Definition of Computer Networking A computer network is a group of computers that shares information across wireless or wired technology.

Computer networks used to only be available for corporations but they are affordable for small businesses and individuals. Computer networking requires two computers, a protocol and the hardware to connect them. Advantages of Computer Networks File Sharing: The major advantage of a computer network is that is allows file sharing and remote file access. A person sitting at one workstation of a network can easily see the files present on the other workstation, provided he is authorized to do so. It saves the time which is wasted in copying a file from one system to another, by using a storage device. In addition to that, many people can access or update the information stored in a database, making it up-to-date and accurate. Resource Sharing: Resource sharing is also an important benefit of a computer network. For example, if there are four people in a family, each having their own computer, they will require four modems (for the Internet connection) and four printers, if they want to use the resources at the same time. A computer network, on the other hand, provides a cheaper alternative by the provision of resource sharing. In this way, all the four computers can be interconnected, using a network, and just one modem and printer can efficiently provide the services to all four members. The facility of shared folders can also be availed by family members. Increased Storage Capacity: As there is more than one computer on a network which can easily share files, the issue of storage capacity gets resolved to a great extent. A standalone computer might fall short of storage memory, but when many computers are on a network, memory of different computers can be used in such case. One can also design a storage server on the network in order to have a huge storage capacity. Increased Cost Efficiency: There are many software available in the market which are costly and take time for installation. Computer networks resolve this issue as the software can be stored or installed on a system or a server and can be used by the different workstations. Disadvantages of Computer Networks Security Issues: One of the major drawbacks of computer networks is the security issues involved. If a computer is a standalone, physical access becomes necessary for any kind of data theft. However, if a computer is on a network, a computer hacker can get unauthorized access by using different tools. In case of big organizations, various network security software are used to prevent the theft of any confidential and classified data. Rapid Spread of Computer Viruses: If any computer system in a network gets affected by computer virus, there is a possible threat of other systems getting affected too. Viruses get spread on a network easily because of the interconnectivity of workstations. Such spread can be dangerous if the computers have important database which can get corrupted by the virus.

Expensive Set Up: The initial set up cost of a computer network can be high depending on the number of computers to be connected. Costly devices like routers, switches, hubs, etc., can add up to the bills of a person trying to install a computer network. He will also have to buy NICs (Network Interface Cards) for each of the workstations, in case they are not inbuilt. Dependency on the Main File Server: In case the main File Server of a computer network breaks down, the system becomes useless. In case of big networks, the File Server should be a powerful computer, which often makes it expensive. Types of Computer Networks Computer networks can be broadly classified into three different types of computer network topologies. LAN When a certain number of computers within an organization are connected with the use of data transfer cables, the connection is called a Local Area Network (LAN). The server is the most important of a LAN, where all the configuration to set up the LAN is done. Many types of cables can be used for forming a LAN, like the coaxial cables or twisted pair. However, the best and the fastest way to transfer information in a Local Area Network, is by the use of fiber optic cables WLAN WLAN, stands for Wireless Local Area Network. It is nothing different from a LAN. The purpose is same, that is connecting a certain number of computers within a network. But, in this case, cables are not used for forming the network. A wireless medium is set up for data transfer. Routers and access points are the most important parts of a WLAN. No doubt, a server is also set up in a Wireless Local Area Network. WAN Wide Area Network is meant to connect computers across cities as well as countries. In general, multinational companies get lease line for solving the purpose. A telephone line and a modem can also be used for the same purpose, for transferring information over such a large distance. This is what is commonly referred to as a dial up connection. Why are Computer Networks Needed? There are various reasons for having a computer network. But, let us try to understand the most important reasons. The first and foremost important use of a computer network is sharing information. Computer networks were made with the sole purpose to share information. Any user can access the resources in the computer of any other user provided the other user intends to share the same. Besides, every network consists of a server, where all the important data and information is stored. Thus, the individual computer users, do not have to store in data and applications into their own computers, they can simply access the same from the server machine. Besides, setting up a computer network in any

organization allows the computer administrator or network administrator, to have a control over the operations that are performed through those machines. A common computer security blanket can be provided to the machines and at the same time, the users can also be prohibited from performing tasks which are not allowed by that particular organization. DBMS2 A transaction processing system is a type of information system. TPSs collect, store, modify, and retrieve the transactions of an organization. A transaction is an event that generates or modifies data that is eventually stored in an information system. It is recommended that a transaction processing system should pass the ACID test. The essence of a transaction program is that it manages data that must be left in a consistent state, e.g. if an electronic payment is made, the amount must be both withdrawn from one account and added to the other; it cannot complete only one of those steps. Either both must occur, or neither. In case of a failure preventing transaction completion, the partially executed transaction must be 'rolled back' by the TPS. While this type of integrity must be provided also for batch transaction processing, it is particularly important for online processing: if e.g. an airline seat reservation system is accessed by multiple operators, after an empty seat inquiry, the seat reservation data must be locked until the reservation is made, otherwise another user may get the impression a seat is still free while it is actually being booked at the time. Without proper transaction monitoring, double bookings may occur. Other transaction monitor functions include deadlock detection and resolution (deadlocks may be inevitable in certain cases of cross-dependence on data), and transaction logging (in 'journals') for 'forward recovery' in case of massive failures. Types Contrasted with batch processing Batch processing is a form of transaction processing. Batch processing involves processing several transactions at the same time, and the results of each transaction are not immediately available when the transaction is being entered;[1] there is a time delay. Transactions are accumulated for a certain period (say for day) where updates are made especially after work. Online transaction processing is the form of transaction processing that processes data as it becomes available. Real-time and batch processing There are a number of differences between real-time and batch processing. These are outlined below: Each transaction in real-time processing is unique. It is not part of a group of transactions, even though those transactions are processed in the same manner. Transactions in real-time processing are standalone both in the entry to the system and also in the handling of output. Real-time processing requires the master file to be available more often for updating and reference than batch processing. The database is not accessible all of the time for batch processing.

Real-time processing has fewer errors than batch processing, as transaction data is validated and entered immediately. With batch processing, the data is organised and stored before the master file is updated. Errors can occur during these steps. Infrequent errors may occur in real-time processing; however, they are often tolerated. It is not practical to shut down the system for infrequent errors. More computer operators are required in real-time processing, as the operations are not centralised. It is more difficult to maintain a real-time processing system than a batch processing system. Definition: An entity-relationship (ER) diagram is a specialized graphic that illustrates the relationships between entities in a database. ER diagrams often use symbols to represent three different types of information. Boxes are commonly used to represent entities. Diamonds are normally used to represent relationships and ovals are used to represent attributes. Database normalization is the process of organizing the fields and tables of a relational database to minimize redundancy and dependency. Normalization usually involves dividing large tables into smaller (and less redundant) tables and defining relationships between them. The objective is to isolate data so that additions, deletions, and modifications of a field can be made in just one table and then propagated through the rest of the database via the defined relationships. What is SQL? SQL (pronounced "ess-que-el") stands for Structured Query Language. SQL is used to communicate with a database. According to ANSI (American National Standards Institute), it is the standard language for relational database management systems. SQL statements are used to perform tasks such as update data on a database, or retrieve data from a database. Some common relational database management systems that use SQL are: Oracle, Sybase, Microsoft SQL Server, Access, Ingres, etc. Although most database systems use SQL, most of them also have their own additional proprietary extensions that are usually only used on their system. However, the standard SQL commands such as "Select", "Insert", "Update", "Delete", "Create", and "Drop" can be used to accomplish almost everything that one needs to do with a database. This tutorial will provide you with the instruction on the basics of each of these commands as well as allow you to put them to practice using the SQL Interpreter. A Brief History of SQL The relational model, which SQL draws much of its conceptual core from, was first formally defined in 1970 by Dr. E. F. Codd, a researcher for IBM, in a paper entitled A Relational Model of Data for Large Shared Data Banks . This article generated a great deal of interest in both the feasibility and practicality of such a system in a commercial application. In 1974 IBM began the System/R project, and with the work of Donald Chamberlin and others, defined SEQUEL, a Structured English Query Language . System/R was implemented on an IBM prototype called SEQUEL-XRM in 1974-75. System/R was then re-written completely from 1976-1977 in order to implement multi-table and multi-user features. As the system was revised, it was briefly re-named "SEQUEL/2", before eventually being re-named to "SQL" for legal reasons.

1978 saw the beginning of the methodical testing of System/R at customer test sites. Demonstrating both the usefulness and practicality of the system, this testing proved to be a success for IBM. As a result, IBM began to develop commercial products that implemented SQL based on their System R prototype, including SQL/DS introduced in 1981, and DB2 in 1983. Several other software vendors accepted the rise of the relational model, and announced SQL-based products. These included Oracle (who actually beat IBM to market by two years by releasing their first commercial RDBMS, in 1979), Sybase, and Ingres (based on the University of California's Berkeley Ingres project). my sql is an open source database and can be used on any platform like windows,linux or mac. It is much easier to use. ms sql is a windows based database which can be used only on windows and is quite tuff to learn. MySQL is more likely to have database corruption issues, and it doesn't fix them automatically when they happen. I've worked with MSSQL since version 6.5 and don't remember a database corruption issue taking the database offline. The few times I've worked with MySQL in a production environment, a database corruption issue took the entire database offline until we ran the magic "please fix my corrupted index" thing from the commandline. MSSQL's transaction and journaling system, in my experience, handles just about anything - including a power cycle or hardware failure - without database corruption, and if something gets messed up it fixes it automatically. Propositional Logic Propositional logic, also known as sentential logic and statement logic, is the branch of logic that studies ways of joining and/or modifying entire propositions, statements or sentences to form more complicated propositions, statements or sentences, as well as the logical relationships and properties that are derived from these methods of combining or altering statements. In propositional logic, the simplest statements are considered as indivisible units, and hence, propositional logic does not study those logical properties and relations that depend upon parts of statements that are not themselves statements on their own, such as the subject and predicate of a statement. The most thoroughly researched branch of propositional logic is classical truth-functional propositional logic, which studies logical operators and connectives that are used to produce complex statements whose truth-value depends entirely on the truth-values of the simpler statements making them up, and in which it is assumed that every statement is either true or false and not both. However, there are other forms of propositional logic in which other truth-values are considered, or in which there is consideration of connectives that are used to produce statements whose truth-values depend not simply on the truthvalues of the parts, but additional things such as their necessity, possibility or relatedness to one another.

A set is a collection of well defined and distinct objects, considered as an object in its own right. Sets are one of the most fundamental concepts in mathematics. Developed at the end of the 19th century, set theory is now a ubiquitous part of mathematics, and can be used as a foundation from which nearly all of mathematics can be derived. In mathematics education, elementary topics such as Venn diagrams are taught at a young age, while more advanced concepts are taught as part of a university degree. In mathematics, a theorem is a statement that has been proven on the basis of previously established statements, such as other theorems, and previously accepted statements, such as axioms. The derivation of a theorem is often interpreted as a proof of the truth of the resulting expression, but different deductive systems can yield other interpretations, depending on the meanings of the derivation rules. The proof of a mathematical theorem is a logical argument demonstrating that the conclusions are a necessary consequence of the hypotheses, in the sense that if the hypotheses are true then the conclusions must also be true, without any further assumptions. The concept of a theorem is therefore fundamentally deductive, in contrast to the notion of a scientific theory, which is empirical.[2] What is Discrete Mathematics? Discrete mathematics is mathematics that deals with discrete objects. Discrete objects are those which are separated from (not connected to/distinct from) each other. Integers (aka whole numbers), rational numbers (ones that can be expressed as the quotient of two integers), automobiles, houses, people etc. are all discrete objects. On the other hand real numbers which include irrational as well as rational numbers are not discrete. As you know between any two different real numbers there is another real number different from either of them. So they are packed without any gaps and can not be separated from their immediate neighbors. In that sense they are not discrete. In this course we will be concerned with objects such as integers, propositions, sets, relations and functions, which are all discrete. We are going to learn concepts associated with them, their properties, and relationships among them among others. Knowledge management (KM) comprises a range of strategies and practices used in an organization to identify, create, represent, distribute, and enable adoption of insights and experiences. Such insights and experiences comprise knowledge, either embodied in individuals or embedded in organizations as processes or practices. An established discipline since 1991 (see Nonaka 1991), KM includes courses taught in the fields of business administration, information systems, management, and library and information sciences (Alavi & Leidner 1999). More recently, other fields have started contributing to KM research; these include information and media, computer science, public health, and public policy. Many large companies and non-profit organizations have resources dedicated to internal KM efforts, often as a part of their business strategy, information technology, or human resource management departments (Addicott, McGivern & Ferlie 2006). Several consulting companies also exist that provide strategy and advice regarding KM to these organizations. Knowledge management efforts typically focus on organizational objectives such as improved performance, competitive advantage, innovation, the sharing of lessons learned, integration and continuous improvement of the organization. KM efforts overlap with organizational learning, and may

be distinguished from that by a greater focus on the management of knowledge as a strategic asset and a focus on encouraging the sharing of knowledge. It is seen as an enabler of organisational learning[1] and a more concrete mechanism than the previous abstract research. Benefits and issues of knowledge management Some of the advantages claimed for KM systems are: Sharing of valuable organizational information throughout organizational hierarchy. Can avoid re-inventing the wheel, reducing redundant work. May reduce training time for new employees Retention of Intellectual Property after the employee leaves if such knowledge can be codified. Time management Knowledge Sharing remains a challenging issue for knowledge management, and while there is no clear agreement barriers may include time issues for knowledge works, the level of trust, lack of effective support technologies and culture (Jennex 2008).

Assignment (DATABASE A.Review on the ff. 1.What is transaction processing system ... 2Give example of TPS . Define each TPS and identify the 3.ERD 4.Normalization B. 1.What is SQL 2.History of SQL 3.Differentiate MYSQL from MSQL server 4.What are the components of MYSQL 5.What are the differentiate version of MYSQL and MSQL server ? to sa SAD nman . different definition of System Analysis and

2) topics ? components .

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Sa Discrete. Define the FF. A. Propositional. B. Logic. C. Set. D. Theorem. E. Discrete Structure. ... Sa Networking . 1.Define Computer Networking. 2. Advantages and disadvantages of Comp. Networking. 3. three types of comp. networking. 4. When do we implement Comp. Networking. tapos add mo si maam. [email protected]