Continuity Equation - Differential Form

Derivation 1. The point at which the continuity equation has to be derived, is enclosed by an elementary control volume.

2. The influx, efflux and the rate of accumulation of mass is calculated across each
surface within the control volume.

Fig 9.6 A Control Volume Appropriate to a Rectangular Cartesian Coordinate System

Consider a rectangular parallelopiped in the above figure as the control volume in a rectangular cartesian frame of coordinate axes.

Net efflux of mass along x -axis must be the excess outflow over inflow across faces normal to x -axis.

Let the fluid enter across one of such faces ABCD with a velocity u and a density .The velocity and density with which the fluid will leave the face EFGH will be
and respectively (neglecting the higher order terms in

x).

Therefore, the rate of mass entering the control volume through face ABCD = u dy dz. The rate of mass leaving the control volume through face EFGH will be

(neglecting the higher order terms in dx)

Similarly influx and efflux take place in all y and z directions also. Rate of accumulation for a point in a flow field

Using, Rate of influx = Rate of Accumulation + Rate of Efflux

Transferring everything to right side

(9.2)

This is the Equation of Continuity for a compressible fluid in a rectangular cartesian coordinate system

Continuity Equation - Vector Form

The continuity equation can be written in a vector form as

or,

(9.3)

where

is the velocity of the point In case of a steady flow,

Hence Eq. (9.3) becomes

(9.4)

In a rectangular cartesian coordinate system (9.5)

Equation (9.4) or (9.5) represents the continuity equation for a steady flow. In case of an incompressible flow, = constant Hence,

Moreover

Therefore, the continuity equation for an incompressible flow becomes

(9.6) (9.7)

Continuity Equation- Cylindrical Polar Coordinate System

The continuity equation in any coordinate system can be derived in either of the two ways:-

1. By expanding the vectorial form of general continuity equation, Eq. (9.3) with
respect to the particular coordinate system.

2. By considering an elemental control volume appropriate to the reference frame of

coordinates system and then by applying the fundamental principle of conservation of mass.

Fig 9.7 A Cylindrical Polar Coordinate System

First Approach:The term in a cylindrical polar coordinate system (Fig. 9.7) can be

written as (9.9)
Therefore, the equation of continuity in a cylindrical polar coordinate system can be written as

(9.10) Second Approach:Consider the mass fluxes in the control volume shown in Fig. 9.8.

Fig 9.8 A control volume appropriate to a cylindrical polar coordinate system

Rate of mass entering the control volume through face Rate of mass leaving the control volume through the face
Therefore, the net rate of mass efflux in the r direction = (the elemental volume) where

The net rate of mass efflux from control volume in direction = (Mass leaving through face ADHE) - (Mass entering through face BCGF)

It can be written as

The net rate of mass efflux in z direction can be written in a similar fashion

as
The rate of increase of mass within the control volume becomes

Hence, the nal form of continuity equation in a cylindrical polar coordinate system becomes

or,

In case of an incompressible flow, (9.11)

The equation of continuity in a spherical polar coordinate system can be written by expanding the term of Eq. (9.3) as

(9.12)

For an incompressible flow, Eq. 9.12 reduces to

(9.13)

Eulers Equation: The Equation of Motion of an Ideal Fluid

This section is not a mandatory requirement. One can skip this section (if he/she does not like to spend time on Euler's equation) and go directly to Steady Flow Energy Equation. Using the Newton's second law of motion the relationship between the velocity and pressure field for a flow of an inviscid fluid can be derived. The resulting equation, in its differential form, is known as Eulers Equation. The equation is first derived by the scientist Euler.

Derivation:

Let us consider an elementary parallelopiped of fluid element as a control mass system in a frame of rectangular cartesian coordinate axes as shown in Fig. 12.3. The external forces acting on a fluid element are the body forces and the surface forces.

Fig 12.2 A Fluid Element appropriate to a Cartesian Coordinate System used for the derivation of Euler's Equation
Let Xx, Xy, Xz be the components of body forces acting per unit mass of the fluid element along the coordinate axes x, y and z respectively. The body forces arise due to external force fields like gravity, electromagnetic field, etc., and therefore, the detailed description of Xx, Xy and Xz are provided by the laws of physics describing the force fields. The surface forces for an inviscid fluid will be the pressure forces acting on different surfaces as shown in Fig. 12.3. Therefore, the net forces acting on the fluid element along x, y and z directions can be written as

Since each component of the force can be expressed as the rate of change of momentum in the respective directions, we have

(12.5a)

(12.5b)

(12.5c)

s the mass of a control mass system does not change with time, can be taken common. Therefore we can write Eqs (12.5a to 12.5c) as

is constant with time and

(12.6a)

(12.6b)

(12.6c)

Expanding the material accelerations in Eqs (12.6a) to (12.6c) in terms of their respective temporal and convective components, we get

(12.7a)

(12.7b)

(12.7c)

The Eqs (12.7a, 12.7b, 12.7c) are valid for both incompressible and compressible flow. By putting u = v = w = 0, as a special case, one can obtain the equation of hydrostatics . Equations (12.7a), (12.7b), (12.7c) can be put into a single vector form as

(12.7d)

(12.7e)

where

the velocity vector and the body force vector per unit volume

are defined as

Equation (12.7d) or (12.7e) is the well known Eulers equation in vector form, while Eqs (12.7a) to (12.7c) describe the Eulers equations in a rectangular Cartesian coordinate system.

Streamlines
Definition: Streamlines are the Geometrical representation of the of the flow velocity. Description: In the Eulerian method, the velocity vector is defined as a function of time and space coordinates.

If for a fixed instant of time, a space curve is drawn so that it is tangent everywhere to the velocity vector, then this curve is called a Streamline.

Therefore, the Eulerian method gives a series of instantaneous streamlines of the state of motion (Fig. 7.2a).

Fig 7.2a

Streamlines

Alternative Definition:

A streamline at any instant can be defined as an imaginary curve or line in the flow field so that the tangent to the curve at any point represents the direction of the

instantaneous velocity at that point.

Comments: In an unsteady flow where the velocity vector changes with time, the pattern of streamlines also changes from instant to instant. In a steady flow, the orientation or the pattern of streamlines will be fixed.

From the above definition of streamline, it can be written as

(7.3)
Description of the terms: 1.

is the length of an infinitesimal line segment along a streamline at a point . is the instantaneous velocity vector.

2.

The above expression therefore represents the differential equation of a streamline. In a cartesian coordinate-system, representing

the above equation ( Equation 7.3 ) may be simplified as

Path Lines
Definition: A path line is the trajectory of a fluid particle of fixed identity as defined by Eq. (6.1).

Fig 7.3

Path lines

A family of path lines represents the trajectories of different particles, say, P1, P 2, P3, etc. (Fig.

7.3).

Differences between Path Line and Stream Line

Path Line This refers to a path followed by a fluid particle over a period of time. Stream Line This is an imaginary curve in a flow field for a fixed instant of time, tangent to which gives the instantaneous velocity at that point . Two stream lines can never intersect each other, as the instantaneous velocity vector at any given point is unique.

Two path lines can intersect each other as or a single path line can form a loop as different particles or even same particle can arrive at the same point at different instants of time.

Note: In a steady flow path lines are identical to streamlines as the Eulerian and Lagrangian versions become the same.

Vorticity
Definition: The vorticity in its simplest form is defined as a vector which is equal to two times the rotation vector

(8.6)
For an irrotational flow, vorticity components are zero. Vortex line:

If tangent to an imaginary line at a point lying on it is in the direction of the Vorticity vector at that point , the line is a vortex line. The general equation of the vortex line can be written as, (8.6b)

In a rectangular cartesian cartesian coordinate system, it becomes

(8.6c)
where,

Vorticity components as vectors: The vorticity is actually an anti symmetric tensor and its three distinct elements transform like the components of a vector in cartesian coordinates. This is the reason for which the vorticity components can be treated as vectors.

Existence of Flow
A fluid must obey the law of conservation of mass in course of its flow as it is a material body. For a Velocity field to exist in a fluid continuum, the velocity components must obey the mass conservation principle. Velocity components which follow the mass conservation principle are said to constitute a possible fluid flow Velocity components violating this principle, are said to describe an impossible flow. The existence of a physically possible flow field is verified from the principle of conservation of mass.

The detailed discussion on this is deferred to the next chapter along with the discussion on principles of conservation of momentum and energy.

Stream Function
Let us consider a two-dimensional incompressible ow parallel to the x - y plane in a rectangular cartesian coordinate system. The ow eld in this case is dened by
u = u(x, y, t) v = v(x, y, t) w=0

The equation of continuity is (10.1) If a function (x, y, t) is defined in the manner (10.2a) (10.2b)

so that it automatically satisfies the equation of continuity (Eq. (10.1)), then the function is known as stream function. Note that for a steady flow, is a function of two variables x and y only.

Constancy of on a Streamline
Since is a point function, it has a value at every point in the ow eld. Thus a change in the stream function can be written as

The equation of a streamline is given by

It follows that d = 0 on a streamline.This implies the value of is constant along a streamline. Therefore, the equation of a streamline can be expressed in terms of stream function as

(x, y) = constant

(10.3)

Once the function is known, streamline can be drawn by joining the same values of in the flow field.

Stream function for an irrotational flow

In case of a two-dimensional irrotational flow

Conclusion drawn:For an irrotational flow, stream function satises the Laplaces equation

Physical Significance of Stream Funtion Figure 10.1 illustrates a two dimensional flow.

Fig 10.1 Physical Interpretation of Stream Function Let A be a fixed point, whereas P be any point in the plane of the flow. The points A and P are joined by the arbitrary lines ABP and ACP. For an incompressible steady flow, the volume flow rate across ABP into the space ABPCA (considering a unit width in a direction perpendicular to the plane of the flow) must be equal to that across ACP. A number of different paths connecting A and P (ADP, AEP,...) may be imagined but the volume flow rate across all the paths would be the same. This implies that the rate of flow across any curve between A and P depends only on the end points A and P.

Since A is fixed, the rate of flow across ABP, ACP, ADP, AEP (any path connecting A and P) is a function only of the position P. This function is known as the stream function . The value of at P represents the volume flow rate across any line joining P to A. The value of at A is made arbitrarily zero. If a point P is considered (Fig. 10.1b),PP being along a streamline, then the rate of flow across the curve joining A to P must be the same as across AP, since, by the definition of a streamline, there is no flow across PP' The value of thus remains same at P and P. Since P was taken as any point on the streamline through P, it follows that is constant along a streamline. Thus the flow may be represented by a series of streamlines at equal increments of . In fig (10.1c) moving from A to B net flow going past the curve AB is

The stream function, in a polar coordinate system is defined as

The expressions for Vr and V in terms of the stream function automatically satisfy the equation of continuity given by