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1















WIND ENGINEERING
Ensuring the Safety and Performance of
Tall and Unique Structures in Singapore

The Institution of Engineers Singapore
May 31, 2012

Mark P. Chatten
Project Director, RWDI
[email protected]




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2

Acknowledgements

I appreciate the opportunity to work on challenging projects with
talented and motivated people. Many people at RWDI contribute to
the work and projects presented here.

Additionally, we are honored to work for our many loyal
clientsarchitects, engineers and developerswho engage us to
participate in their projects

Finally, I appreciate the Institute of Engineers Singapore for their
support in facilitating this seminar!








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Local PresenceGlobal Capability
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United Kingdom (WT 3)
United Arab Emirates
India
Saudi Arabia (RO)
Miami (WT 4)
Vancouver
Calgary
Windsor
Ottawa
Thunder
Bay
RO: Representative Offices
Santiago (RO)
So Paulo (RO)

Established in 1972
300 employees
International reputation
Exclusive methods and equipment
Proven problem solving track record
Shanghai
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International Experience
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Wind Load Chain
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Aerodynamic
Response
Dynamic
Response
Design
Criteria
Local Wind
Climate
Terrain &
Surroundings



Terrain &
Surroundings
Dynamic
Response
Local
Wind Climate
Aerodynamic
Response
Design
Criteria
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1
st
Link - Local Wind Climate
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Aerodynamic
Response
Dynamic
Response
Design
Criteria
Local Wind
Climate
Terrain &
Surroundings



Local
Wind Climate
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Origins and Characteristics of Wind
Type
equation
here.
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Origins and Characteristics of Wind
Type
equation
here.
W
E
W
W
E
North pole
Polar easterlies
Polar front
30E
10E
60E
Westerlies
Horse latitudes
Trade winds
Doldrums
General Circulation
Hadley cell
Ferrel cell
E
Equator
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Singapore Wind Climate
9
November - April May - October
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Singapore Wind Climate
10
November - April May - October
Mostly Calm!
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Singapore Wind Climate
11
November - April May - October
Extreme Winds
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Monsoon Winds
Low wind speeds!
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Singapore Wind Climate - Monsoons
13

Large scale meteorological systems (synoptic
winds)
Generate highest winds over periods of several
hours or days
Strongly directional
Low wind speeds, not significant for strength
design
Important for serviceability, evaluation of
thermal comfort and natural ventilation
Wind Profiles well characterized by wind
profiles in codes (Deaves and Harris model)






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Thunderstorms
Type
equation
here.
Gust front
Direction
of
movement
of storm
Singapore: Highest Measured Gust 145 km/hr (40m/s)
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Wind Profiles
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Singapore Wind Climate Extreme Winds
16

Thunderstorms & Squalls (Sumatras)

Unpredictable, short duration events
Impact relatively small area
Convective weather systems associated with
non-directional downbursts (strong winds can
blow from any direction)
Wind profiles not well characterized by Deaves
and Harris model
Area of ongoing wind engineering research
(current methodology likely conservative for
design of most rigid buildings)





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Characterizing Wind Climate for Design
17

Design Wind Speed Definition

Height of Wind Speed
Averaging time of wind speed
Exposure profile wind speed is measured in
Return Period

Example - Singapore

50 Year Return Period Design Wind Speed
= 33 m/s 3-Sec Gust in Open Terrain
(CP3 Terrain 1)






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Probability Distribution of the Wind
18
Hourly records of wind speed and direction over many years
allow the joint probability of wind speed and direction to be
evaluated. It is found that typically a good fit of this
distribution is given by the Weibull distribution
In this expression

Typically 16, 24 or 36 wind directions are used.
k
C
U
e A U P
) (
) ( ) , (

= u u
hour one any in direction wind the from
exceeded be will velocity y that the probabilit ) , (
u
u U U P =
direction. each wind for constants are and k C
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Extreme Value Analysis of Design Wind Speed
19
50 Year Return Period Design Wind
Speed in Singapore
= 33 m/s 3-Sec Gust in Open Terrain
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Mean, RMS and peak gust velocity
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Defining Wind Speed Durst Curve
1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
U
(
t
)
/
U
(
3
6
0
0
)
1 10 100 1000 10000
t, seconds
1.52 factor for 3 second gust
Relationship between gusts and mean hourly
speed at 10 m height in open terrain
Necessary for conversion between codes but derived from regions
where sustained strong winds occur. Misleading in Singapore, where
short duration events cause extreme winds.
(BS6399 based on mean hourly; Eurocode based on 10 min mean)
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2
nd
Link Terrain & Surroundings
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Terrain &
Surroundings
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Planetary boundary layer
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0
5 0 0
1 0 0 0
1 5 0 0
2 0 0 0
2 5 0 0
H
e
i
g
h
t
,

m
0.0 0.5 1.0
U/Ug
A
0
5 0 0
1 0 0 0
1 5 0 0
2 0 0 0
2 5 0 0
H
e
i
g
h
t
,

m
0.0 0.5 1.0
U/Ug
B
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
H
e
i
g
h
t
,

m
0.0 0.5 1.0
U/Ug
C
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
H
e
i
g
h
t
,

m

0.0 0.5 1.0
U/Ug
D
Planetary boundary layer
Mud flats, water
outside hurricane
regions
Open terrain
with few
obstructions
Suburban terrain Heavily built up
urban terrain
Planetary boundary layer and effect of
surface roughness - mean velocity
profile
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0
5 0 0
1 0 0 0
1 5 0 0
2 0 0 0
2 5 0 0
H
e
i
g
h
t
,

m
0.0 0.5 1.0
U/Ug
A
0
5 0 0
1 0 0 0
1 5 0 0
2 0 0 0
2 5 0 0
H
e
i
g
h
t
,

m
0.0 0.5 1.0
U/Ug
B
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
H
e
i
g
h
t
,

m
0.0 0.5 1.0
U/Ug
C
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
H
e
i
g
h
t
,

m

0.0 0.5 1.0
U/Ug
D
Planetary boundary layer
Mud flats, water
outside hurricane
regions
Open terrain
with few
obstructions
Suburban terrain Heavily built up
urban terrain
Planetary boundary layer and effect of
surface roughness - mean velocity
profile
No longer included in
Analytical Method of
ASCE-7 Code!!
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Eurocode Terrain Categories
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Origins of European Wind Codes
Typical European City Skyline
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Eurocode Terrain Categories
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Challenge: Urbanization & Tall Buildings
Singapore Skyline
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Influence Effects
Channeling & Funneling of Wind Flow

CFD Simulation of
Wind Flow
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Limited guidance provided in Eurocode (UK NA 2.27) considers only
the influence of a single neighboring building!
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Influence Effects
Wake Buffeting
Ferrybridge Power Station Collapse
Wind
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Influence Effects
Wake Buffeting
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Eurocode Exclusion of Wake Buffeting for Slender, Dynamically
Sensitive Buildings
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3
rd
Link Aerodynamic Response
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Aerodynamic
Response
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Turbulent Wind Impacting Building
w
v
U
z
x
y
Wind velocity
components
Note lack of correlation of wind pressures at
separate points on the building
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Bluff Body Aerodynamics
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Bluff Body Aerodynamics
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Surface Wind Pressures
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Pressure Coefficient
C
p
q
p
ref
=
p
q
ref
Wind
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Pressure Fluctuations
Wind
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40
Cladding Damage
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41
Analytical Code Wind Loads
Pressure coefficients
Cpe for 0










Wall net Cp = 1.06

rear = -0.5
-0.5
-1.3 -0.9 -1.3
-0.4 / +0.2
-1.1/+0.2 -0.8/+0.2 -1.1/+0.2
-0.8
3.2m
1.6m
plan
1.6m
plan
8m
B=40m
b=16m
D/H=1.875
B/D=2.67
+0.78 -1.3
Zone G
C
pe
= -0.5
1.88m plan
1.94m true
Zone E
C
pe
= -1.3
1.66m true
Wind at 0 (q
s
= 812Pa for ridge)
Internal pressure (assume worst range for enclosed building)
C
pi
= +0.2 / -0.3 Volume of building = (6.1 + 8)/2 x 15 x 40 =4230m
3

a = 10 x
3
\4230 = 161.7m C
a
= 0.738

Highest loaded purlin

B = 40m
b = 16m
D/H = 1.875


Area = 1.94 x 8 = 15.53m
2

Proportion of zone E = (1.66 0.97)/1.94 = 0.355
Average C
pe
= (0.355 x 1.3) + ((1 0.355) x 0.5) = -0.784
Diagonal dimension a = \(1.94
2
+ 8
2
) = 8.23m C
ae
= 0.962
Uplift on purlin :
P = q
s
x (C
pe
C
ae
C
pi
C
ai
) x A
P = 812 x (-0.784x0.962 0.2x0.738) x 15.53 = 11.4kN (enclosed, most onerous C
pi
)
P = 812 x (-0.784x0.962 + 0.3x0.738) x 15.53 = 6.7kN (uniform porosity)

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Limitations of Analytical Code Methodology
Only accounts for isolated buildings
Does not account for complex influence effects
Dynamics effects > only accounts for low & midrise buildings
where along-wind loading dominates

Strengths of Analytical Code Design Loads
Simplified easy to apply
Apply to majority of box-type buildings
Generally conservative


Analytical Code Wind Loads
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Limitations of Analytical Code Methodology
Only applies to isolated box-type buildings



Analytical Code Wind Loads
Examples of Box-Type Building Shapes in Eurocode
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Challenge: Iconic Architectural Design
Singapore
Milwaukee
London
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Challenge: Iconic Architectural Design
Beijing
Beijing
Dubai Kuala Lumpur
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Kinematic similarity simulates mean and turbulence
characteristics of wind

Boundary Layer Wind Tunnel Method
Market Street Office Tower - Singapore
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Kinematic similarity simulates mean and turbulence
characteristics of wind

Boundary Layer Wind Tunnel Method
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Boundary Layer Wind Tunnel Methodology
CCRC Building - Singapore Gardens on the Bay - Singapore
Geometric Similarity - Captures Unusual or
Complex Architecture

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Boundary Layer Wind Tunnel Methodology
Gehrys Architectural 3D CAD Model
RWDIs Pressure Study Scale Model
Integrated with 3D Design Process
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Boundary Layer Wind Tunnel Methodology
Rapid schedule
Complex 3D Geometry
Captures small details (eqv 30cm at full scale eg. Canopies)
Rapid Prototyping of Wind Tunnel Model
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Simulates Influence Effects

Boundary Layer Wind Tunnel Methodology
W Hotel Development Kuala Lumpur
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Boundary Layer Wind Tunnel Methodology
Identify Hotspots using Cladding Wind Tunnel Model

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CCRC Building (The Rock), Singapore
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Example Cladding Pressure Block Diagrams
2.75kPa!!
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Misconception

The analytical method in the code
can always be used safely to
determine design wind loads as
the method is conservative.
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Misconception

Wind tunnel studies tend to add
costs to the project
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Comparison: Wind Tunnel vs. Analytical
57
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Comparison: Wind Tunnel vs. Analytical
58
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4
th
Link Dynamic Response
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Aerodynamic
Response
Dynamic
Response
Design
Criteria
Local Wind
Climate
Terrain &
Surroundings



Dynamic
Response
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Dynamic Response
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HFFB / HFPI Aero
Image Courtesy: BLWT
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Building height
Importance
of wind
loads
Relationship between wind loads and height

Across-wind loading important
Height is over 120m
Slenderness more than 4:1
Natural period greater than 4 seconds
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Limitation of Code Analytical Loads
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Eurocode Limitation of Analytical Procedure

What about Across-wind loading?!!
Guidance provided for Chimneys &
Masts, but not buildings
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Relationship between wind loads and height
Wind velocity
Across-wind
Response
Vortex shedding
No vortex shedding
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Across-wind loading
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Importance of Vortex Shedding
John Hancock Building, Boston
1970s. No wind tunnel testing
Problems after opening
Wind & Thermal Displacements >
Glazing popped out!
Police shutdown streets when wind
exceeded 20m/s
Excessive Motion > Occupants
experience motion sickness
Retrofitted with TMD
Reputationthe worlds tallest
plywood building!
Cause ? Vortex-Induced
Oscillations (VIO)







Only accounts for isolated buildings
Does not account for influence
effects of neighboring buildings



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Vortex shedding
b
U
S N =
S = Strouhal number
U = wind speed
b = building width
Shedding frequency N is
given by
wind
Magnitude of
excitation damping density
1

Directions of
fluctuating
force
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Vortex Induced Oscillations (VIO) Taipei 101
Wind
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Control of VIO - Shaping Strategies
Softened corners

Tapering and setbacks

Varying cross-section shape

Spoilers

Porosity or openings
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Taper Effect
Petronas Towers Kuala Lumpur
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Soften Corners
International Commerce Centre Hong Kong
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Soften Corners & Taper
Signature Tower Jakarta
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Changing Cross Section & Orientation
Shanghai Center China
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Changing Cross Section, Orientation & Taper
Burj Khalifa Dubai
Lower impact
wind direction
Higher impact
wind direction
NORTH
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Wind Induced Torsional Loads
Wind
Unsymmetrical pressure
distribution due to skewed wind
direction, shape and
surrounding influences
Modal coupling, excitation of
sway modes induces torsion.
Not covered by analytical
method
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Limitations of Analytical Code Methodology
Torsion loading ignored by some codes e.g. Indonesian
Best Intl codes account for torsion wind loading for box-type
low and midrise buildings, e.g. ASCE 7-10, Eurocode
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Eurocode
Guidance for low & midrise box-type buildings (Section 7.1.2)
Excludes torsional vibrations, e.g. tall buildings with a central
core
Wind Induced Torsional Loads
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N (0 deg.)
View from North
C
-8E+07
-6E+07
-4E+07
-2E+07
0E+00
2E+07
4E+07
6E+07
B
a
s
e

T
o
r
s
i
o
n
a
l

M
o
m
e
n
t

o
n

T
o
w
e
r

C

(
N
-
m
)
10 60 110 160 210 260 310 360
Wind Direction (degrees)
Wi thout Upstream Tower B Wi th Upstream Tower B
-3E+08
-2E+08
-2E+08
-1E+08
-5E+07
0E+00
5E+07
1E+08
2E+08
B
a
s
e

S
w
a
y

M
o
m
e
n
t
,

M
x

o
n

T
o
w
e
r

C

(
N
-
m
)
10 60 110 160 210 260 310 360
Wind Direction (degrees)
Wi thout Upstream Tower B Wi th Upstream Tower B
max
min
mean
Mx
X
Y
Influence Effects Wake Buffeting
Typical Example of Wake Buffeting
Wind from 230
D
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F t p t A
Gx ij xi ij ij
j i
( ) ( ) cos =

| o
High Frequency Pressure Integration (HFPI)
Level i
Level (i-1)
Level (i+1)
Location
j-1
j
j+1
Location
Location
Tributary Area A
ij

x = direction
of modal
deflection
Normal to
tributary area
A
ij

o
ij
|
xi
A
ij

p
ij
= pressure on
tributary area A
ij

Obtain Generalized Force by Pressure Integration
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High Frequency Force Balance (HFFB)
The Met, Bangkok
Torsion
Flexure
Sway
Flexure
Rigid,
lightweight
model
F t f z t z dz
f z t
z
H
dz
M t
H
G
H
H
( ) ( , ) ( )
( , )
( )
=
~
=
}
}
|
0
0
|
z
f(z,t) = force per
unit height
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Aeroelastic Wind Tunnel Modelling
What is Aeroelastic Effects?
An aeroelastic effect is one in which wind loading, which causes
motion of the structure, is itself affected by the motion of the
structure. Examples are Flutter and Galloping
This results in a strong coupling between the aerodynamics and the
motion
Advantages of Aeroelastic Modeling
Identifies Aeroelastic Instabilities
Includes effect of aerodynamic damping
Includes detailed nature of response (peak factor)
Allows load combinations and accelerations to be measured
directly
Allows higher modes of vibration to be simulated
Disadvantages
More costly and time consuming
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Aeroelastic Model
Aeroelastic Model of Rooftop Spire of Freedom Tower, NYC
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5
th
Link Design Criteria
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Aerodynamic
Response
Dynamic
Response
Design
Criteria
Local Wind
Climate
Terrain &
Surroundings



Design
Criteria
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Wind Design Criteria
81

Serviceability Limit States

Deflections (Drift)
Occupant Comfort (Accelerations & Torsional
Velocities)
Pedestrian Wind Comfort & Safety
Fatigue

Ultimate Limit States

Strength
Aeroelastic Stability





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Motion Criteria
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Motion Simulator
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Motion Simulator
Moving Room Simulations
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Wall Centre, Vancouver
Cross Section
prone to vortex
shedding
30 Story Residential Building in downtown Vancouver
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Wall Centre, Vancouver
Tuned Liquid Column Damper
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Use of tuned mass damper Taipei 101
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Wind Load Chain
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Terrain &
Surroundings
Dynamic
Response
Local
Wind Climate
Aerodynamic
Response
Design
Criteria
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Selection of a Wind Tunnel Consultant
89

Local & International Experience
Reputation (References from Past Clients)
Consultant or just a Lab?
Range of capabilities
Quality assurance
State of the Art
Responsiveness
Knowledge of local requirements, codes
Equipment: Boundary Layer Wind Tunnels,
Instrumentation, Model Building, CFD





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Concluding Remarks
90
A commonly held misconception is that wind
engineering is not of importance in Singapore because
of its location in a relatively benign wind region that is
sheltered from typhoons, tornadoes and strong
synoptic wind-storms that dominate elsewhere.

However over the lifetime of a building in Singapore,
individual extreme thunderstorms and squall lines
(Sumatras) will impose significant wind effects -
especially those structures that are tall or have unique
architectural forms which are not covered by the
analytical methods in the Eurocode, CP3 or BS 6399.
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Concluding Remarks
91
The concept of the Wind Loading Chain
demonstrates, in any region the overall design
reliability and efficiency of a wind-sensitive structure is
only as good as the least reliable of the links.

Presently, wind tunnel model studies offer the best
estimate of the wind loading acting on a building for
cladding as well as structural frame design.

Most of the time, the small amount of money spent for
wind tunnel study will be paid off by saving significant
overall savings in either cladding or structural frames.






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Unique Structures - When to use Wind Tunnel
The analytical code methodology applies to the majority of site locations and
buildings and structures, but for some projects these provisions may be
inadequate. Examples that may require other special studies using applicable
recognized literature pertaining to wind effects or using the wind tunnel procedure
include:

1. Site locations that have channeling effects or wakes from upwind obstructions.
Channeling (Funneling) effects can be caused by topographical features (e.g.
valley) or buildings (e.g. neighboring tall buildings). Wake can be caused by
hills or buildings or other structures.
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Unique Structures - When to use Wind Tunnel

2. Buildings with unusual or irregular geometric shapes, whose shape in
plan or vertical cross-section differs significantly from the shapes
illustrated in the codes. Unusual or irregular geometric shapes include
buildings with multiple setbacks, curved facades, or irregular plans
resulting from significant indentations or projections, openings through a
building, or multi-tower buildings connected by bridges.

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Tall Structures - When to use Wind Tunnel

3. Buildings with response characteristics that results in substantial vortex-induced
and/or torsional dynamic effects, or dynamic effects resulting from aeroelastic
instabilities such as flutter or galloping. Such dynamic effects are difficult to
anticipate being dependent on many factors, but should be considered to apply
when any one or more of the following apply:

The height of the building is over 200m (Eurocode Limit).
The height of the building is greater than 4 times its minimum effective width
B
min

The lowest natural frequency of the building is less than n1 = 0.25 Hz (i.e. 4
second natural period)
The reduced velocity is less than 5 (see ASCE 7 code for definition)


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Slide transitions: Fade through Black is our standard. Never use dissolve to stop the spread of this problematic transition.
To copy slides from one file to this file, copy slides from the other file in the slide sorter view, paste into this file in slide sorter view, select all slides in slide view and
Home>reset all slides to update to the new template
Regarding dates, have a look at Insert>date
If something is to appear on every slide, view slide master and modify the top most template in left pane
To turn off the black last slide, click the office button (top left), PowerPoint Options (bottom), Advanced, Slide Show, End with black slide
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Thank you!!

Questions?

Mark P. Chatten
Project Director / Consultant
[email protected]