports, the, 88; ordered mutineers at Burford, 356 \ is made to be read from every pulpit, x86. commander-in-chief and governor of Declaration of the Army, the, 330. Ireland, 360 j storms Drogheda, 3615 Delawarr, Thomas West, Lord, is apand Wexford and goes into winter pointed governor of Virginia, 5 0 ; quarters, 3 6 2 ; is repulsed at Kilkenny saves the colony, 5** and Clonmel, 3 6 4 ; is appointed lord Denbigh, William Fielding, first Earl general and invades Scotland, 368 5 of, chosen to relieve Rochelle, 145; retreats to Dunbar, 3C9 ; gains battle fails in the attempt, 150of Dunbar, 3 7 0 ; takes Edinburgh, Denbigh, Basil Fielding, second Earl 3 7 i Perth, 373 ; defeats Charles at of, 346* Worcester, 375 ; declares for a Denham, Sir John, a baron of the exmonarchical settlement, 3 8 1 ; is dechequer, X84. sirous to help the Huguenots, 3 8 8 ; Deptford, 338tries to avert the Dutch war, 39* J Derby, Countess of, defends Lathom his conversation with Whitelocke, House, 297. 396 j expels the parliament, 397 > Derby, James Stanley, seventh Earl of, calls the little parliament, 3 9 9 ; ac374 375* cepts the resignation of the members, 4 0 2 ; becomes protector, 4055 his Derby, Charles Stanley, eighth Earl of, 469* early life, 4 0 8 - 4 0 9 ; his ecclesiastical policy, 4 * 5 kis tolerance, 4 1 1 - 4 x 2 ; Dering, Sir Edward, 243. his legal reforms, 4*3 ? * * policy in Derry, town of, 48. *s Scotland, 4*5 * Ireland, 4 * 6 - 4 * 9 5 Desborough, John, named major-general of the west, 428 \ confirmed in
2 a 1
0

INDEX*

47** East India Company, the, Devizes, 2S2. *7* Devizes, the Castle of, 313. Eastern Association, the, 278. Devonshire, Charles Blount, Lord Eastland Company, the, 17. Mountjoy, Earl of, 21, 22, 44. Edgehill, battle of, 275. D'Ewes, Sir Simonds, 247. Effiat, the Marquis of, 120. De "With, Admiral, 393* Egerton, Sir Thomas, lord keeper, made Digby, George, is returned to the short lord chancellor and Baron Ellesmere, parliament, 216 * opposes the bill for 5 ^ his judgment in the case of the attainting Strafford, 2 3 8 ; avows his Post-iiQ>ti, 35 J dies, 76* attachment to " primitive episco- Eglesham, Dr., his book against Buckpacy," 243 ; goes over to the king, ingham, 157* and is created a peer, 259 ; joins the Eglinton, Alexander Montgomery, cavaliers at Kingston, 263 ; is imLord, 3 4 ; peached, 2 6 4 ; denounces the GlaBihoti Bast like, 383* morgan treaty, 318. Ejectors, the, 4*0. E^igby, Sir Everard, 27, 29, 30. Digby, Sir John, is sent ambassador to Elba, sea fight off, 393* Spain, 6 1 ; is created Lord Digby of Elcho, David Wemyss, Lord, 314, 3*5* Sherborne and sent to Vienna, 103; Eleven members, the, accused by the army, 330** is created Earl of Bristol and returns to Spain, 1 1 2 ; is ordered to return, Eliot, Sir John, returned to parliament of 1624* * * 7 urges a war with Spain, zz6 \ is forbidden to attend parlia1 1 8 ; returned to parliament of 1625, ment, but appears and accuses Buckingham, 140-141 \ is restored to 132; of 1626, and denounces Buckfavour, r55 J takes the lead in the ingham, 139 J moves a remonstrance, great council at York, 224 * tries to 140 ; a manager in the impeachment save Strafford, 239* of Buckingham, 1 4 1 ; is imprisoned, Digby, Sir Kenelm, 318. 1 4 2 ; a leader in the parliament of Digges, Sir Dudley, X04, 132* 14* 142* 1628, 1 5 1 ; moves a protestation, 161 * Dillon, Viscount, 258. is imprisoned, 162; remains in prison Directory, the, ^3 84until his death, 163. Distraint of knighthood, 168, 242. Elizabeth, daughter of Charles I., 349* Dohna, Baron, 92* Elizabeth, daughter of James I., 2 7 ; Doncaster, Lord, Q2. married to Frederick, elector palaDonnington Castle, 302. tine, 6 2 ; urges him to accept the Doon Hill, 369. Bohemian crown, g2. Dorchester, Viscount- See Carleton, Ely O Carroll, district of, plantation in, Sir Dudley. 48. Dorislaus, Isaac, Dr., 359 Engagement, the, 335 Dorset, Thomas Sackville, Earl of, lord Epernon, the Duke of, 143. treasurer, 21, 22, 37* Episcopacy in England, debates on, Dort, Synod of, 128. 2 4 3 " 4 4 J suppression of, 384* Douglas, Sir Joseph, 358. Episcopacy in Scotland, revival of, by Downs, naval battle of the, 225. James I., 51J suppression of, 209,214* Drogheda taken by Inchiquin, 3 6 0 ; re- Erie, Sir Walter, 145* taken by Cromwell, 362. Essex, Robert Devereux, second Earl Dundalk taken by Inchiquin, 3 6 0 ; re5 58* taken, 362. Essex, Robert Devereux, third Earl of, Dundee surprised by Montrose, 3*5 5 marries Frances Howard, 6 4 ; is stormed by Monk, 375. divorced from her, 64 j takes part in Dunfermline, Charles Seton, Earl of, the expedition to Cadiz, 135 ; receives 214* a command in the first bishops' war, 210 5 his remark on Strafford's im2
2

his appointment, 4 3 0 ; brings in a bill to continue the " decimation " of royalists, 4 4 4 ; opposes the address and remonstrance, 446, 447 5 his conduct towards Richard Cromwell, 463, 4641 466 ; is appointed by parliament to nominate for commissions in the army, 4 6 8 ; is appointed general of the horse by the officers,

Dungeness, battle of, 393* Dunnottar Castle, 375. Dunrobin Castle, 366. Dunse Law, 212. Durham, 223, 462. Dury, John, 420.
Dunkirk, 178, 3 8 8 , 389* 394 45 4 2 , ' 44^1 45^> 45 * 455~457
2

$02

ENGLAND,

1603-1660.

lord deputy in Ireland, 193 ; offers peachment, 237 is appointed general by the parliament, 2 6 7 ; fights the the "graces" in return for a grant, battle of Edgehill, 275 ; saves London *94 is recalled, 194* from the king, 2 7 6 ; takes Reading, Falkland, Lucius Cary, second Vis2S0 \ relieves Gloucester, 2 8 5 \ fights count, is returned to the short parliathe first battle of Newbury, 2 S 6 \ unment, 216 ; in long parliament objects successful before Oxford, 296 loses to the demand for Strafford's arrest his army in Cornwall, 3 0 0 ; resigns his before the charge has been prepared, command, 37* 2 2 8 ; moves that a charge be drawn Ettrick Water, the, 3*6.^ against Finch, 229 * votes for the Eure, George, Lord, sits in the little attainder of Strafford, 2 3 8 ; avows parliament and in Cromwell's house his attachment to "primitive" episof lords, 45*^* copacy, 243 ; opposes the bin for exEure, "William, Lord, case of, 168. cluding the clergy from temporal office, 2 5 1 ; opposes the grand reEvangelical^ union of German promonstrance, 2 5 6 ; is appointed secretestant princes, 54* 9-^> 93* -Q3* tary of state, 2 5 9 ; is killed at NewEvesham, 285, 300. bury, 286. Excise, the, 284? 382^, 400. Farnham, 3 * * Exeter taken by Prince Maurice, 2 8 5 ; ] Henrietta Maria at, 3 0 0 ; surrendered Fauconberg, Thomas Bellasyse, Lord, Exeter, David Cecil, Earl of, 223* Eythin, James King, Lord, 298, 299. Fairfax, Lady, 347* Fairfax, Ferdinando Fairfax, second X iscount, is appointed^ to command for the parliament in ^ orkshire, and is defeated at Tadcaster, 3 7 7 ; is defeated on Adwalton Moor, and becomes governor of Hull, 2 8 1 ; storms Selby, and takespart in the siege of York, 295 * smd in battle of M.arston Moor, 299. Fairfax, Sir Thomas, defeats Sir William Savile, 2 S 0 ; surprises Wakefield and is defeated at Adwalton Moor, 281 * defeats Lord Byron at Nantwich, 2 9 4 ; joins the Scots before York, 295 j commands left wing at Marston Moor, 298 ; is appointed commanderin-chief of the new model, 3^5 1 besieges Oxford, 3 9 gains battle of Naseby, 3x0 ; of Langport, and takes Bristol, 3 * g ins battle of Torrington and takes Exeter, 3 1 9 ; besieges Oxford, 3 2 0 ; confers with a deputation of the house of commons, 327 orders a general rendezvous at Newmarket, 328 ; occupies London, 333 ; becomes third Viscount Fairfax, and quells royalist rising in Kent and Essex, 3 3 S ; is named a member of
2 a

to Fairfax, 3*9*

Fawkes, Guido, 25, 26, 28-30* Feake, Christopher, 4^9* Felton, John, murders the Duke of Buckingham, 157-. Feoffees for impropriations, the, 174* Ferdinand of Styria (the Emperor Ferdinand II.), 90, 9^* 93* * 3 , 104, 167* Ferdinand III., Emperor, 436. Fiennes, Nathaniel, named a commissioner to attend Charles in Scotland, 247 ' surrenders Bristol and is tried
r

452, 458*

Fecamp, 375*

by court-martial, 283*

sents himself, 347 5 refuses to approve the execution of Charles I., 3 5 3 ; quells the mutineers at Burford, 3 5 I scruples to invade Scotland and resigns his office, 3 6 8 ; heads a rising in the north of England, 447.^ Falkland, Henry Cary, first Viscount,

the high

court of justice, 3 4 6 ; ab-

Finch, Sir John, speaker, 1 6 0 ; appointed chief justice of the common pleas, 1 7 8 ; is active in the enlargement of the forests, 179 5 his judgment in Hampden's case, 1 8 4 ; is appointed lord keeper, 215 * impeachment and flight of, 229* Fisher, John, 170. Five articles, the, of Perth, 88. Five knights case (Darnel s case), X 4 5 . Five members, the impeachment of, 259* Fleetwood, Charles, colonel, is employed to appease the soldiers, 328 ; lieutenant-general and takes part in the battle of Worcester, 374 ; becomes lord deputy of Ireland, 4*71 *s recalled, 4 x 8 ; one of the protector s major-generals, 43 o opposes the address and remonstrance, 4 4 6 - 4 4 7 j Cromwell's son-in-law, 4 5 8 ; holds meetings of officers at his house, 4 6 4 ; compels Richard Cromwell to dissolve parliament, 466 * is appointed commander-in-chief by the restored parliament, 468 ; is reduced to be one

Fifth monarchy men, 355 427, 442 454 457* 4^3*

4*>

49>

INDEX.

53

of a committee, 4 7 1 * his impotence, Goodwin, Sir Francis, case of, 12-13. Goodwin, Thomas, 303. Gorges, Sir Ferdinando, 49* Fleming, Adjutant-General, 337* Goring, George, betrays the army plot Fleming, Sir TThomas, chief baron, his to^ the parliamentary leaders, 237 J judgment in Bate's case, 36 ; joins joins ^ Rupert, 2 9 7 ; commands the in Coke s opinion regarding proroyalist left wing at Marston Moor, clamations, 4 2 9 8 ; his misconduct^ in the west, Fleming, Sir William, 366. 3 0 8 ; summoned to join Charles, but Floyd, Edward, case of, 101. returns to the west, 309 5 defeated by Forests, royal, enlargement of the, 179* Fairfax at Langport, 3 1 2 ; resigns and 242. goes to France, 319. Fortescue, Sir John, I2* Forth, Patrick Ruthven, Earl of, com- Gosnold, Bartholomew, 49. mands at Edgehill, 275 j is appointed Grant, ^John, 26, 291 30. commander-in-chief of the royal army, Gravelines, 45c* 276 ; Earl of Brentford and deprived Gravesend, 3 3 * Great contract, the, 4** of his command, 302. Greenway, Oswald, Father, 29, 30. Foulis, Sir David, case of, 169* Grenville, Sir Bevil, 277, 282. Fox, George, 385* 4*^, 45^ Frankenthal, 109. Grenville, Sir John, 477 479* Frederick IV., King of Denmark, 394 Grenville, Sir Richard, 3*9* 420. Gregory XV., Pope, 114. Frederick, Elector Palatine, marries the Grey of Groby, Thomas Grey, Lord, Lady Elizabeth, 62 \ offers to mediassists m Pride's Purge, 345 * disate between the Emperor Matthias affected to Cromwell, 428. and the Bohemians, go; is elected Grey of Wilton, Thomas Grey, Lord, king by the Bohemians, 92 is detakes part in the Bye plot, 75 is confeated in the battle of the White demned, reprieved and dies in the Mountain, 93 takes refuge at the Tower, 9* Hague, 103 * loses the Palatinate, Grotius, 179* 109 \ dies, 166. Frederick Henry, Prince of Orange, Grove, Hugh, 428. Guiana, English claim to, 8 0 , ^3^> 3 * 8 . Frias, Duke of, Constable of Castile, 21, Gustavus Adolphus, King of Sweden,
4742

22.

124, 167*

Hakewill, William, 4 0 , 68. Gabbard, the battle of the, 405. Hale, Matthew, 413. Gainsborough, combat of, 282. Hamilton, James Hamilton, Marquis of, enlists volunteers for the Swedish Galway, city of, 377* service, 1 6 7 ; sent by Charles to Gal way jurors, the, J96. negotiate with the covenanters, 208 * Garnet, Henry, provincial of the Jesuits, his failure, 209 * sent on an. expedition 7 29, 3^* to the Firth of Forth, 212 * advises Gascoigne, Sir Bernard, 341. Charles to call an English parliament, Gauden, Dr. John, author of Eikon 2 1 4 ; his temporising conduct, 2 4 9 ; Basilihe, 383* induces, Charles to reject Montrose's General Assembly of the Confederate offers and is created a duke, 2 8 9 ; Catholics (Irish), 287. leader of the war party in Scotland, General supplication, the, 206. 3 3 7 ; invades England, 3 3 9 ; his deGerard, John, colonel, 421, 4-3> 4 4 * feat and surrender, 3 4 0 ; trial and Gerard, John, Jesuit, 7* 25, 3 * execution, 354. Glemham, Sir Thomas, 299. Glen cairn, William Cunningham, Earl Hamilton, town of, 37^* Hammond, Robert, colonel, 334. or, 4*4* Gloucester, Henry, Duke of, youngest Hampden, John, refuses to pay shipmoney, 183 ; judgments given in his son of Charles I., 349* 396case, 1 8 4 ; is returned to the short Gloucester, siege of, 2 8 5 ; attempt to parliament, 2 1 6 ; his tactics, 217 > _ surprise, 469* disapproves of the bill of attainder tjrone, William, colonel, 402. against Strafford, 2 3 8 ; his opinion Gondomar, Count of. See Sarmiento, regarding Church government, 244 ID on Diego.
2

Fronde, the, 359*

Hacker, Francis, colonel, 347 349*

54

ENGLAND,

1603-1660.

is named a commissioner to attend mission to Ireland, 3*7> arrested by Charles I. in Scotland,^ 2 4 7 ; imthe council in Dublin, 3 1 8 ; released, peached by Charles, 2591 joins Essex 320. after the battle of Edgehill, 2 7 6 ; j Herbert, Sir Edward, attorney-general, mortaily wounded at Chalgrove Field, impeaches the five members, 259. 280. Hereford, city of, 3 8 , 3 * Hampden, Sir Edmund, 145. Hermanszoon, James (Arminius), 128. Hampton Court, conference at, xo, i x ; Heveningham, Sir John, 145Charles I. at, 333, 334 ; Cromwell at, Hewitt, Dr., 455* High court of justice, the, 346. 458Hillingdon, ^321Hane, Joachim, 407* HisttiotncLstix, a treatise by Prynne, 186. Harington, Lord, 27Harrison, Thomas, major-general, 346. Holbeche, 2 g . Holborne, Robert, 183. 368, 373* 374* 397* 39^, 4^9* 4*^7* Holland, Earl of. See Kensington, Hastings, Sir Francis, 15Viscount. Havre, 407. Hazlerigg, Sir Arthur, is impeached by Holies, Denzil, holds the speaker down in his chair, 1 6 0 , is imprisoned, 163 5 Charles I., 259 5 hostile to the Proimpeached by Charles L , 2 5 9 ; imtector Oliver, 4^5* 44cs_ 453 * ^ the peached by the army, 3 3 0 ; sent on Protector Richard, 463 ! m the council deputation to Charles II., 480. of state, 475* HecuLs of the Proposals, the, 33*~333J Holmby (or Holdenby) House, 325, 329. Hopton, Sir Ralph, raises Cornwall for 343* Charles I., 2 7 7 ; gains the battle of Heath, Sir Robert, solicitor-general, Braddock Down, 2 7 9 ; gains battles J 3 2 , 1 3 3 5 attorney-general, 1 4 0 ; chief of Stratton, Lansdown and Roundjustice of the common pleas, and disway Down, 2 8 2 ; invades Hampshire, missed, xyS. 2 9 1 ; is defeated at^ Cheriton, 295 * Heidelberg, XOQ. sent into the west with the Prince of Heligoland, treaty of, 367* ^t ales, 3 0 8 ; made commander-inff Helwys, Sir Gervase, 66, 73chief, defeated at Torrington, and Henderson, Alexander, 207. surrenders to Fairfax, 319. Henrietta Maria, sister of Louis XIII. (Queen of England, 1625), treaty for Horton, Thomas, colonel, 337* marriage of, to Prince Charles, 117* Hotham, John, son of Sir John, 263, 280, 281.^ 120; ^ marriage to Charles I., 1 3 1 ; her differences with her husband, 137 Hotham, Sir John, 263, 266, 280, 281. taste for theatricals, 187J informed of House of lords abolished, 3 5 3 ; a new one established by the advice and the army plot, 2 3 7 ; rumour that she remonstrance, 445 ? selection of is to be impeached, 2 5 9 ; urges the members of, 4 5 2 ; attacked in the king to seize the five members, 2 6 0 ; house of commons, 453* 454* sails from Dover,^ 2 6 4 ; sends cargo of arms to the king, 267*. lands at Howard, Frances, Countess of Essex and Countess of Somerset, 6 4 - 6 6 , Bridlington Quay, 280* reaches Ox73* 74* ford*/ 281" goes to Exeter, 3 0 0 ; sails from Falmouth to France, 3 0 0 ' ad- Howard, Henry, Lord, made a privy councillor and created Earl of Northvises the king to make an agreement ampton, 5 one of the negotiators of with the Scots, 3 2 0 ; and to make the treaty of peace with Spain, 2 1 ; concessions as to Church government, accepts a pension from Spain, 22 j 3 2 4 ; chooses the Earl of Holland to furthers tbe divorce of the Countess head an insurrection, 33 8* of Essex, 6 4 ; opposes the calling of Henrietta, youngest daughter of Charles a parliament, 69 * dies, 84. ** ^ > Howard of Escrick, Edward Howard, born at Exeter, 300* Lord, 223, 247. Henry IV. of France, 6, 54* Henry Frederick, Prince of Wales, Howard, Thomas, Lord Howard de Walden, created Earl of Suffolk, 5 ; proposed marriage of, with the^ Inarrests Fawkes, 2 8 ; is appointed fanta Anne, 2 2 ; ^ other marriage treasurer, 84 J prosecuted in Star schemes for, 61 * dies, 62. Chamber for misconduct and deprived Herbert of Raglan, Edward Somerset, of his office, 84, Lord, his statement of his losses in the civil war, 2 7 1 J is created Earl Howard, Thomas, Lord Maltravers, of Glamorgan, and employed on a
1 2 #

INDEX.

recovers earldoms of Arundel and Ironsides, the, 278. Surrey, 5 * imprisoned by Charles Isabella, the Infanta, 8, 21. s I., 140 j again imprisoned, 142" re- Islip, royalists defeated at, 309. stored to favour, 155 ; commander- Israel, Manasseh ben, 4*2. in-chief of army destined to invade Scotland, 210. Jamaica, conquest of, 43^* Hudson, Michael, Dr., 321. James I., his accession, 1; his character and opinions, 2-4 ; arrival in EngHuguenots, the, 123, *37 *43 *58j 3889 land, 5 ; choice of advisers, 5 ; re407. solves to end war with Spain, 6 ; Hull, secured by Sir John Hotham for hostile to Puritans and leniently disthe parliament, 263} besieged by posed towards Roman catholics, 7 Newcastle, 285 the siege raised, 291. presides at Hampton Court conferHungerford, 286. ence, 10* his speech to parliament, Huntly, George Gordon, Marquis of, 1 2 ; desire for complete union of 211. Scotland with England, 15 > change Hurry, Sir John, of feeling towards catholics, iS * his 3*5* improvidence, 33 5 lavish^ use of proHurst Castle, 3 4 * 4* clamations, 38 , negotiation with Hutchinson, John, colonel, 349* 354* house of commons for the suppresHutton, Sir Richard, a justice of the sion of military tenures, 3 9 - 4 * J policy common pleas, 183, 184. towards the Scottish Kirk, 5**"5*^ Hyde, Edward, returned to the short makes an alliance with the United parliament, 216 * his action there, 218 ; promotes a bill in the lng Provinces, 53 > with the French, 55 calls a parliament, 67 J dissolves it, parliament to abolish the star chamber 6 9 * his conflict with Chief Justice and the council of the north, 2 4 2 ; opposes the bill for excluding the Coke, 7 5 - 7 6 ; desires a Spanish marriage for his son^ Charles, 7 7 ; his clergy from temporal office, 251 treatment of Raleigh, 8 3 ; visit to opposes the grand remonstrance, Scotland, 8 7 j policy in German, af2 5 6 ; is accepted by Charles I. as an fairs, 93 ; calls a third parliament, adviser, 2 5 9 ; his correspondence 94 remits^ penalties inflicted on Bawith Charles, 2 6 5 ; sent into the con, 100 j in conflict with the house west with the Prince of Wales, 3 8 j of commons, 1 0 5 ; dissolves parliaadvises Charles II. to go to Ireland, ment, 106 ; takes up negotiation for 3581 sent by Charles II. as ambasthe Spanish marriage, 1 0 9 ; is persador to Spain, 387. suaded by Charles and Buckingham Icolmkill, band and statutes of, 53. to change his foreign policy, 1 1 5 Icoiiocleistes, a pamphlet by Milton, 383* calls a fourth parliament, 1 1 7 ; negoInchiquin, Lord, president of Munster, tiates a French marriage for Charles, 3 4 357* 3 6 0 , 364* n g - 1 2 0 ; sends Mansfeld to regain Incident, the, 250. the Palatinate, 1 2 1 ; his death, 124.
2

James, Duke of York, second son of Instrument of government, the, 4 0 3 , Charles L , falls into the power of the parliament, 324 5 escapes from 404* England, 337 ? takes part in attempt Inverary, 37-^on Mardyke, 4 5 1 ; and in the battle Inverkeithing, 373* of the Dunes, 4 5 5 ; takes command Inverlochy, battle of, 3*5* of the fleet, 480. ^ Inverness, 4*5* Ireton, Henry, commissary-general, is Jamestown in Virginia, 50. employed to appease the soldiers, Jenkins, William, 373328 j drafts the Heads of the Pro- Jephson, Colonel, 442. posals, 3 3 * 5 and the remonstrance of Jermyn, Henry, 237. the army, 5 4 4 ; a member of the high Jersey, island of, 365* 377* 379* court of justice and resolute for theJohn IV., King of Portugal, 377* 378 execution of Charles I., 348 j his 42x, 438* understanding with Lilburne, 3 5 2 ; John, Don, of Austria, 45*3 455* sent to Munster, 3 6 0 ; follows Crom- John George, Elector of Saxony, go, well to Dublin, 3 6 1 ; left as lord 93* deputy in Ireland, 365 ; takes Waterford, 3 7 6 ! 3 n Limerick, and dies, 377* John William* Duke of Cleves and >d Juhers, 54*

Ingoldsby, Richard, colonel, 465* 479* Innocent X . , Pope, 358*

506

ENGLAND,

1603-1660.

to take the councillor's oath, 452 \ Johnston, Archibald, of "Warriston, 207* Jones, Michael, colonel, besieges Chesis returned to Richard Cromwell's ter, 3 1 3 ; is sent to Ireland by the parliament, 464* defeats Sir George parliament, _ and defeats Preston at Booth, 4 6 9 ; expels the parliament, Dungan Hill, 3 4 2 ; and Ormond at 4 7 1 ; confronts Monk on the border, Rathmines, 360. 473 ; is deserted by his men, 474 \ surrenders, 475 5 m the Tower, 476 \ Joyce, George, cornet, 328, 3 9 escapes, 478 > is retaken, 479* Juliers, town of, 54* Juxon, William, Bishop of London, I Lambeth Articles, the, xx. appointed lord treasurer, 1 8 2 ; attends Lambourn, river, 302. Charles I. at his execution, 349. Lanark, William Hamilton, Earl of, 315 ; in correspondence with Argyle, 3 5 8 ; becomes Duke of Hamilton on Keble, Richard, 354* Kelso, 212, 3 * 6 . his brother's death and gains the conKennet, river, 286, 302. j fidence of Charles II*, 37*^ > his Kensington, Henry Rich, Viscount, 1 death, 375* sent as ambassador to Paris, 1 1 7 ; Langdale, Sir Marmaduke, 310, 339, created Earl of Holland, 120 ; sent ! 34* with a petition from the parliament to Charles, 2 6 8 ; deserts from the I Langport, battle of, 312. parliament to the king and from the ! Lansdown Hill, battle of, 282. king to the parliament, 285 ; is chosen ; L a Pree, fortress of, r 44to head the royalist insurrection in Lathom House, defence of by the England, fails and is taken prisoner, I Countess of Derby, 297. i Laud, William, preaches before James 338 5 condemned and executed, 354* in Holyrood, 8 7 ; a leader among the Kentish Knock, battle of the, 393* Anglo-Catholics, i 2 g ; censured by Kentish petition, the, 266. the house of commons, 155* 1 6 0 ; Ker, Gilbert, colonel, 373* ecclesiastical adviser to Charles, x66 * Keyes, Thomas, 26, 29, 3^his early career, 169, 170 J Bishop ot Keymis, Captain, 81. St. David's, Bath and Wells, London, Kilkenny, city of, 287? 3^^> 364* 377* 1 7 0 ; hostile to the lecturers, 1 7 2 ; Kilsyth, battle of, 315. speech in Sherfield's case,^ 173 ; Kineill Castle, attacks the feoffees for impropriations, 249* 1 7 4 ; attends Charles to Scotland and Kineton, 275is appointed Archbishop of CanterKing, John, Bishop of London, probury, 176 ; his correspondence with nounces sentence on Legate, (52; a Wentworth, 177 > made a commiscommissioner for the Essex divorce sioner of the treasury, 1 8 0 ; rebukes case, 64* Chief Justice Richardson, 1 8 6 ; his Kingston-on-Thames, 263, 33^ metropolitical visitation, 187 , presses Kmnoull, Lord, 365* 366* for strong measures against Roman Kinsale, 136, 357* 363* catholics, 1 9 2 ; in Scotland, 2 0 6 ; in Knaresborough, 297. England, 2 1 9 ; the commons resolve Knewstubs, John, 10. to impeach and the lords commit to Kyle of Sutherland, the, 366. prison, 2 2 g ; at the bar of the lords, Lake, Sir Thomas, 84. 3 0 5 ; ordinance of attainder against Lambert, John, commands for the and execution of, 306. parliament in the north of England, Lauderdale, John Maitland, Earl of, 339 receives the surrender of 332, 34** 358 375* Hamilton, 3 4 0 ; is left in Scotland to support Argyle, 3 4 > *- l^rmbar, 37^ I Laugharne, Rowland, colonel, 337* defeats Scots at Inverkeithing and is League and Covenant, the Solemn, 290. sent in pursuit of Charles II., 3 7 3 ; is Lecturers, the, 172* nominated lord deputy of Ireland, Lede, Marquis of, 433* 3 9 5 ; wishes to call a new parliament, Legate, Bartholomew, burnt as a heretic, 62. 3Q 8 * effects dissolution of the little , parliament, 402 ; helps to frame the Legge, Captain, 2 6 2 ; Colonel, 334* instrument of government, 403 * de- l^egnorn, 393* 4 3 sires a war with France, 4 2 2 ; a Leicester, Robert Sidney, second Earl of, is appointed lord-lieutenant of major-general, 430 ; opposes the Ireland, 2 5 2 ; is ordered by the address and remonstrance, 446; refuses parliament to repair to Dublin, 25^ I
2 1 2 a
2

INDEX.

57
commands the ship-money fleet in 1635* *79 s commander-in-chief of royal army, 274 killed at Edgehill,

is hindered from going by Charles, '

288* j 39!

Leicester stormed by Charles I., recovered by Fairfax, 311. 275* Leighton, Alexander, author of Stones | Lisle, John, 354* Plea against Prelacy, zjiz; condemned | Lisle, Sir George, 34** by the Star Chamber, 173; released] Littleton, Lord, carries the great seal by parliament, 229. j to York, 266.
Leith, 212, 368? 37*) 373* 4*5*
1

Lennox, Ludovick Stuart, Duke of, Lockhart, Sir William, 399* 439> 455* Lockyer, Robert, 356* 73London Company, the, sends an exLenthall, William, speaker of the long pedition to colonise Southern Virparliament, ^ 2 2 7 ; his behaviour on ginia, 4 9 " is remodelled, 50. the king's visit to the house of com- Londonderry, county of, 48, I97> ^57* mons, 2 6 1 ; leaves Westminster and Longford, county of, plantation in, 48* goes to the army, 3 3 declines to Lome, Lord, 140. See Argyle, Earl of. move when the parliament is expelled, Lorraine, the Duke of, 3 * 8 . 3 9 7 ; is chosen speaker in the first Lostwithiel, Essex's army surrenders at, parliament of the protectorate, 4^4 300. is invited by the officers to return Loudoun, John Campbell, Earl of, 207, with the long parliament, 467* 2*4* 366* Leon, Isle of, 135* Leopold, Archduke, takes possession of Louis XIII., King of France, 120, 121, *23, 124, *3*? *37 *38j *43 *45* Juliers, 54* Leopold, Archduke, son of Ferdinand Louis XIV., King of France, 359 422, III., 439 ; elected emperor, 456. 434> 435 439> 45* 45^, 457> 467* 468. Leslie, Alexander, is chosen to com- Love, Christopher, 373* mand the army of the covenanters, Lubeck, peace of, 166. 2 1 0 ; encamps on Dunse Law, 2 1 2 ; Lucas, Sir Charles, 338) 34** crosses the Tweed, 222 j crosses the Lunsford, Colonel, 257* 258, 263* Tyne, 223 ; is created Earl of Leven, Lutter, battle of, 143 250 * leads a Scottish army to the Liitzen, battle of, x6y . help of the parliament, 2 9 4 ; takes Lynn, 291, 32** part in the siege of York, 295 ; and Macdonald, Alaster, 313-315. the battle of Marston Moor, 2 9 9 ; is Macgregor, clan of, extirpated, 53* given the command-in-chief against Macleod, Neil, of Assynt, 366. Cromwell, 3 6 8 ; is taken prisoner, Macmahon, Ewer, Bishop of Clogher, Leslie, David, 298-299? 3*^ 3 * 6 , 3 6 8 364* 376 37o, 373* Macmahon, Hugh, 253. Levant Company, the, 17, 36 Maguire, Cuconnaught, 47. Levellers, the, 333> 335 355* Maguire, Lord, 253* Lewis, island of, attempt to plant colony Maidstone, battle of, 338. of Lowlandcrs in, 53. Main plot, the, 7* Lilburne, John, punished by the Star Maine, 379* Chamber for contempt of court, 189 j Man, Isle of, 374, 377, 378. released by the long parliament, 2 2 9 ; Manchester, Earl of. See Mandeville, a leader of the democratic party, 355 > Viscount. banished by the long parliament, Mandeville, Edward Montagu, Viscount, returns, is tried and acquitted, 401. signs the petition for calling a parliament, 223 ; impeached by Charles I., Limerick, 364* 376} 377* 259 J Earl of Manchester and is made Lincoln, city of, taken by the royalists, general of the eastern association, 2 8 2 ; surrendered to the parliament, 2 9 1 ; re-taken by Rupert, 2 9 5 ; re- 2 8 4 ; takes part in siege of York, 297 returns to Lincolnshire after the covered by the parliament, 301. battle. of Marston Moor, 299 5 kis Lincoln, Theophilus Clinton, Earl of, quarrel with Cromwell, 3 0 1 ; deforbidden to take his seat in the nounces Cromwell in the house of house of lords, 147. lords, 3 0 3 ; resigns his command, Lindsay, Sir James, 24* 3 0 7 ; declines to sit in the protector's Lindsey, Robert^ Bertie, Earl of, athouse of lords, 452, tempts the relief of Rochelle, *57 >
2 m

Liverpool, 297*

508

ENGLAND,

1603-1660.

Mannheim, 109. Mansell, Sir Robert, secretary to the navy, 66, S4. Mansfield., Count, 92, 103, *og, 121,123. Manwaring, Dr. Roger, 153* *55> 217-

ment in Ulster, 342, 3 6 0 ; takes part in battle of Dunbar, 3 7 0 ; storms Dundee, 3 7 5 ; sits in the little parliament, 3 9 9 ; quells Glencairn's rebellion, 4 * 4 i protests against the expulsion of the parliament, 4 7 * I Mardyke, 45 45** invades England, 4 7 4 ; restores the Maria, the Infanta, 61, 110, 113* * * 5 excluded members, 4 7 6 ; sends a Marie de Medicis, regent of France, 54* message to Charles II., 478 ; receives Market Drayton, 39* Charles at Dover, 481. Market Harborough, 310. Monopolies created, 95, 96, * 8 i ; statMarkham, Sir Griffin, 7> 9* ute of, 1 1 9 ; condemned by the house Marshall, Stephen* 290. of commons, 229. Marten, Harvey, 333* 348* Monro, Robert, major-general, 287, Martin, Sir Henry, 185* ^89- 3 6 . Mary, eldest daughter of Charles I., Monro, Sir George, 339 44** married to William of Orange, 232. Montagu, Edward, 437* 438* 468, 47>
2

Maryland, 379* Massachusetts, 10S, 379*

Massey, Edward, governor of Gloucester for the ^parliament, 285 named lieutenant-general of the Irish army, 327 J accused by the army, 33 3 3 \ attempts to surprise Gloucester, 469. Massimi, De, papal nuncio at Madrid,
3

Matthias, Emperor and King of Hun- Montmedy, 45*gary and Bohemia, 90, 92. Montreuil, Jean de, the agent of France, Maurice, Prince, son of Frederick Elecwith the Scots, 320. tor Palatine, 268, 2S2, 2S5, 300, 3^ > Montrose, James Graham, Earl of, 380. sent by the covenanters against Maurice, Prince of Orange, 54* 73* *23 Huntly, 211 ; joins in the bond of < 128. Cumbernauld, 222 j urges Charles I. Maximilian, Duke of Bavaria, QO, 93* to visit Scotland, and is imprisoned, 103* 2 4 6 ; his letters to Charles,^ 2 4 9 ; is Maxwell, Dr. John, 176. released, 250 * proposes to raise^a war Maxwell, James, 228, 229. in Scotland, 289 ; his offers rejected May, Sir Humphrey, 132. by Charles, 2 9 0 ; made lieutenantMayflower^ the, voyage of, 107* general^ of Scotland and a marquis, Maynard, John, 33^ 429* 2951 3i*s unsuccessful invasion of Scotland, 295 ; crosses the lowlands Mazarin, Cardinal, 3 * 8 , 359 388, 46> in disguise, 3 1 3 ; raises an army of 421, 4 * 439 44^* 455* 456 highlanders and gains battles of TipMeldrum, Sir John, general of the permuir and Aberdeen, 3 1 4 ; of Invereastern association, relieves Gainslochy, Auldearn, Alford, and Kilsyth, borough, 2 S 1 ; besieges Newark, 295. 315 > his political difficulties and overMelville, Andrew, throw at Philiphaugh, 3 1 6 ; ordered 4* by Charles to quit Scotland, 324 ; his Merchant adventurers, the, 17last expedition, 365 his capture and Mercurius Politicus, official newspaper, execution, 366. 383* Montserrat, island of, 379* Michell, Sir Francis, 96* 97* *o* Middlesex, Earl ofl See Cranfield, More, Roger, 253Morgan, Colonel Thomas, 414. Lionel. Morton, Sir Albert us, 04. Middleton, John, general, 414. Morton, Thomas, Bishop of Chester, 88. Midland Association, the, 27S. Mountnorris, Lord, case of, 198. Military tenures, 14, 16, 39? 4** Mulgrave, Edmund Sheffield, Earl of, Millenary petition, the, 6 223. Milton, John, 292,^355* 3^3* 4 * 3 Multyfarnham, Abbey^ of, 253Mompesson, Sir Giles, 96, 97 101. Monarchy abolished, 353 > restored, Munster, English rising in, 363* 34* Muscovy company, tne, 17. 479* Monk, George, made prisoner at Nantwich, 2 9 4 ; commands for the parlia2
2 2

113*

Montagu, Richard, 132, *33_ *55* Montagu, Sir Henry, chief justice, 96. Montagu, Walter, 158. Montaigne, George, Bishop of London, made Archbishop of York, 155* Monteagle, Lord, 25, 28. Monthly assessments, the, 284, 382, 401,
425, 4P 7*
2

478* 4 8 0 .

INDEX.

59

Nantwich, battle of, 294. Naseby, battle of, 3 Naunton, Sir Robert, 83.

Spain, 2 1 ; his neglect of administrative duty, 84 j his resignation, 85. Novum Orgamim, the, of Bacon, 125. Noy, William, proposes inquiry into Navigation Act, the, 39^, 39** conduct of referees for patents, 9 7 ; Naylor, James, case of, 443* attorney-general, 173 proposes levy Needham, Marchmont, 383. of ship-money, 178. Neile, Richard, Bishop of Lichfield, concerned in cases of Legate and Nye, Philip, 290. Wightman, 6 2 ; commissioner for j Essex divorce case, 64, 69, 160, 169. Oatlands, 3 ^ Neuburg, Wolfgang Wilhelm, Count Oblivion, the act of, 382. O'Cahan, Sir Donnell, 4 6 , 47. Palatine of, 54. O'Connolly, Owen, 253* Neville, Christopher, 69. O'Dogherty, Sir Cahir, 47. Neville, Sir Henry, 67. O'Donnell, Rory, Earl of Tyrconnel, Nevis, island of, 379, 4 3 2 2

Newark-upon-Trent, 295- 3 ^> 3 4 *

2 2

Newbridge, 296. Newcastle, 267, 299, 324, 325. Newcastle, Duchess of, 27*Newcastle, William Cavendish, Earl of, 2 3 7 ; named governor of Hull by Charles L , 2 6 3 ; general of the royal forces in the north, 276 * gains battles of Pierce Bridge and Tadcaster, 277 ; conquers the West Riding, 280, 2 8 1 ; is created a marquis and lays siege to Hull, 2 8 5 ; raises the siege, 2 9 1 ; marches against the Scots, 294 J s shut up in York, 295 ; is^ relieved by Rupert, 2 9 6 ; takes part in the battle of Marston Moor, 298 ; escapes to the continent, 2gg.
i

O'Donnell, Sir Niall Garv, 47. Okey, Colonel John, 3 * 0 . Oldcorne, Father, 30. Olivares, Count of, 104, no, x i 2 , 113* O'Neill, Daniel, 246.
2

O Neill, Hugh, 364? 365* 376* O Neill, Owen Roe, 253* 287, 3 6 , 3 4 *
2

Newcastle, town of, 267? 324*

2

Newdigate, Richard, justice upper bench, 4 9 *

New 133-

of

the

Gag for an Old Goose, a theological treatise by Richard Montagu,

Newmarket, 328. New model army, the, 3^4* 3^7 39* Newport, Christopher, 50. Newport, Lord and Lady, 192. Newport, treaty of, 343* Nineteen propositions, the, 266. No addresses, vote of, 3 3 6 , rescinded, Northampton, Earl of. See Howard, Henry. North Queensferry, 373* Northumberland, Henry Percy, ninth Earl of, 25, 27, 30, 102. Northumberland, Algernon Percy, tenth
Earl of, 183, 220, 222, 273*
343*

New Hampshire, 379*

New Ross, 363*

O'Neill, Sir Phelim, a leader in the Irish rebellion, 252. Orinoco, river, 81. Ormond, James Butler, Earl^ of, is instructed by Charles I. to seize Dublin Castle, 252 "7 created a marquis and appointed commander of royal forces in Ireland, 2 8 7 ; empowered to negotiate with the Irish, 288 ; appointed lord-lieutenant and empowered to resume the negotiation, 3 1 7 ; concludes a treaty with the Irish, 3 2 0 ; offers to surrender his fortresses to the English parliament, 3 2 6 ; lays down his office and leaves Ireland, 342 ; returns as lord-lieutenant, 343 ; union of parties under, 3 5 7 ; he invites Charles II. to Ireland, 3 5 8 ; threatens Dublin, but is defeated at Rathmines, 3 6 0 ; his weakness, 363 J is deposed by the bishops and retires to France, 3 7 6 ; is sent to London by Charles II., 4 5 4 ; returns to Flanders, Overbury, Sir Thomas, 65, 66, 73* Owen, John, Dr., 385* Owen, Sir John, 354* Oxford, Henry de Vere, Earl of, 102. Oxford, the treaty of, 278 j surrender
of the city of, 3 4 *
2

357* 363..

455*

Norwich, George Goring, Earl of, 338, Packe, Sir Christopher, 444. Paimboeuf, 380. 354* Panzani, Gregorio, 191* Nottingham, 268. Nottingham, Charles Howard, Earl of, Parliament of 1604, 1 2 ; of 1614, 68 ; of 1621, 94 oi* 1624* 117* of 1625, 132 lord high admiral, one of the neof 1626, 1 3 9 ; of 1628, 1 4 7 ; the short gotiators of the treaty of peace with

ENGLAND,

1603-1660.
2 0 1

parliament, 216 ; the^ long parlia- Portsmouth, 237* 3 9 3 * ment, 2 2 0 ; first expulsion of the long j Post-uciti, the. See Calvin's case. parliament, 3 9 7 ; the little or Bare- j Powell, Vavasor, 49* bone's parliament, 396 ; the first. Powick Bridge, skirmish at, 274. parliament of the protectorate, 4 2 4 ; }Poyer, John, colonel, raises revolt in the second parliament of the proWales, 337* tectorate, 4 4 5 third parliament Poynings Act, repeal of, demanded, of the protectorate, 4 6 5 ; restoration 288. of the^ long parliament, 4 6 7 ; second Poyntz, Sedenham, major-general, 3*2, expulsion of the long parliament, 4 7 3*3* second restoration of the long parliaPyeTtioitition to Moft&rchs, the, treatise ment, 474by James, 4. Pastrana, Duke of, 113* Press, restraints on the, 382-383. Paul V Pope, 78. Preston, battle of, 339"34^* Peacham, Edmund, case of, yo-yz. Preston, Thomas, colonel, afterwards Pembroke Castle, 337. general, 287, 3 4 * Pendennis Castle, 277, 319. Pride's Purge, 345. Peneguaio, the Count of, 421. Propositions of Newcastle, the, 3 4 Penn, William, admiral, 378* 4 3 ~ 4 3 * 3 5 Pennine Hills, the, 297Providence, island of, 388. Penruddock, John, 428. Prynne, V/illiam, author of HistrioPercy, Henry, 237. mastix, condemned in the _ Star Percy, Thomas, 25, 28, 29. Chamber, 1 S 7 ; condemned again for Perrot, Sir James, 104. writing against the bishops, 1 8 8 ; Perth, taken by Montrose, 3 * 4 * y released by the long parliament, 229. Cromwell, 373* Pularoon, island of, 389* Petition and advice, the, 44^* Petition of Right, the, drawn up, 1 4 9 ; Puntal, fort of, 135* 136* , John, returned to ^assented to by Charles, 1 5 1 ; doubtful Py162X, 94 to parliament parliament of of 1625, 132 ; construction placed on 03' the house to the short parliament where he of commons, 154* takes the lead of the commons, 2 1 6 ; Phelips, Sir Robert, 98, 104, 106, 132, denounces Strafford in the long 7.39* parliament, 228 ; opens the impeachPhilip II., King of Spain, 21. ^ ment against Stranord, 234 J opposes Philip III., King of Spain, his concern the introduction of a bill of attainder, in the affairs of the empire, 9 * 5 238 suggests a general protestation, orders Spinola to invade the Pala2 4 0 ; supports the root and branch tinate, 93 > makes use of the marriage bill, 244 * drafts the ten propositions, scheme to keep James neutral, 1 0 3 ; 2 4 6 ; promotes the grand remondies, 104. strance, 256 j refuses the chancellorPhilip IV., King of Spain, accession of, ship of the exchequer, 259 > impeached 104 * reception of Charles and Buckby ^ Charles I., 259 proposes an ingham, 112-114* breaks off marriage excise, 284 dies, 292. treaty, 1 1 5 ; sends Rubens to negotiate with Charles I., 1 6 6 ; will not Queensferry, 369* bind himself to Charles, 178 i his relations with the commonwealth, Radcliffe, Sir George, 223, 224. ^ 360, 387~388 ' with the protector, Raleigh, George, 81. 422, 432-434* with Charles II., 387* Raleigh, Sir Walter, dismissed from his places, 6 * accused by Cobham 439* of complicity in the Main plot, 8 ; Philiphaugh, rout of, 3 * 6 . condemned and reprieved, 9 ; released Pierce Bridge, battle of, 277. from the Tower, 79 5 allowed to make Plymouth, battle of, 393* a voyage to South America, 8 0 ; his Plymouth Company, the, 49. failure, 8 1 ; return to England and Pollard, Hugh, 237. execution, 82. -ironterract, 277* Popham, Sir John, lord chief justice, g, Ranters, the, 385* Rathmines, battle of, 360* 49* Reading taken by Essex, 2 8 0 ; rePorter, Endymion, n o , 111, occupied by Charles, 287 J abandoned Portland, battle of, 394* by Charles, 295 I Fairfax at, 33-*-* Porto Farina, action of, 433,
1 v
2

INDEX. Rebellion, Irisb, of 1641? 253* Reigate Castle, 338Rejnonstrcince of the Army,

5"
blockaded there by Blake, _ 3 6 0 ; escapes, 3 6 3 ; takes shelter in the Tagus, and afterwards at Toulon, 3 7 8 ; arrives in the West Indies,

Remonstrance, the Grand, 255-257Retz, De, coadjutor of Paris, 380. Revocation, act of, Scottish, 174* Reynolds, John, Dean of Lincoln, 10.
Rh,

the, 344-

Rutland, George Manners, Earl of, 223*

Ruyter, De, 393* 4^5*

380.

Rhode Island,

the Isle of, 144, 393*

379*

Richelieu, Cardinal, becomes chief minister of Louis XIII., 1 2 0 ; desirous to keep on good terms with England, 13^* *43 > his reception of Walter Montague, 1 5 8 ; makes a treaty with the Dutch for the partition of the Spanish Netherlands, 17S * declines to interfere in the dispute between Charles and the Scots, 225. Richmond and Lennox, James Stuart,

Sa, Dom Pantaleon, 421, 4 4 *

2

Sackville, Sir Edward, 99, 104.

St. Alban s, 33> 344*

Saffron Walden, 327. St. St. St. St.

St. John, Oliver, counsel for Hampden, 183 ; returned to the short parliament, 2 1 6 ; his feelings after the dissolution, Duke of, 33** 35^** 218 ; appointed solicitor-general, 233 ; speaks for the attainder of Strafford, Rigby, Alexander, besieges Lathom 239 leader of the house of comHouse, 2Q7*_ mons in the civil war, 293 * chief Rinuccini, Giovanni Battista, Archjustice and ambassador to the United bishop of Fermo, papal nuncio in Provinces, 39^* Ireland, 3*7 3 ^ 34 > 357* St. John, Sir Oliver, lord deputy in Robinson, John, 107. Ireland, 193* Rochelle, 123, 138, *44> ^-45 *5^* *57* St. John, Oliver, of Marlborough, 70*58 4^7* St. Martin, town of, 144* Rochester, Henry Wilmot, Earl of, 428. St. Mary Port, 135. Rolle, Henry, chief justice, 4 9 * St. Neot s, 338. Rookwood,^ Ambrose, 27, 29, 30. St. Quentin, 45-*-* Roos, W^illiam Cecil, Lord, 84. St. Venant, 451. " Root and branch bill,"_ 243, 244. Salisbury, Earl of. See Cecil, Robert. " Root and branch" petition, the, San Domingo, city of^ 43** Rosny, Sieur de, sent by Henry IV. of Sandown Castle, 3381 34** France on an embassy to James, 6. Sandys, Sir Edwin, 68, yo, 102, 119, Rossetti, Count, 220, 246. 132Rosslare Fort, 362. San Lucar, 135* Rothes, John Leslie, Earl of, takes part Santa Cruz, battle of, 449. in revising the draft covenant, 207. Santa Cruz, island of, 388. Roundway Down, battle of, 282. Santander, 113* **4* Rouse, Francis, 4o, 4 San Thom6, 81. Rovida, Alessandro, 21. Santiago de la Vega,^ 4 3 * Rowton Heath, battle of, 313. Sarmiento, Don Diego, ambassador Roxburgh, Robert Ker, Earl of, 260, from Philip III, to James, 63, yo 80, Rubens, Peter Paul, 166. 82, 94, 108. Rudyard, Sir Benjamin, X04. Savile, Sir "William, 280. Rupert, ^ Prince, taken prisoner by the Saye, William Fiennes, Lord, refuses imperialists, 2 2 5 ; joins Charles I., to pay ship-money, 1 8 3 ; refuses an 2 6 8 ; is made general^ of the horse, oath tendered by Charles, 212* signs 2 7 4 , conduct at Edgehill, 275 ? storms the petition for calling^ a parliament, Brentford, 276i; sallies from Oxford, 223 > declines to sit in Cromwell's 2 8 0 ; takes Bristol, 2 8 3 ; conduct at house of lords, 452. first battle of Newbury, 2 8 6 ; relieves Scarampi, Pietro Francesco, papal leNewark, 295 ; relieves York, 2 9 7 ; is gate in Ireland, 288. defeated at Marston Moor, 299 is Scariffhollis, battle of, 376. appointed commander-in-chief, 3 0 Schomberg, Marshal, 145. is defeated at Naseby, 3*0 J surrenders Scilly Isles, the, 3*9> 377J 378* Bristol, and is disgraced by Charles, Scrooby, village of, toy. 312j takes command of the royal fleet, 343 goes to Kinsale, 357 i**
a
2 2

St. Kitt s, 379*

Andrews, 87. Fagan's, battle of, 337* George s Chapel, V/indsor, 35* George s Hills, 355*

0 2

5 * *
1

ENGLAND,
1

1603-1660.

t-Jeaforth, George Mackenzie, Earl of,

3*-5*
m

Glasgow, and afterwards of St. Andrews, 52, 87, 175* -204, 206. Stade, fortress of, 145* *5*^* Sedgwick, Robert, major, 422. j Stafford, Captain, 362. Selby, 295* Selden, John, imprisoned, 102 ; returned j Stamford, Henry Gre3 Earl of, 279* to parliament of 1624, 117* o* 1625,j 2 S 2 . f 132 ; author of ^ the Mare Clausum, 1 Stapleton, Sir Philip, 247* 179 * votes against the attainder of j Star Chamber, the, 30, 70, 84, 142, 160, Strafford, 238 1 introduces bills con- I * 6 g , 173* * 8 7 - i 9 ^ * 201, 242. demning ship-money, the distraint of j Start, the, 37 * knighthood and the enlargement of j Stayner, Captain, 438* 449* the forests, 242 ; his opinion con- i Stirling, 3*5* 375* cerning episcopacy, 244. j S to well, Sir John, 401. ^ Self-denying ordinance, the first, 3*^5 1 J Stow on the Wold, action of, 320. the second, 307* I Strachan, Archibald, colonel, 366, 3 7 * Service-book, the Scottish, 204-205. I Straiton, Sir Alexander, of Lauriston, Settlement, act of, for Ireland, 416. ! 5 * Seymour, Sir Francis, I I 8 , 134* j Strath Fleet, 366. Seymour, William, marries Arabella j Stratton, battle of, 282. Stuart, his imprisonment and escape, Strickland, Walter, 3 9 ; 5 7 ; Earl of Hertford, signs the peti- Strode, William, imprisoned for acts tion for calling a parliament, 223 * done in the house of commons, 163 ; Marquis of Hertford, commands for released, 215 ? brings in a bill for Charles in the south-west, 277, 282. annual parliaments,^230. Shaftesbury, 3^*Stuart, Arabella, cousin of James Shakespeare, William, 125. 7* Sherborne Castle, 3 * 2 . 8, 56* 57Sherfield, Henry, case of, 173Stuart, Elizabeth, 140. Ship-money, first writ of, issued, 178 ; Suckling, Sir John, 237* second, 1S1 * third, 182 j fourth, 209 \ Suffolk, Earl of. See Howard, Thomas. Suffolk, Countess of, 84. declared unlawful, 242. Supreme council, the (Irish), 2 8 7 , 3*7* Shrewsbury, 274- 9 7 326, 3 4 2 . Shirley, Sir Thomas, case of, 12. Susa, the peace of, 166. Sibthorpe, Dr. Robert, 153. Synott, Colonel, 362. Simpson, John, 409. Tables, the, 206. Sindercombe, Miles, 444* Skippon, Philip, appointed to command Tadcaster, battle of, 277* the city militia, 263 \ surrenders at Tanfield, Sir Lawrence^ chief baron, IvOstwithiel, 30c* * major-general in joins in Coke s opinion regarding the new model, 305 ; at Naseby, 3 1 0 ; proclamations, 40. appointed lieutenant-general ^of the Tate, 2 ouch, 3c*5Irish army, 3 2 7 ; sent to pacify the Taunton, 39 3 discontented soldiers, 328. Teme, river, 374* Slaney, river, 362. Tenby Castle, 337. Slingsby, Sir Henry, 455Texel, the battle of, 406. Smith, John, 50. Thame, 280. Somerset, Earl of. See Carr, Robert. Theobalds, mansion of, 5, 124. Southampton, Henry Wriothesley, Thomasson collection of pamphlets, 382. Earl of, 5, 49, 102. "Thorough, the policy of, 177* South Molton, 428. Thorpe, Francis, baron of the exchequer, Southwell, 3 * 429* Sparke, Thomas, 10. Thurn, Count, 9 2 . Spencer, Henry Spencer, Lord, sent Tilbury Fort, 332. by Charles I with a message to the Tilly, Count, 109, *43 *5*^* parliament, 274 ; becomes Earl of Tippermuir, battle of, 3*4Sunderland, and is killed in battle of j. itcnneiu, 334* Newbury, 286. Titus, Captain, 4 5 * Speymouth, 367* J. oiras, Marshal, 144. Spice Islands, the, 389Tomlinson, Colonel, 400. Spinola, the Marquis, 78, 93* -23. Tompkins, Nathaniel, 283. Spottiswode, John, Archbishop of Torrington, battle of, 3*9*
( T 2 2 2 2
I T

INDEX.

53
1

Tortuga, island of, 388. Torwood, near Falkirk, 373Traquair, John Stuart, Lord, treasurer of Scotland, 206, 2x4. Tresham, Francis, 27* 28, 30. Tressilian Bridge, near Truro, 3*9* Triennial Act, the, 233. Triers, the, 4 * 0 . Trim, 288. Triploe Heath, 3 3 Tromp, Martin, destroys Spanish fleet in the Downs, 225 refuses to strike his flag to Blake, 3 9 * J gains the battle of Dungeness, 3 9 3 ; loses the battle of Portland, 394 * srid the battle of the Gabbard, 405 * is killed in the battle of the Texel, 406. political treatise of James I-, 3* Tuam, the Roman catholic archbishop of, 3 * 8 . Turner, Mrs., 66, 73* Turnham Green, 276. Twysden, Thomas, 429. Tyrone, Hugh O'Neill, Earl of, submits to the Lord Deputy Mountjoy, 4 2 ; his disputes with his vassals, 4 6 ; flight from Ireland and death, 4 7 .
True Law of Free Monarchies, the,

ment, 475* Van Galen, 393*

of notes taken by his father in council used against Strafford, 235 ; helps to originate the root and branch bill, 243 ? proposes to vest ecclesiastical jurisdiction in mixed body of clergymen arid laymen, 2 4 4 ; appointed a commissioner to negotiate with the Scots, 289 ; a leader of the house of commons in the civil war, 293 J his republican principles, ^355 he protests against the expulsion of the long parliament, 3 9 7 ; refuses to sit in the little parliament, 3 9 6 ; imprisoned for a pamphlet, 4 4 > returned to the parliament of 16591 465 > m the restored long parliament, 468 ; consents to act with the army, 4 7 X ; in retire-

Vaudois, the persecution of, 434*435 Venables, Robert, general, 431-432. Vere, Sir Horace, 93* Verney, Sir Edmund.^ 362. Vieuville, L a , Marquis of, 120. Villa Mediana, Count of, 21. Villiers, Sir Edward, 94, 9 6 . Villiers, George, introduced to James, 7 2 c r e a t e d Baron Whaddon and Viscount Villiers and Earl of Buckingham, 7 4 ; takes part with Raleigh's Ulm, the treaty of, 93. friends, 79 ; veers round to Spanish Undertakers, the, 68, 94* side, 83 * created a marquis and overUnited Provinces, the, refuse the mediathrows the influence of the Howards, tion of James I. in their war with 84 ' appointed lord high admiral, 85 J Spain, 2 1 ; make a twelve years abandons the monopolists, 98 * votes truce with Spain, 53 intervene in against Bacon s sentence, zoo * gains , the affair of Cleves and Juliers, 54, influence over the Prince of ^Vales, 7 8 ; redeem the cautionary towns, n o ; extorts the king's consent to 7 9 ; conclude a defensive treaty with their visit to Madrid, i n *, offends England, 121 * join in the expedition to Cadiz, 134 > make a treaty with the Spaniards, 1 1 3 ; is created Duke of Buckingham, 115 urges James to France for the partition of the Spanish call a parliament, 116 ".^brings about Netherlands, 178" their policy with the impeachment of Middlesex, 1 1 8 ; regard to the commonwealth, 3.59* distrusted by the house of commons, 3 9 0 ; causes of disagreement with, 134 * sent by Charles as ambassador 3 8 9 - 3 9 * peace with, 4*9* to the Hague, 137 attacked in the Upper bench, court of, 354* house of lords, 1 4 0 ; impeached, 1 4 X ; Upton, 374* his unsuccessful expedition to the Urban VIII., Pope, **5 * 9 * " Isle of Rh6,144-145 ; again denounced Ussher, James, Archbishop of Armagh, in the house of commons, 15 x ; mur>^}7 -M4 4 * * * dered, *57" Uttoxeter, 34* Villiers, Sir John, 77* Uxbridge, the treaty of, 3o6"307*
1 7

Valentine, Benjamin, 160, 163, 215. Visitation, Laud s metropolitical, 187* Vane, Sir Henry, the elder, sent as Vlotho, battle of, 225. . ambassador to Gustavus Adolphus, Vowell, Peter, 4 3 * 1 6 7 ; made secretary of state, 215 ; his action in the house of commons, Waad, Sir VVilliam, 6 6 . 217-218 ; advice as to the Scots, 219 ; Wagstaffe, Sir Joseph, 428. Wakefield, 28 x. a witness against Strafford, 235* Vane, Sir Henry, the younger, copy Wakes, the Somerset, 186. V O L , VII, 33
2

Virginia, the colony of, 49~5 *; 379*

<<

5*4

JENCxJL^lJ^J'jy^ 1 6 0 3 - 1 6 6 0 .

W^alier* Edmund, 283, 284. . ! W^ghtman, Edward, 62.. Waller; Sir William, defeated at Lans-, { William II., Prince of Orange, 232, 359* down, 2 8 2 ; at Roundway Down, 390* 283 * entrustefd with defence of home William III., Prince of Orange,* 406, counties, ,284*, gains battle of Cheri4*9* 4*^* ton, 2 9 5 ; defeated at- Cropredy .Williams, John, Dean of Westminster, Bridge, 2 g 6 ; joins Manchester, 3 0 1 ; advises Buckingham "not to defend his charges against Manchester,, 30^ ? " monopolies,-g8; is made Bishop of resigns his command, 3 0 7 ; is accused Lincoln and lord keeper, 102. * deby the army, 3 3 _ prived of the great seal and forbidden Tallin gford, "William Knollys, "Visto take his seat in the house of lords, count, 84* * "I47 restpred to favour, *55 5 his Walmer Castle, 338* enmity with Laud, 1 7 0 ; opposes the Wandesford, Christopher; i g 6 , 252. metropolitical visitation, 187 5 proseWarner, Thorn as,-3 79. cuted in the Star Chamber, igo; his Warrington, 340, 374* 4^9* scheme of Church government, 2 4 4 ; Warwick, 276, 374. appointed Archbishop of York, 2 5 1 ; Warwick, Robert Rich, Earl of, - 223* impeached, 259. 273* 7 5 3^7 Willoughby of Parham, Lord, 281, 379,
2

Waterford, *93 363* 3 7 .

"Watson*, William,

380..

*
2

Wentworth, Sir Peter, 397* Westminster confession, the, 385. Westphalia, treaties of, 350, 420. W^eston, Richard, 66, 73* Weston, Sir Richard,- chancellor of the exchequer,' 1 3 2 ; made treasurer and created Earl of Portland, 165 * dies,
Wetherby, 339*

7 9"

Weston, Thomas, io7> 108.

1S0.

Wexford, plantation in county of, 48.Wexford stormed by Cromwell, 362. ^Vhalley, Edward, colonel, 3 9 - 356
2

^Vhe^atley, 280White, Francis^, lieutenant-colonel, 402. *White Mountain, the* battle o 9 3 . W'hitecoats, the, 299. Whitelocke, Bulstrode, chairman of the committee for preparing the articles against * Strafford, .236 j appointed a commissioner of-tlje great seal, 253 J his conversation with Cromwell, 3 9 6 ; appointed .ambassador to Sweden, 4 1 0 ; action after Richard Cromwell's Xanten, the treaty of, 7 8 *
p

43o

"Wilson, Sir Thomas, 82. ^^ipc^by* action at, 290. Wihdebank, * Sir Francis, appointed , secretary of state, 1 7 7 ; his catholic sympathies, i g i * called to account by the long parliament, he takes refuge in France, 229. ^Vindham, "Wadham, 4^9* Winram, George, 365. "Winter, Thomas, 25, 29, 3^* Winwick,- 34pWinwood, Sir Ralph, 68, 73, 79, 83. Witt, John de, 405, 420. Wolseley, Sir Chartes, 402. Woodstock, 296. Worcester occupied by the royalists and, abandoned, 274? reoccupied, 2 7 6 ; Charles I. retreats to, 2 9 6 ; battle of, 374* 375* Wren, Matthew, Bishop of Norwich, impeached, 247Wright, Christopher, 26, 29. Wright, John, 25, 29. *

Wilmot, Henry, 237? 7 5 285* >

Yelverton, Sir Henry, 40, 76. ^Vhitelocke, James, 4 0 , 66-67 Whitgift, John, Archbishop of Canter- Youghal, 363bury, 10, 11. Zouch, Edward la .Zouch, Lord, 73* Widdrington, Sir Thomas, 353. Zuazo, bridge of, 135* Wigan, 34*

abdication, 47** 474*

THE

ABERI>BEN

UNIVBRSITy

**1CBSS

LIMITED,