Operating-System Structures

Operating System Concepts 8th Edition,!

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Objectives
To describe the services an operating system provides to users, processes,

and other systems"

To discuss the various ways of structuring an operating system" To explain how operating systems are installed and customized and how

they boot"

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Introduction
An operating system provides the environment for the execution of

programs"
Operating system can be considered according to:"

the services the system provides to programs and to the users of the programs" the interface that it makes available to users and programmers" its components and their interconnections."

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A View of Operating System Services

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Operating System Services

One set of operating-system services provides functions that are

helpful to the user:"

User interface - Almost all operating systems have a user interface (UI)"
Varies

between Command-Line (CLI), Graphics User Interface (GUI), Batch (commands are entered into les, and those les are executed)"

Program execution - The system must be able to load a program into memory and to run that program, end execution, either normally or abnormally (indicating error)" I/O operations - A running program may require I/O, which may involve a le or an I/O device " File-system manipulation - The le system is of particular interest. Obviously, programs need to read and write les and directories, create and delete them, search them, list le Information, permission management."

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Operating System Services (cont.)

Communications Processes may exchange information, on the same computer or between computers over a network"
Communications

may be via shared memory or through message passing (packets moved by the OS)" occur in the CPU and memory hardware, in I/O devices, in user program" each type of error, OS should take the appropriate action to ensure correct and consistent computing" facilities can greatly enhance the user s and programmer s abilities to efciently use the system"

Error detection OS needs to be constantly aware of possible errors"

May For

Debugging

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Operating System Services (Cont)

Another set of OS functions exists for ensuring the efcient operation of the

system itself via resource sharing" Resource allocation - When multiple users or multiple jobs running concurrently, resources must be allocated to each of them"
Many

types of resources - Some (such as CPU cycles, main memory, and le storage) may have special allocation code, others (such as I/O devices) may have general request and release code "

Accounting - To keep track of which users use how much and what kinds of computer resources" Protection and security - The owners of information stored in a multiuser or networked computer system may want to control use of that information, concurrent processes should not interfere with each other" Protection involves ensuring that all access to system resources is controlled" Security of the system from outsiders requires user authentication, extends to defending external I/O devices from invalid access attempts."

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User Operating System Interface - CLI

Command Line Interface (CLI) or command interpreter allows direct

command entry" On systems with multiple command interpreters, the interpreters are called shells!
The main function of a command interpreter is to get and execute the next

user-specied command" Two approaches:" the command interpreter itself contains the code to execute the command. The number of commands that can can be given determines the size of the command interpreter" most commands are implemented through system programs. " rm file.txt "the command interpreter searches for a le called rm, loads the le into memory, and executes it with the parameter file.txt."

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Shell Command Interpreter

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User Operating System Interface - GUI

User-friendly desktop interface"

Usually mouse, keyboard, and monitor" Icons represent les, programs, actions, etc" Various mouse buttons over objects in the interface cause various actions (provide information, options, execute function, open directory, known as a folder, pull down a menu that contains commands)" Microsoft Windows is GUI with CLI command shell" Apple Mac OS X GUI interface with UNIX kernel underneath and shells available" Solaris is CLI with optional GUI interfaces."

Many systems now include both CLI and GUI interfaces"

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The Mac OS X GUI

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System Calls
Programming interface to the services provided by the OS" Typically written in a high-level language (C or C++)" Mostly accessed by programs via a high-level Application Program Interface

(API) rather than direct system call use"

Three most common APIs are:"

Win32 API for Windows, " POSIX API for POSIX-based systems (including virtually all versions of UNIX, Linux, and Mac OS X)" Java API for the Java virtual machine (JVM)."

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Example of System Calls

System call sequence to copy the contents of one le to another le"

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Example of Standard API

Consider the ReadFile() function in the Win32 APIa function for reading from a le

" "
A description of the parameters passed to ReadFile()"

HANDLE lethe le to be read" LPVOID buffera buffer where the data will be read into and written from" DWORD bytesToReadthe number of bytes to be read into the buffer" LPDWORD bytesReadthe number of bytes read during the last read" LPOVERLAPPED ovlindicates if overlapped I/O is being used"

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System Call Implementation

Typically, a number is associated with each system call"

System-call interface maintains a table indexed according to these numbers"

The system call interface invokes intended system call in OS kernel and

returns status of the system call and any return values"

The caller need know nothing about how the system call is implemented"

Just needs to obey the API and understand what OS will do as a result of the execution of that system call" Most details of OS interface hidden from programmer by API "
Managed

by run-time support library (set of functions built into libraries included with compiler)"

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API System Call OS Relationship

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Standard C Library Example

C program invoking printf() library call, which calls write() system call"

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System Call Parameter Passing

Often, more information is required than simply identity of desired system

call" Three general methods used to pass parameters to the OS" Simplest: pass the parameters in registers! In some cases, may be more parameters than registers" Parameters stored in a block, or table, in memory, and address of block passed as a parameter in a register "

approach taken by Linux and Solaris" Parameters placed, or pushed, onto the stack by the program and popped off the stack by the operating system" Block and stack methods do not limit the number or length of parameters being passed"

This

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Parameter Passing via Table

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Types of System Calls

Process control" File management" Device management" Information maintenance" Communications" Protection"

"

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Examples of Windows and Unix System Calls

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System Programs
System programs provide a convenient environment for program development and

execution"

Some of them are simply user interfaces to system calls; others are considerably more complex"

File management - Create, delete, copy, rename, print, dump, list, and generally

manipulate les and directories"

Status information!

Some ask the system for info - date, time, amount of available memory, disk space, number of users" Others provide detailed performance, logging, and debugging information" Typically, these programs format and print the output to the terminal or other output devices" Some systems implement a registry - used to store and retrieve conguration information"

"

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System Programs (cont d)

File modication!

Text editors to create and modify les" Special commands to search contents of les or perform transformations of the text" Programming-language support - Compilers, assemblers, debuggers and interpreters sometimes provided"

Program loading and execution- Absolute loaders, relocatable loaders,

linkage editors, and overlay-loaders, debugging systems for higher-level and machine language"
Communications - Provide the mechanism for creating virtual connections

among processes, users, and computer systems" Allow users to send messages to one another s screens, browse web pages, send electronic-mail messages, log in remotely, transfer les from one machine to another"

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Operating System Design and Implementation

Internal structure of different Operating Systems can vary widely" Start by dening goals and specications " Affected by choice of hardware, type of system (batch, time shared, single

user, multi user, distributed, real-time, general-purpose) "

User goals and System goals"

User goals operating system should be convenient to use, easy to learn, reliable, safe, and fast" System goals operating system should be easy to design, implement, and maintain, as well as exible, reliable, error-free, and efcient"

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Simple Structure
MS-DOS written to provide the most functionality in the least space"

Not divided into modules" Although MS-DOS has some structure, its interfaces and levels of functionality are not well separated"

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MS-DOS Layer Structure

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Layered Approach
The operating system is divided into a number of layers (levels), each built

on top of lower layers. The bottom layer (layer 0), is the hardware; the highest (layer N) is the user interface."
With modularity, layers are selected such that each uses functions

(operations) and services of only lower-level layers"

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Traditional UNIX System Structure

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UNIX
UNIX limited by hardware functionality, the original UNIX operating

system had limited structuring. The UNIX OS consists of two separable parts"

Systems programs" The kernel"

Consists

of everything below the system-call interface and above the physical hardware" the le system, CPU scheduling, memory management, and other operating-system functions; a large number of functions for one level"

Provides

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Layered Operating System

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Microkernel System Structure

Moves as much from the kernel into user space" Communication takes place between user modules using message passing" Benets:"

Easier to extend a microkernel" Easier to port the operating system to new architectures" More reliable (less code is running in kernel mode)" More secure" Performance overhead of user space to kernel space communication"

Detriments:"

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Mac OS X Structure

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Modules
Most modern operating systems implement kernel modules"

Uses object-oriented approach" Each core component is separate" Each talks to the others over known interfaces" Each is loadable as needed within the kernel"

Overall, similar to layers but with more exible"

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Solaris Modular Approach

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Virtual Machines
A virtual machine takes the layered approach to its logical

conclusion. It treats hardware and the operating system kernel as though they were all hardware"
A virtual machine provides an interface identical to the

underlying bare hardware"

The operating system host creates the illusion that a process

has its own processor and (virtual memory)"

Each guest provided with a (virtual) copy of underlying

computer"

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Virtual Machines History and Benefits

First appeared commercially in IBM mainframes in 1972" Fundamentally, multiple execution environments (different operating

systems) can share the same hardware"

Protect from each other" Some sharing of le can be permitted, controlled" Commutate with each other, other physical systems via networking" Useful for development, testing" Consolidation of many low-resource use systems onto fewer busier systems"

Open Virtual Machine Format , standard format of virtual machines, allows a VM to run within many different virtual machine (host) platforms"

"

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Virtual Machines (Cont)

" " " " " " " " " " " (a) Nonvirtual machine (b) virtual machine" Non-virtual Machine" Virtual Machine"

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Para-virtualization
Presents guest with system similar but not identical to hardware" Guest must be modied to run on paravirtualized hardwareF" Guest can be an OS, or in the case of Solaris 10 applications running in

containers"

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Solaris 10 with Two Containers

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VMware Architecture

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The Java Virtual Machine

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Operating-System Debugging
Debugging is nding and xing errors, or bugs" OSes generate log les containing error information" Failure of an application can generate core dump le capturing memory of

the process"
Operating system failure can generate crash dump le containing kernel

memory"
Beyond crashes, performance tuning can optimize system performance" Kernighan s Law: Debugging is twice as hard as writing the code in the

rst place. Therefore, if you write the code as cleverly as possible, you are, by denition, not smart enough to debug it. "
DTrace tool in Solaris, FreeBSD, Mac OS X allows live instrumentation on

production systems"

Probes re when code is executed, capturing state data and sending it to consumers of those probes "

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Solaris 10 dtrace Following System Call

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Operating System Generation

Operating systems are designed to run on any of a class of machines; the

system must be congured for each specic computer site"

SYSGEN program obtains information concerning the specic conguration

of the hardware system"

Booting starting a computer by loading the kernel" Bootstrap program code stored in ROM that is able to locate the kernel,

load it into memory, and start its execution" "

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System Boot
Operating system must be made available to hardware so hardware can

start it"

Small piece of code bootstrap loader, locates the kernel, loads it into memory, and starts it" Sometimes two-step process where boot block at xed location loads bootstrap loader" When power initialized on system, execution starts at a xed memory location"
Firmware

used to hold initial boot code"

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