1.

Periodic Table,
Periodic properties
and Variations of
Properties
Dobereiner grouped the elements in triads.
Newland observed that when elements are
arranged in increasing order of their atomic
mass, every eighth element beginning from any
element resembles the first element in its
physical and chemical properties.
Dmitri Mendeleev, a Russian chemist gave the
first periodic table of elements base on his law
which states that “the properties of elements
are the periodic functions of their atomic
masses’’.
Henry Moseley put forward the modern periodic
table. He stated that “the physical and chemical
properties of elements are the periodic
functions of their atomic number”.
The modern periodic table is also known as the
long form of the periodic table because it is a
more extended and complete version compared
to previous tables, particularly Mendeleev's
periodic table.
A tabular arrangement of elements in groups
(vertical columns) and periods (horizontal rows)
highlighting the regular trends in properties of
elements is called a PERIODIC TABLE. There are
a total of 18 groups and 7 periods.
Group 1 elements are known as Alkali metals as
they form strong alkalis with water.
Group 2 elements are known as Alkaline earth
metals as they form weaker alkalis as compared
to group 1 elements.
Groups 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 and 12 are
known as the transition elements as they have
their two outermost shells incomplete.
Group 13: Boron family - Boron is the first
member of the group.
Group 14: Carbon family
Group 15: Nitrogen family
Group 16: Oxygen family also known as
chalcogens meaning ore forming.
Group 17: These elements form salts and so
known as Halogens (meaning salt formers).
Group 18: (Zero group) — Elements of this
group are called the noble gases or inert gases.
The elements of groups 1, 2, 13, 14, 15, 16 and
17 are known as the main group elements or
representative elements or normal elements.
Lanthanides (Group 3 of the sixth period) and
actinides (Group 3 of the seventh period) have
similar properties because they belong to the
same Group 3. They are shown at the bottom of
the periodic table because they are large in
number, and if shown in the main body of the
table will distort its shape.
The third period elements, Na, Mg, Al, Si, P, S
and Cl summarise the properties of their
respective groups and are called typical
elements.
A period is determined by the number of shells
and a group is determined by the number of
electrons present in the outermost shell.
The properties that reappear at regular
intervals, or in which there is gradual variation
(i.e. increase or decrease) at regular intervals,
are called ‘periodic properties’ and the
phenomenon is known as the periodicity of
elements. The cause of periodicity is the
recurrence of similar electronic configuration
i.e. having same number of electrons in the
outermost orbit.
Since chemical properties of elements depend
upon the number of electrons in their outermost
shell, thus elements of the same group have
similar properties.
For example in group 17, i.e., halogens, all
elements have seven electrons in their
respective outermost shells, therefore, they
show similar properties, such as:
(i) they are coloured non-metals.
(ii) they form negative ions carrying a single
charge.
(iii) they are very reactive and are, therefore,
found in combined state.
(iv) they are only slightly soluble in water, but
they dissolve much better in organic solvents
like carbon disulphide, chloroform, alcohol, etc.
(v) their melting and boiling points increase
regularly moving down the group.
(vi) they are good oxidising agents.
In a given period, the number of electrons in the
valence shell increases from left to right. But
the valency increases only upto Group 14,
where it becomes 4, and then it decreases, i.e.,
in Group 17 it becomes 1.
The properties of elements which are directly or
indirectly related to their electronic
configurations and show a regular gradation as
we move across a period, from left to right or
down the group from top to bottom, are called
Periodic Properties.
Important periodic properties are:
1. Atomic size (atomic radius)
2. Metallic character
3. Non-metallic character
4. Ionisation potential (ionisation energy)
5. Electron affinity
6. Electronegativity

Atomic size
Atomic size, also called atomic radius, is the
distance from the center of the nucleus to the
outermost electron shell.
It's difficult to determine a precise boundary for
an atom, so different types of atomic radii exist,
such as covalent, Van der Waals, and ionic
radii, depending on the bonding or atomic
environment.
Atomic radius is often defined as one-half the
distance between the nuclei of two identical
atoms bonded together in a covalent bond.
Unit: Angstrom: 1A = 10-10m
Picometre: 1pm = 10-12m
Atomic size depends upon:
(i) number of shells and
(ii) nuclear charge.
An increase in the number of shells increases
the size of an atom because the distance
between the outermost shell and the nucleus
increases.
An increase in nuclear charge decreases the
size of the atom because the electrons are then
attracted towards the nucleus with a greater
force, thereby bringing the outermost shell
closer to the nucleus.
In a group, the size of an atom increases as one
proceeds from top to bottom. This is due to the
successive addition of shells (which overweighs
the increased nuclear charge) as one moves
from one period to the next in a group.
In a period, the size of an atom decreases from
left to right. This is because the nuclear charge,
i.e., the atomic number increases from left to
right in the same period, thereby bringing the
outermost shell closer to the nucleus.
The inert gas atoms are an exception to the
above statement because they are larger due to
high electronic repulsions. Inert gases have a
complete outermost electron shell, which
creates significant electron-electron repulsion
that pushes the electrons further from the
nucleus, increasing the atomic size compared to
preceding elements with partially filled shells
and lower repulsion.
Cation is always smaller than the parent atom
from which it is formed because cation is
formed by the loss of electron(s). Hence
proton(s) are more than electron(s) in a cation,
so electrons are strongly attracted by the
nucleus and are pulled inward. Hence the size
decreases.
Anion is larger than the parent atom because
anion is formed by the gain of electron(s). Thus,
the number of electron(s) is more than
proton(s). The effective positive charge in the
nucleus is less, so less inward pull is
experienced. Hence the size expands.
Size of isoelectronic ions i.e. the ions having the
same number of electrons depends upon the
nuclear charge (no. of protons). Greater is the
nuclear charge smaller is the size.

Metallic character
Metallic character in the periodic table refers
to an element's tendency to lose electrons and
form positive ions (cations).
The metallic character of elements depends on:
(i) atomic size and
(ii) nuclear charge.
(i) Atomic size: The greater the atomic size, the
farther the outermost orbit, and thus, lesser the
nuclear pull exerted on it. As a result,
electron(s) can be removed more easily from
the valence shell, thus making the elements
more metallic.
(ii) Nuclear charge: The greater the nuclear
charge, the greater is the force exerted by the
nucleus on the electron(s) of the outermost
orbit. This makes it difficult to remove the
electron(s) from the outermost orbit. Thus
metallic nature decreases.
On moving down a group, the atomic size
increases and the nuclear charge also
increases. The effect of an increased atomic size
is greater as compared to the increased nuclear
charge. Therefore, metallic nature increases as
one moves down a group, i.e., they can lose
electrons easily.
The shielding effect is a phenomenon in atoms
where inner-shell electrons reduce the effective
nuclear charge felt by the outer-shell (valence)
electrons. These inner electrons "shield" the
valence electrons from the full attractive force
of the nucleus due to their negative charges,
which repel the outer electrons.
While the nuclear charge also increases, the
increased distance and the shielding effect from
inner electrons weaken the effective nuclear
charge. This reduced attraction to the nucleus
makes it easier for atoms to lose valence
electrons, which is the defining characteristic of
metallic nature, causing metallic character to
increase down a group.
On moving across a period, nuclear pull
increases due to the increase in atomic number,
and thus the atomic size decreases. Hence,
elements cannot lose electrons easily.
Therefore, the metallic nature decreases across
a period, moving from left to right.
Elements which lose electron(s) to complete
their octet are reducing agents. Metals are good
reducing agents. Greater the tendency to lose
electron(s) stronger is the reducing agent.

Non-metallic character
Non-metallic character in the periodic table
refers to an element's tendency to gain
electrons and form negative ions (anions).
Non-metallic character also depends on:
(i) atomic size and
(ii) nuclear charge.
The smaller the atomic size, the greater is the
nuclear pull and the tendency to gain electrons.
Therefore, the element is more non-metallic by
nature.
The greater the nuclear charge, the greater is
the tendency to gain electron(s), hence more
non-metallic is the element.
The atomic size increases, due to the addition
of new shells over successive periods. Though
the nuclear charge increases, due to an
increase in atomic number, the effect of an
increasing atomic size is greater. Therefore,
non-metallic nature decreases down the group.
On moving across a period, the tendency to gain
electron(s) increases due to an increase in
nuclear pull and a decrease in the atomic size.
Therefore, non-metallic character increases
across a period, i.e., from left to right.
The oxides of elements in a particular period
show decreasing basic nature and finally
become acidic.
Down a group: The basic nature of oxides of
metals increases.

Chemical reactivity
The reactivity of elements depends upon their
tendency to lose or gain electrons to complete
their outermost orbit. Greater the tendency to
lose electron(s), greater is the reactivity in the
case of metals. Similarly greater the tendency
to gain electron(s), greater is the reactivity of
non-metals.
On moving from left to right in a period, the
chemical reactivity of elements first decreases
and then increases ending with noble gases
which are completely stable.
The tendency of loosing electrons increases
down the group. Since chemical reactivity in
metals depends upon the tendency to lose
electrons, thus reactivity increases on going
down the group.
The chemical reactivity of non-metals decreases
on going down the group as it depends upon
the tendency to gain electrons, which decreases
down the group.
Gradation in physical properties
The melting and boiling points of metals
decrease on going down the group.
The melting and boiling points of non-metals
increase on going down the group.
Across a period, left to right, melting point and
boiling point usually increases up to group 14
(IV A) and then decreases.
Density of elements across a period increases
gradually to maximum and then slight decrease
may be noticed. Down a group density of
elements increases gradually.

Ionisation potential or Ionisation

energy (I.E.) or Ionisation enthalpy
We know that the electrons in an atom are
attracted by the positively charged nucleus. So,
if we want to remove an electron from an atom,
some energy has to be supplied to overcome
the strong attraction of the nucleus. And after
the electron gets removed from the atom, the
atom then acquires one unit positive charge and
becomes a positive ion (or cation).
Ionisation potential, also known as ionization
energy, is the minimum energy required to
remove a valence electron from a neutral
isolated gaseous atom or ion to form a positive
ion. The energy needed to remove a second
electron from the already formed positive ion is
called the second ionization potential. The
process is endothermic, meaning energy must
be absorbed.
M(g) + I.E.  M+(g) + e-
Ionisation potential is a measure of how
strongly an atom holds its electrons, with a
higher ionization potential indicating a greater
attraction to electrons.
Ionization potential is defined only for gaseous
atoms and ions to ensure the measured energy
is solely dependent on the atom's intrinsic
properties, not on external forces from
neighboring atoms or intermolecular
interactions present in solids and liquids. In the
gaseous state, atoms are sufficiently far apart
to be considered isolated, allowing for a
consistent and comparable measurement of the
energy needed to remove an electron from a
single, independent atom or ion.
In solids and liquids, atoms are closely packed,
leading to strong attractive or repulsive forces
between them. These intermolecular forces can
significantly influence the energy required to
remove an electron, making the measurement
inconsistent and dependent on the specific
substance and its state.
In condensed states, the energy supplied for
ionization might be used to overcome
intermolecular forces, change the phase of the
substance, or increase its internal energy rather
than directly removing an electron. The gaseous
state eliminates these complications, ensuring
the measured energy is specifically for electron
removal.
I.E. is measured in electron volts per atom
(eV/atom) and its S.I. unit is kilojoule per mole
(kJ mol-1).
Ionisation energy depends on:
(i) atomic size
(ii) nuclear charge
(i) Atomic size: The greater the atomic size, the
lesser the force of attraction. Since the
electrons of the outermost shell lie further away
from the nucleus, thus make their removal
easier, i.e., the ionisation energy required is
less.
(ii) Nuclear charge: The greater the nuclear
charge, greater is the attraction for the
electrons of the outermost shell. Therefore, the
electrons in the outer shell are more firmly held
because of which greater energy is required to
remove the electron(s).
The ionisation energy tends to increase as one
moves from left to right across a period (with
exceptions), because the atomic size decreases
due to an increase in the nuclear charge, and
thus, more energy is required to remove the
electron(s).
There is an increase in atomic number (nuclear
charge) and atomic size down the group due to
the addition of extra shells. This increase in the
atomic size overcomes the effect of an increase
in the nuclear charge. Therefore, ionisation
energy decreases with an increase in the atomic
size, i.e., it decreases as one moves down a
group.
Metals usually have low I.E. whereas nonmetals
have high I.E.
Electron Affinity (E.A.) or Electron
Gain Enthalpy
The amount of energy released while converting
a neutral gaseous isolated atom into a
negatively charged gaseous ion (anion) by the
addition of electron is called Electron Affinity
(E.A.)
X(g) + e-  X-(g) + E.A.
Unit: electron volts per atom (eV/atom) or
kilojoule per mole (kJ mol-1). Electron affinity is
represented by negative sign [-] e.g.,
Cl(g) + e-  Cl-(g) + 349 KJ/mol.
Therefore, electron affinity of chlorine is -349
KJ/mol.
Electron affinity depends on:
(i) atomic size and
(ii) nuclear charge.
(i) Atomic size: The smaller the atomic size, the
greater the electron affinity, because the
effective attractive force between the nucleus
and the valence electrons is greater in smaller
atoms, and so the electrons are held firmly.
(ii) Nuclear charge: The greater the nuclear
charge, greater is the electron affinity, because
increase in nuclear charge increases the
effective attractive force on the valence
electrons.
In a period, i.e., from left to right in a horizontal
row of the periodic table, the atomic size
decreases and the nuclear charge increases, so
the electron affinity increases. Thus electron
affinity (E.A.) is the highest for group 17
elements (halogens) and the least for group 1
(alkali metals).
Moving from the top to the bottom in a group,
the atomic size increases more than the nuclear
charge, thereby causing a net decrease in E.A.

Electronegativity (E.N.)
The tendency of an atom in a molecule to
attract the shared pair of electrons towards
itself is called its electronegativity.
A dimensionless property is a quantity or
number that lacks any physical units and cannot
be expressed in terms of fundamental physical
quantities like mass, length, or time.
Electronegativity is a dimensionless property,
since it is only a tendency. It only indicates the
net result of the tendencies of different
elements to attract the bond-forming electron
pair.
Electronegativity values depend on:
(i) size of atom and
(ii) nuclear charge.
(i) Atomic size: The greater the size of the atom,
the lesser the electronegativity, since the
electrons being farther away from the nucleus,
experience a lesser force of attraction.
(ii) Nuclear charge: The greater the nuclear
charge, the greater the electronegativity,
because increase in nuclear charge causes
electron attraction with a greater force.
Since the nuclear charge increases due to an
increase in atomic number, electronegativity
increases from left to right in a period.
There is an increase in atomic number down a
group, i.e., nuclear charge increases, but due to
the addition of extra shells, the atomic size
increases. The effect of an increase in the
atomic size overcomes the effect of an increase
in the nuclear charge, hence electronegativity
decreases down a group.
Generally, metals show lower electronegativity
as compared to non-metals. Thus metals are
electropositive and non-metals are
electronegative.
The elements of second period differ in
properties from their respective groups. This is
due to small size of the atom and their high
electronegativity.
The elements of the second period show
resemblance in properties with the elements of
the next group of the third period, due to very
less electronegativity difference. This leads to a
diagonal relationship, viz. Li & Mg, Be & Al, B &
Si. These elements are called bridge elements.
2. Chemical Bonding
During redistribution of electrons, a bond(force)
of attraction develops between atoms, which
binds them together to form molecules. This
bond is known as the chemical bond.
A chemical bond may be defined as the force of
attraction between any two atoms, in a
molecule, to maintain stability.
When the shared electron pairs are contributed
by only one of the combining atoms, the bond
formed is known as coordinate (or dative) bond.
When an ionic compound is formed, the neutral
atom is changed to a cation or an anion. The
formation of cations and anions depends on the
following factors:
1. Low ionisation potential: If the ionization
potential of a particular atom is low, it will lose
electron(s) easily, i.e., a cation is formed easily.
2. High electron affinity: If the electron affinity
value is high, anion will be formed easily, i.e., a
higher electron affinity value favours ionic
bonding.
3. Large electronegativity difference: If the
difference in the electronegativities of two
elements is higher, then the transfer of
electrons will be easier. Therefore, more the
difference in electronegativity, more will be the
ionic nature of the resulting compound.

In the formation of an electrovalent bond, the

transfer of electron(s) is involved. The
electropositive atom undergoes oxidation, while
the electronegative atom undergoes reduction.
This is known as REDOX PROCESS.
The process by which covalent compounds are
converted into ions is called ionisation.
The more the electronegativity difference
between two atoms forming a bond, the more is
the polar nature of the molecule.
Since a polar covalent molecule has both
positive and negative poles, it is also known as
a ‘dipole molecule’.
EFFECT OF ELECTRICITY ON ELECTROVALENT
AND COVALENT COMPOUNDS
When the current is passed in the solutions of
electrovalent compounds the bulb glows. This
shows that they allow electric current to pass
through them.
Thus, ionic compounds are good conductors of
electricity in molten or aqueous states due to
free mobile ions.
When the current is passed through the
solutions of covalent compounds the bulb does
not glow. This shows that they do not conduct
electricity. This happens because solutions of
covalent compounds contain only molecules and
no ions.
The bond formed between two atoms by sharing
a pair of electrons, provided entirely by one of
the combining atoms but shared by both is
called a coordinate bond or dative bond.
A pair of electrons which is not shared with any
other atom is known as the lone pair of
electrons but it is provided to the other atom
for the formation of coordinate bond.
Conditions for the formation of coordinate bond
(i) One of the two atoms must have at least one
lone pair of electrons.
(ii) Another atom should be short of at least a
lone pair of electrons.
Coordinate bond can also be defined as a bond
formed between an ion and an atom of a polar
covalent molecule with one or more lone pair of
electrons. A coordinate bond has properties of
both covalent and ionic bonds. Therefore, it is
also called co-ionic bond.
The atom which provides the electron pair for
the formation of a coordinate bond is known as
the DONOR and the atom or ion sharing the
donated electron pair is known as the
ACCEPTOR.
A coordinate bond and is represented by “—>”.
3. Acids, bases and
salts
All acids compulsorily have hydrogen as their
constituent element in the form of proton (H+).
All bases are either metallic oxide (O2-) or
metallic hydroxide (OH-) or ammonia solution.
All salts are chemical compounds. They are
formed by the interaction of acid and base
replacing hydrogen ions present in an acid, by
metallic ion [or non-metallic ammonium ions
(NH4+)].
Acids are defined as compounds which contain
one or more hydrogen atoms and when
dissolved in water, produce hydronium ions
(H3O+) the only positively charged ions.
For example: Hydrochloric acid, sulphuric acid,
nitric acid and acetic acid when dissolved in

⇌
water produce hydronium ions.

⇌ 2H3O+ + SO42-
HCl + H2O H3O+ + Cl-

HNO3 + H2O ⇌ H3O+ +NO3-

H2SO4 + 2H2O

CH3COOH + H2O ⇌ H3O+ + CH3COO-

The acidic properties of an acid are actually the
properties of hydronium ions present in it.

CLASSIFICATION OF ACIDS
1. Depending on their sources
(i) Organic acids: Acids which are obtained
usually from plants are called organic acids.
They contain carbon atom also along with
hydrogen atom.
Examples: Oxalic acid (COOH)2, Acetic acid
(CH3COOH).
They are weak acids and they do not ionize
completely in solution. So they contain ions as
well as molecules.
(ii) Inorganic acids (mineral acids): Acids which
are obtained usually from minerals are known
as inorganic acids. They do not contain carbon
(except carbonic acid H2CO3).
Examples: Hydrochloric acid, Sulphuric acid,
Nitric acid.
They are strong acids. They ionise completely in
solution producing a high concentration of
hydronium ions [H3O]+.
Acids which contain oxygen along with
hydrogen and some other element are oxy-
acids. Examples: Nitric acid (HNO3), sulphuric
acid (H2SO4).
Hydracids contain hydrogen and a non-metallic
element and no oxygen. Examples: Hydrochloric
acid (HCl), hydrobromic acid (HBr).
2. Depending on their concentration
Concentration of an acid means the amount of
acid present in a definite amount of its aqueous
solution.
An acid which contains a very small amount of
water or no water is called concentrated acid.
An acid which contains far more amount of
water than its own mass is known as dilute acid.
In order to dilute an acid, pour acid into water
in small amounts and stir constantly. Water is
not added to acid as it is an exothermic process
and in this process so much heat is produced
that splashing of acidic solution may occur also
the container may break which can be fatal to
the person.
Concentration of an acid simply tells us the
amount of water present in the acid and not at
all the strength of the acid. Strength of an acid
is the measure of concentration of hydronium
ions it produces in its aqueous solution. Thus
 dil. HCl is stronger acid than highly
concentrated acetic acid.
The strength of an acid depends on the degree
of ionisation () and concentration of hydronium
ions [H3O]+ produced by that acid in aqueous
solution.
No. of acid molecules ionised

( )
Total no . of acid molecules
Degree of ionization () = present X 100 ¿
¿ aqueous solution
¿

If the degree of ionisation () for an acid, base

or salt in aqueous solution is greater than 30%,
it is strong and if it is less than 30%, it is weak.
3. Depending on their basicity
The basicity of an acid is defined as the number
of hydronium ions (H3O)+ that can be produced
by the ionisation of one molecule of that acid in
aqueous solution.
(i) Monobasic acids: Acids which on ionization in
water produce one hydronium ion per molecule
of the acid are known as monobasic acids.
For example: Hydrochloric acid
HCl + H2O  H3O+ + Cl-
Other similar examples are: HBr, HNO3, HI,
CH3COOH, etc.
(ii) Dibasic acids: Acids which, on ionization in
water, produce two hydronium ions (H3O)+ per
molecule of the acid, are known as dibasic
acids.
Ex: Sulphuric acid (H2SO4), Oxalic acid (H2C2O4),
Sulphurous acid (H2SO3), Carbonic acid (H2CO3).
Dibasic acids ionise in two steps, as shown
below:
(1) H2SO4 + H2O ⇌ H3O+ + HSO4-
HSO4- + H2O ⇌ H3O+ + SO42-
(2) H2CO3 + H2O ⇌ H3O+ + HCO3-
HCO3- + H2O ⇌ H3O+ + CO32-
(iii) Tribasic acids: Acids which, on ionization in
water, produce three hydronium ions per
molecule of the acid are called tribasic acids.
Examples: Phosphoric acid (H3PO4), Citric acid
(C6H8O7)

(a) H3PO4 + H2O ⇌ H3O+ + H2PO4-

They ionise in three steps, as shown below:

H2PO4- + H2O ⇌ H3O+ + HPO42-

HPO42- + H2O ⇌ H3O+ + PO43-
It must be emphasized here that the basicity of
an acid depends not on the number of hydrogen
atoms in one molecule of that acid, but on the
number of ionisable hydrogen atoms that it has
per molecule.
For example, acetic acid (CH3COOH or C2H4O2)
contains four hydrogen atoms in its molecule,
but it is a monobasic acid because its molecule
ionises by liberating only one hydronium ion.
CH3COOH + H2O ⇌ H3O+ + CH3COO-

PREPARATION OF ACIDS
(1) By synthesis: Binary acids (acids containing
two elements) are prepared by this method.

(2) By the action of water on non-metallic or

acidic oxides: Acidic oxides (also called acidic
anhydrides) dissolve in water to give acids.
Note:
(1) Only oxy-acids can be prepared by this
method.
(2) NO2 is called mixed or double acid anhydride
because two acids, nitrous acid and nitric acid,
are formed when it react with water.
2NO2 + H2O  HNO2 + HNO3
(3) By the oxidation of non-metals: A non-metal,
e.g., sulphur or phosphorus is oxidised by conc.
nitric acid to form sulphuric acid or phosphoric
acid respectively.

(4) By displacement: Normal salts of more

volatile acids are displaced by a less or non-
volatile acid. Examples: Both hydrochloric and
nitric acids are formed by sulphuric acid.

PROPERTIES OF ACIDS
Physical properties
(1) Taste: Acids have a sour taste.
(2) Physical state: Some acids are solids and
some are liquids at room temperature.
3) Effect on skin: All strong mineral acids have
corrosive action on the skin and cause painful
burns.
(4) They change the colours of indicators.

(5) They are electrolytes, i.e., they conduct

electricity in the aqueous state.
Chemical properties
(1) Reaction with active metals: Both dilute HCl
and dilute H2SO4 react explosively with active
metals like potassium, sodium and calcium, and
moderately with less active metals like
magnesium, zinc, etc., producing metallic salts
and hydrogen.

(2) Reaction with bases — Neutralisation: Acids

neutralise bases to form salt and water only.

(3) Reaction with carbonates and bicarbonates:

Acids liberate carbon dioxide on reaction with
metallic carbonates and bicarbonates.
(4) Reaction with sulphites and bisulphites:
Acids react with sulphites and bisulphites of
metals to liberate sulphur dioxide.

(5) Reaction with sulphides: Acids react with

metal sulphides to liberate hydrogen sulphide.
(6) Reaction with chlorides: Chlorides do not
react with any of the dilute acids. In general,
chlorides react with concentrated sulphuric acid
on warming to liberate hydrogen chloride.
The reaction takes place in two steps since
H2SO4 contains two replaceable hydrogen ions.

(7) Reaction with nitrates: Nitrates do not react

with dilute acids. However, lead nitrate solution
reacts with both dilute HCl and dil. H2SO4 to
form insoluble lead salts.

Nitrates when heated with conc. sulphuric acid,

produce more volatile nitric acid.

GENERAL USES OF SOME ACIDS

BASES
A base is either a metallic oxide or a metallic
hydroxide or ammonium hydroxide which reacts
with hydronium ions of an acid to form salt and
water only.
Basic oxide: A basic oxide is a metallic oxide
which contains the ion O2- and reacts with an
acid to form salt and water only.
Basic hydroxide: It is a metallic hydroxide which
contains OH- and will react with an acid to give
salt and water only.
ALKALIS: An alkali is a basic hydroxide which
when dissolved in water produces hydroxyl
(OH-) ions as the only negatively charged ions.
NaOH [aq.] ⇌ Na+ + OH-
All alkalis are bases but all bases are not
alkalis.

CLASSIFICATION OF BASES
1. On the basis of their strength
(a) Strong base: It undergoes almost complete
dissociation in aqueous solution to produce a
high concentration of OH-.
NaOH (aq) ⇌ Na+ (aq) + OH- (aq)
KOH (aq) ⇌ K+ (aq) + OH- (aq)
(b) Weak base: It undergoes only partial
dissociation or ionisation in aqueous solution to
produce a low concentration of OH- in solution.
2. On the basis of their acidity
The acidity of a base: The number of hydroxyl
ions [OH]- which can be produced per molecule
of the base in aqueous solution or the number
of hydrogen ions (of an acid) with which a
molecule of that base will react to produce salt
and water only is known as acidity of the base.
(a) Monoacidic base: It is a base that
dissociates in molten (fused) state or in
aqueous solutions to produce one OH- ion per
molecule of that base. For example: NaOH 
Na+ + OH-
(b) Diacidic base: It is a base that dissociates in
molten state or in aqueous solutions to produce
two OH- ions per molecule of that base.

Ca(OH)2 (aq) ⇌ Ca2+ + 2OH-

For example:

Cu(OH)2 (fused) ⇌ Cu2+ + 2OH-

(c) Triacidic base: It is a base that dissociates in
aqueous solutions to produce three OH- ions per
molecule of that base (or contains three
replaceable hydroxyl ions per molecule of the
base).

Preparation of bases
(1) From metals: Metals when react with oxygen
give bases.

(2) By the action of water on reactive metals

like sodium, potassium and calcium.
(3) By the action of water on soluble metallic
oxides like oxides of sodium, potassium and
calcium.

(4) By double decomposition: Aqueous solutions

of salts with a base (alkali) precipitate the
respective metallic hydroxide.

(5) By the action of oxygen on metal sulphides:

(6) By decomposition of salts:

(7) Ammonium hydroxide can be prepared by

simply dissolving ammonia gas in water.
Ammonia is extremely soluble in water.
NH3 + H2O  NH4OH (a weak alkali)

Properties of bases/alkalis
Physical properties
(1) They have a sharp and bitter taste.
(2) They change the colour of indicators
Insoluble base do not affect indicators.
(3) They are soapy substances, i.e., they are
slippery to touch.
(4) They are strong electrolytes.
(5) They show a mild corrosive action (slight
burn) on the skin.
Chemical properties
(1) Strong alkalis absorb carbon dioxide from
the air to form carbonates.

(2) They neutralise acids to form salt and water.

(3) They precipitate as insoluble metallic
hydroxides when added to the solutions of the
salts of the heavy metals, viz. copper, iron, zinc,
etc.

(4) When alkalies are warmed with an

ammonium salt, ammonia gas is given out.
General uses of some bases

STRENGTH OF ACIDIC AND BASIC SOLUTIONS

The acidic, basic or neutral solution can be
ascertained on the basis of ionisation. Water
ionizes to a very small extent. The
concentration of [H3O+] (aq.) and OH- (aq.) ions
in pure water is found to be 1 x 10-7 mol litre-1.
This means that all aqueous solutions contain
both [H3O+] (aq.) and OH- (aq.) ions and the
product of concentration of these ions is (1 x 10-
7
) (1 x 10-7) = 1 x 10-14 mol2 litre-2 at 25°C. This is
known as ionic product of water (Kw).
On adding acid to water the concentration of
H3O+ ion increases and that of OH- decreases so
that Kw remains the same and if an alkali is
added the reverse is noticed. So the nature of
solution depends upon the concentration of
H3O+ ion in solution.
Danish biochemist (1909) devised a scale known
as pH scale which represents the [H3O+] ion
concentration of the given aqueous solution.
pH means the power of hydrogen.
The pH of a solution is the negative logarithm to
the base 10 of the hydronium ion concentration
expressed in moles per litre.
pH = -log10[H3O+]
The normal pH scale ranges from 0 to 14, as
given in figure below.
In a colourless liquid, a reasonably accurate pH
value can be obtained by adding a universal
indicator.
The universal indicator is a mixture of indicator
dyes that gives a spectrum of colours
depending on how acidic or alkaline a solution
is. Universal indicators gives different colours at
different concentrations of hydrogen ions in a
solution. For example, a universal indicator
produces green colour in a neutral solution, i.e.,
when pH = 7. It changes in a basic solution
progressively from blue to indigo to violet as pH
increases progressively from 7 to 14. The colour
change in acidic solution is from yellow to pink,
and then to red, as pH progressively decreases
from 7 to 1 as shown in figure below.

Our body works within a narrow pH range of 7.0

to 7.8. Plants and animals also survive in a
narrow range.
Salt: Salt is a compound formed by the partial
or total replacement of the ionisable hydrogen
atoms of an acid by a metallic ion or an
ammonium ion.

Ionic definition of salt: Salt is an ionic

compound, which dissociates in water to yield a
positive ion other than hydrogen ion (H+) and a
negative ion other than hydroxyl ion (OH-).
For example, sodium chloride is a salt
consisting of Na+ and Cl-.

There are six kinds of salts.

1. Normal salts
2. Acid salts
3. Basic salts
4. Double salts
5. Mixed salts
6. Complex salts
1. Normal salts: Normal salts are the salts
formed by the complete replacement of the
ionisable hydrogen atoms of an acid by a
metallic or an ammonium ion. Normal salts have
no ionisable hydrogen atoms.

2. Acid salts: Acid salts are formed by the

partial replacement of the ionisable hydrogen
atoms of a polybasic acid by a metal or an
ammonium ion.

Acid salts are usually formed when the amount

of base taken is insufficient for the complete
neutralisation of the acid.
Acid salts ionise in water solution to give
hydronium ions, and therefore, they show all
the properties of an acid.
3. Basic salts: Basic salts are formed by the
partial replacement of the hydroxyl group of a
di- or a tri- acidic base by an acid radical.

The basic salt contains a metallic cation, a

hydroxyl ion of the base and an anion of the
acid.
4. Double salts: Double salts are formed by the
union of two simple salts that dissolve in water
and crystallise.

5. Mixed salts: Mixed salts are those salts that

contain more than one basic or acid radical.
Examples: Sodium potassium carbonate
(NaKCO3), Bleaching powder (CaOCl2).
6. Complex salts: Complex salts are those which
on dissociation give one simple ion and one
complex ion.
If at least 1g of a substance can be dissolved in
100 mL of water at 298 K, it is called a soluble
salt.
If 0.1 g to 1 g of a substance can be dissolved in
100 mL water at 298 K, it is called a partially
soluble salt.
If less than 0.1 g of a substance can be
dissolved in 100 mL water at 298 K, it is called
an insoluble salt.
The phenomenon due to which salt formed by a
weak acid and a strong base, or by a strong acid
and a weak base, reacts with water to give an
acidic or an alkaline solution, is known as
hydrolysis.
Salts formed from strong bases like NaOH and
KOH and weak acids like H2CO3, CH3CO2H, etc.,
hydrolyse in water to give alkaline solutions.
They have pH more than 7.
The salts of strong acids and weak bases
hydrolyse in water to give an acidic solution (pH
less than 7).
Salts derived from strong acids and strong
bases gives a neutral solution in water.
Salts formed from weak bases and weak acids
may be acidic, alkaline or neutral depending
upon the dissociated ions and undissociated
molecules.

Preparation of soluble salts

1. Direct combination i.e., by heating two
elements together. Ex: 2Fe + 3Cl2  2FeCl3
2. Simple displacement i.e. action of dilute acids
on active metals.

3. Decomposition
(a) Decomposition of bicarbonates by acids
(b) Decomposition of carbonates by acids

(c) Decomposition of chlorides by conc. H2SO4

(d) Decomposition of nitrates by conc. H2SO4

4. Neutralisation
5. By the action of Alkalis (NaOH or KOH) on
certain metals (Al, Zn) their oxides and their
hydroxides.

Preparation of insoluble salts

1. By direct combination

2. By the combination of an acidic oxide with a

basic oxide.
3. By the precipitation reaction (Double
decomposition)

An insoluble salt can also be obtained from

another insoluble salt, by double
decomposition. Insoluble salt is first to be
converted into a soluble salt, which can then be
used for preparing the desired salt.
Look at page number 54 for more detailed
explanation.
LABORATORY PREPARATION OF SOME SALTS
(NORMAL AND ACID SALTS)
Look at page number 54 for more detailed
explanation.
Some salts, while crystallising out from their
solutions, unite with a definite quantity of
water, which is known as the water of
crystallisation.