Introduction to Computer Networks

In today's world, computer networks are fundamental to how we connect and communicate.
From sending an email to streaming a video, the technology behind these actions relies on
networks. But how did we get here? Let's journey through the evolution of networking and
understand the basics of computer networks.

What is a Computer Network?

A computer network is a collection of computers and other hardware components

interconnected by communication channels. These networks allow devices to share
resources and information. Think of a network as a web of interconnected nodes where each
node can communicate with others.
Evolution of Networks

Evolution of Networking (ARPANET, NSFNET, INTERNET)

2. NSFNET: Expanding the Network

ARPANET, NSFNET, and the Internet

Introduction:
The development of computer networks has significantly transformed how we communicate
● Year: 1985
and share information. Here’s a look at the key milestones in the evolution of networking,
● Developed By: National Science Foundation (NSF)
focusing on ARPANET, NSFNET, and the Internet:
● Purpose: NSFNET was created to provide high-speed networking capabilities for
research and educational institutions across the U.S.
1. ARPANET: The Foundation

Introduction:
Key Features:
● Year: 1969
● Backbone Network: NSFNET initially provided a backbone network connecting
● Developed By: Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA), U.S. Department
supercomputing centers, which helped facilitate scientific research and
of Defense agency.
collaboration.
● Purpose: ARPANET was designed to connect various research institutions and
● TCP/IP Protocol: NSFNET adopted the TCP/IP protocol suite, which had been
facilitate resource sharing and communication.
developed in the 1970s and was foundational for the Internet. This protocol suite
allowed different networks to interoperate and communicate effectively.

Key Features:
● Packet Switching: ARPANET introduced packet switching, a method of breaking Impact:
data into small packets that are sent independently and reassembled at the
● Growth of the Network: NSFNET greatly expanded the reach of networking
destination. This was a major innovation compared to traditional circuit-switching
beyond ARPA's original scope, connecting thousands of institutions and providing
methods.
the infrastructure for the growing academic and research community.
● First Message: The first message sent over ARPANET was "LO," intended to be
● Commercialization: By the early 1990s, NSFNET's backbone network was
"LOGIN." However, the system crashed after just two letters.
decommissioned, and commercial networks took over, leading to the
commercialization of the Internet.

Impact:
● Network of Networks: ARPANET laid the groundwork for future networks by 3. The Internet: The Global Network
demonstrating the viability of packet switching and distributed networking.
● Networking Protocols: It was the precursor to many networking protocols that Introduction:
would later become fundamental to the Internet.
● Year: Early 1990s (formalized with the creation of the World Wide Web in 1991)
 ● Developed By: The Internet evolved from ARPANET and NSFNET into a global Definition: Communication channels are the mediums used to convey data from the sender
network of networks. to the receiver.
● Purpose: The Internet was designed to be a scalable, decentralized network that
connects millions of networks and devices worldwide. They can be classified into two main types:
● Physical Channels: These include cables, fiber optics, and other tangible
mediums. For example, Ethernet cables and optical fiber are physical channels
used for wired communication.
Key Features: ● Wireless Channels: These use electromagnetic waves to transmit data.
● World Wide Web (WWW): Developed by Tim Berners-Lee in 1991, the WWW Examples include Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and cellular networks.
made the Internet more accessible by providing a user-friendly way to navigate
and share information using hypertext and web browsers.
● IP Addressing: The Internet uses the IP addressing scheme to identify and
locate devices across the globe. 3. Transmission Modes

Definition: Transmission modes describe how data is sent over the communication channel.
They can be categorized as follows:
Impact:
● Simplex: Data flows in one direction only. Example: A keyboard sending input to
● Global Connectivity: The Internet connects billions of devices worldwide, a computer.
facilitating communication, information sharing, and commerce. ● Half-Duplex: Data flows in both directions, but not simultaneously. Example:
● Technological Advancements: It has led to the development of various Walkie-talkies where you can talk or listen, but not both at the same time.
technologies, including email, social media, e-commerce, and cloud computing. ● Full-Duplex: Data flows in both directions simultaneously. Example: Telephones
● Digital Transformation: The Internet has transformed how we live, work, and where both parties can speak and listen at the same time.
interact, impacting nearly every aspect of modern life.

4. Data Transmission
Data Communication Terminologies
Concept of Communication
Understanding data communication involves familiarizing yourself with key terminologies and Definition: Data transmission is the process of sending data from one point to another. It
concepts that define how data is transmitted, received, and managed across networks. can be characterized by:
Here's a breakdown of essential data communication concepts: ● Analog Transmission: Data is transmitted in continuous signals. Example:
Traditional radio broadcasts.
1. Data Communication ● Digital Transmission: Data is transmitted in discrete signals. Example: Data
sent over the Internet using binary code.
Definition: Data communication is the process of transferring data between devices or
systems using transmission media. This can involve sending data over cables, wireless
connections, or other communication channels. 5. Bandwidth
Key Components:
Definition: Bandwidth refers to the maximum rate at which data can be transmitted over a
● Sender: The device or system that initiates the communication and sends the communication channel. It is often measured in bits per second (bps). Higher bandwidth
data. allows for faster data transfer.
● Receiver: The device or system that receives and processes the data.
● Medium: The physical or logical pathway through which the data travels (e.g., Example: A broadband connection with 100 Mbps bandwidth can transfer data at a rate of
cables, radio waves). 100 megabits per second.
● Protocol: A set of rules or standards that determine how data is formatted,
transmitted, and interpreted.
6. Latency

Definition: Latency is the time delay between sending and receiving data. It is the time it
2. Communication Channels takes for a data packet to travel from the sender to the receiver.
Example: In online gaming, low latency (or low ping) is crucial for a smooth experience, as
high latency can cause lag.
7. Error Detection and Correction 1. Sender
Definition: The sender is the device or system that initiates the communication by
Definition: Error detection and correction techniques are used to ensure data integrity generating and sending the data. This could be a computer, smartphone, or any other
during transmission. Errors can occur due to interference or signal degradation. network-enabled device.

● Error Detection: Methods like checksums and cyclic redundancy checks (CRC) Example: When you send an email, your computer or smartphone acts as the sender.
help identify errors. Role:
● Error Correction: Techniques like parity bits and Hamming codes correct errors
in data. ● Data Generation: The sender creates or processes the data to be transmitted.
● Data Encoding: The sender encodes the data into a suitable format for
transmission (e.g., converting text into binary).

8. Protocols

2. Receiver
Definition: Protocols are standardized rules and formats used to ensure proper Definition: The receiver is the device or system that receives and processes the data sent
communication between devices. They define how data is formatted, transmitted, and by the sender. It could be another computer, server, or any device capable of receiving data.
interpreted.
Example: When you receive an email, the device you use to read the email is the receiver.
Common Protocols:
Role:
● TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol): Fundamental
protocol suite for internet communication. ● Data Reception: The receiver accepts the incoming data from the
● HTTP/HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol/Secure): Used for transferring web communication channel.
pages. ● Data Decoding: The receiver decodes the data back into its original format for
● FTP (File Transfer Protocol): Used for transferring files between systems. use.

9. Modulation 3. Message
Definition: The message is the actual data or information being transmitted from the sender
Definition: Modulation is the process of varying a carrier signal to transmit data. It allows to the receiver. This could be text, audio, video, or any other form of data.
data to be transmitted over different types of communication channels. Example: The content of an email, a video file, or a text message are all examples of
Types: messages.

● Amplitude Modulation (AM): Varies the amplitude of the carrier signal. Role:
● Frequency Modulation (FM): Varies the frequency of the carrier signal. ● Data Content: The message contains the information or instructions that need to
● Phase Modulation (PM): Varies the phase of the carrier signal. be communicated.
● Format: Messages need to be formatted properly to ensure they can be
understood by the receiver.
10. Throughput

Definition: Throughput is the actual rate at which data is successfully transmitted over a 4. Communication Media
communication channel. It may be affected by factors such as network congestion and Definition: Communication media refer to the physical or logical pathways through which
errors. data is transmitted from the sender to the receiver. This includes both hardware and
software components.
Example: If a network has a theoretical bandwidth of 100 Mbps but only achieves 80 Mbps
in practice due to congestion, the throughput is 80 Mbps. Types:
● Physical Media: Cables, fiber optics, and other tangible media. For example,
Components of Data Communication Ethernet cables and optical fiber are used for wired communication.
● Wireless Media: Radio waves, microwaves, and other wireless technologies.
Data communication involves various key components that work together to ensure Examples include Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and cellular signals.
information is successfully transmitted from one point to another. Here’s a detailed look at
each component:
Role: Definition: Bandwidth refers to the maximum amount of data that can be transmitted over a
communication channel or network in a given period of time. It is essentially the capacity of
● Data Transmission: Provides the pathway for data to travel between sender and the communication medium.
receiver.
● Medium Selection: The choice of media affects the speed, reliability, and quality Measurement:
of communication.
● Units: Bandwidth is typically measured in bits per second (bps), kilobits per
second (Kbps), megabits per second (Mbps), or gigabits per second (Gbps).
● Example: A network with a bandwidth of 100 Mbps can theoretically transfer 100
5. Protocols megabits of data every second.
Definition: Protocols are standardized sets of rules and procedures that dictate how data is
formatted, transmitted, and received over a network. They ensure that data is transferred
correctly and efficiently.
Types:
Examples:
● Maximum Bandwidth: The highest possible speed that a channel can handle.
● TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol): The fundamental This is often determined by the physical properties of the media (e.g., fiber optics
suite for internet communication, ensuring reliable data transmission. vs. copper cables).
● HTTP/HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol/Secure): Used for transferring web ● Effective Bandwidth: The actual speed experienced by users, which may be
pages and secure communications on the web. lower than the maximum due to factors like network congestion and interference.
● FTP (File Transfer Protocol): Used for transferring files between systems.

Importance:
Role:
● Capacity: Higher bandwidth allows for more data to be transmitted
● Data Formatting: Protocols define how data should be structured and formatted. simultaneously, which can support more users and more data-intensive
● Error Checking: Includes mechanisms for error detection and correction to applications.
ensure data integrity. ● Quality of Service: Sufficient bandwidth is crucial for maintaining the quality of
● Communication Rules: Specifies rules for establishing and maintaining services like video streaming, online gaming, and large file transfers.
communication sessions.

2. Data Transfer Rate

Summary Definition: Data transfer rate, also known as throughput, is the actual speed at which data is
successfully transmitted over a communication channel. It reflects the performance of the
In data communication, each component plays a crucial role: network in real-world conditions.

● Sender: Generates and sends data. Measurement:

● Receiver: Receives and processes data. ● Units: Data transfer rate is measured in bits per second (bps), kilobits per second
● Message: The actual data being communicated. (Kbps), megabits per second (Mbps), or gigabits per second (Gbps), similar to
● Communication Media: The channels through which data travels. bandwidth.
● Protocols: The rules that guide how data is transmitted and received. ● Example: If a file transfer completes in 10 seconds at a rate of 50 Mbps, the data
transfer rate is 50 Mbps.

Measuring Capacity of Communication Media (bandwidth, data transfer rate)

Types:
Bandwidth and Data Transfer Rate ● Peak Transfer Rate: The highest speed achieved under ideal conditions, often
measured during benchmarks or tests.
When evaluating the performance and capability of communication media, two key metrics ● Average Transfer Rate: The typical speed experienced during regular usage,
are often considered: bandwidth and data transfer rate. Both are crucial for understanding which can be influenced by network congestion, packet loss, and other factors.
how efficiently data can be transmitted over a network.
1. Bandwidth
Importance:
 ● Real-World Performance: While bandwidth indicates the maximum potential, ● Format: IPv6 addresses use a 128-bit format, written as eight groups of four
data transfer rate shows how well the network performs in practice. hexadecimal digits separated by colons (e.g.,
● User Experience: Higher data transfer rates lead to faster downloads, quicker 2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334).
file uploads, and smoother streaming. ● Range: IPv6 provides a vastly larger address space, allowing for approximately
340 undecillion (3.4 × 10^38) unique addresses, which should be sufficient for the
foreseeable future.
● Example: An IPv6 address might look like
Comparing Bandwidth and Data Transfer Rate 2607:fed5:4a4e:0000:0000:0000:0000:0000.

● Bandwidth represents the maximum potential capacity of a network or channel.

● Data Transfer Rate represents the actual speed at which data is transmitted and
received. 2. Static vs. Dynamic IP Addresses

a. Static IP Address:

Example ● Definition: A static IP address is a fixed address that does not change. It is
manually assigned to a device and remains constant.
● Usage: Often used for servers, network printers, and other devices where a
Consider a home internet connection with a bandwidth of 200 Mbps. This indicates the consistent address is required.
maximum speed the connection can theoretically handle. However, due to factors such as ● Example: Your company’s web server may have a static IP like 203.0.113.5.
network congestion, distance from the router, and interference, the actual data transfer rate
you experience may be lower. If you are downloading a large file, and it takes 20 seconds to
download 100 MB, the data transfer rate would be 40 Mbps (assuming the file is 100 MB and
20 seconds for transfer). b. Dynamic IP Address:
IP Address ● Definition: A dynamic IP address is assigned by a network's DHCP (Dynamic
Host Configuration Protocol) server and can change periodically.
What It Is and Why It Matters ● Usage: Commonly used for devices that connect to networks frequently, such as
home computers and mobile devices.
● Example: When you connect to your home Wi-Fi, you might be assigned a
An IP address (Internet Protocol address) is a unique identifier assigned to each device dynamic IP address like 192.168.1.10 that could change when you reconnect.
connected to a network that uses the Internet Protocol for communication. Think of it as the
address of your device on the internet or a local network. Just like a home address helps
deliver mail to your house, an IP address helps route data to the correct device.
3. Public vs. Private IP Addresses
Key Concepts of IP Addresses
a. Public IP Address:
1. Types of IP Addresses ● Definition: A public IP address is assigned to a network by an ISP (Internet
Service Provider) and is used to identify a network on the internet.
a. IPv4 (Internet Protocol version 4): ● Usage: It is what the rest of the world uses to reach your network.
● Example: Your ISP might provide you with a public IP like 203.0.113.20.
● Format: IPv4 addresses are written in a 32-bit format, divided into four octets
separated by periods (e.g., 192.168.1.1).
● Range: IPv4 provides about 4.3 billion unique addresses, which were initially
thought to be more than enough but are now running out due to the growth of b. Private IP Address:
internet-connected devices.
● Example: Your home router might use an IPv4 address like 192.168.0.1 to
identify itself on your local network.
● Definition: Private IP addresses are used within a local network and are not
visible to the outside world. They are reserved for internal use.
● Usage: These addresses allow devices within the same local network to
b. IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6): communicate with each other.
● Example: Common private IP address ranges include 192.168.x.x, 10.x.x.x, and
172.16.x.x to 172.31.x.x.
Why IP Addresses Matter ● Inefficient Use of Resources: The dedicated path is reserved whether or not
data is being transmitted, which can lead to inefficient use of network resources.
● Routing Data: IP addresses help route data from one device to another, ensuring ● Scalability Issues: Circuit switching is less flexible and can be less scalable
that your email or website request reaches the correct destination. compared to other techniques.
● Network Identification: They uniquely identify devices on a network, which is
essential for communication and troubleshooting.
● Security: Proper management of IP addresses can help secure networks by 2. Packet Switching
preventing unauthorized access and tracking network activity.

Definition: Packet switching is a technique where data is divided into small packets, which
are sent independently through the network. Each packet may take a different path to reach
Switching Techniques (Circuit switching, Packet switching) the destination, where they are reassembled in the correct order.
Key Features:
Circuit Switching vs. Packet Switching
● No Dedicated Path: Data packets are sent through various routes and do not
Switching techniques are fundamental to network design and communication, determining require a dedicated path between sender and receiver.
how data is routed and managed across networks. The two primary switching techniques are ● Dynamic Bandwidth: Bandwidth is allocated dynamically based on the network
circuit switching and packet switching. Here’s a breakdown of each: traffic and demand.
● Efficient Use of Resources: Network resources are used more efficiently as the
1. Circuit Switching same path can be shared by multiple packets from different communications.

Definition: Circuit switching is a technique where a dedicated communication path or circuit

is established between two devices for the duration of their conversation. This path remains Example:
open and exclusive to the two devices for the entire session.
● The Internet: When you browse the web or send an email, data is split into
Key Features: packets that travel through different routes and are reassembled at the
● Dedicated Path: A physical or virtual connection is established between the destination.
sender and receiver for the entire duration of the communication.
● Constant Bandwidth: The allocated bandwidth is constant and reserved for the
conversation, regardless of whether data is being transmitted at all times. Pros:
● Setup Time: There is a delay at the beginning to establish the circuit before
communication can begin. ● Efficient Resource Utilization: Network resources are used more effectively as
packets from multiple sources can share the same network paths.
● Scalability: Packet switching is highly scalable and can handle a large number of
simultaneous communications.
Example:
● Traditional Telephone Networks: When you make a phone call, a dedicated
circuit is established between your phone and the recipient's phone for the Cons:
duration of the call.
● Variable Quality: The quality of communication can vary due to the shared
nature of the network paths and possible delays or packet loss.
● Overhead: Packet switching introduces some overhead due to the need for
Pros: packet headers and reassembly at the destination.
● Reliable Connection: Since the path is dedicated, there is less chance of data
loss or delay due to other traffic.
● Consistent Quality: The quality of the communication is consistent throughout Comparison
the session.

Circuit Switching:

Cons: ● Connection: Dedicated circuit for the entire session.

● Bandwidth: Constant and reserved.
● Efficiency: Can be less efficient due to reserved bandwidth.
 ● Usage: Suitable for applications requiring constant and reliable connections, like ● Speed and Range: Supports higher bandwidth than twisted pair cables.
traditional phone calls. Commonly used for cable television and broadband internet.
● Example: Coaxial cables are used to connect cable modems to routers.

Packet Switching:
c. Fiber Optic Cables
● Connection: No dedicated circuit, packets travel independently.
● Bandwidth: Dynamic and shared among multiple communications. ● Description: Uses glass or plastic fibers to transmit data as light pulses. Offers
● Efficiency: More efficient use of resources and better scalability. very high bandwidth and speed.
● Usage: Ideal for data-intensive applications like web browsing and email. ● Speed and Range: Supports speeds ranging from 1 Gbps to several terabits per
second over long distances. Less susceptible to interference and signal loss.
● Example: Used for high-speed internet connections, long-distance
telecommunications, and data center connections.
Transmission Media
Transmission media are the physical or logical channels through which data is transmitted
from one device to another in a network. They can be broadly categorized into two types:
guided media (or wired) and unguided media (or wireless). Each type has its own 2. Unguided Media (Wireless Media)
characteristics, advantages, and use cases.
Unguided media, or wireless media, refers to transmission methods that send data signals
1. Guided Media (Wired Media) through the air or space without physical cables. This includes technologies like radio waves,
microwaves, and infrared signals. Unguided media allows for mobility and flexibility in device
Guided media, also known as wired media, refers to physical transmission mediums used to connectivity. It is essential for wireless communication systems such as Wi-Fi, Bluetooth,
convey data signals through a controlled path. It includes cables and wires such as twisted and cellular networks. This media is ideal for environments where cabling is impractical or
pair cables, coaxial cables, and fiber-optic cables. These media guide the signals along a impossible.
specific route from the sender to the receiver. Guided media offer reliable and high-speed
data transmission. They are commonly used in network infrastructures for both local and Wireless media (Radio waves, Microwaves, Infrared waves)
wide area networks.
Here are the primary types:
Wired Communication Media (Twisted pair cable, Co-axial cable, Fiber-optic cable)
a. Radio Waves

Here are the primary types: ● Description: Electromagnetic waves used for various types of wireless
communication.
a. Twisted Pair Cables ● Speed and Range: Suitable for short to medium-range communication.
Description: Consists of pairs of insulated copper wires twisted together to reduce Commonly used in Wi-Fi and Bluetooth.
interference. ● Example: Wi-Fi routers use radio waves to provide wireless internet access in
homes and offices.
Types:
● Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP): Common in Ethernet networks. Offers good
performance at a lower cost. b. Microwaves
● Shielded Twisted Pair (STP): Provides additional shielding to reduce
electromagnetic interference. ● Description: High-frequency radio waves used for point-to-point communication
● Speed and Range: Generally supports speeds up to 1 Gbps over short over long distances.
distances. Categories like Cat5e, Cat6, and Cat6a support different speeds and ● Speed and Range: Can support high data rates but require line-of-sight between
bandwidths. the transmitting and receiving antennas. Used in satellite communication and
● Example: Used for telephone lines and local area networks (LANs). some long-distance communication systems.
● Example: Satellite television and microwave relay stations.

b. Coaxial Cables
c. Infrared
● Description: Comprises a central conductor, an insulating layer, a metallic shield,
and an outer insulating layer. ● Description: Electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths longer than visible light
but shorter than microwaves.
 ● Speed and Range: Typically used for short-range communication. Requires 5. Hub
direct line-of-sight between devices. Commonly used in remote controls and ● Function: A basic network device that connects multiple Ethernet devices,
some short-range data transfers. making them act as a single network segment.
● Example: Remote controls for televisions and some data transfer applications ● Usage: Transmits data to all connected devices, regardless of which device the
between devices. data is meant for (broadcasting).

d. Satellite Communication 6. Switch

● Function: Connects multiple devices on a network and directs data only to the
● Description: Uses satellites in geostationary orbits to relay data between ground specific device it is intended for.
stations. ● Usage: More efficient than a hub because it reduces unnecessary data traffic and
● Speed and Range: Can cover large geographical areas and provide high-speed increases network performance.
communication. Subject to latency due to the distance signals must travel.
● Example: Satellite internet services and global broadcasting.

7. Router
● Function: Directs data packets between different networks, such as between
Network Devices your home network and the Internet.
● Usage: Manages local network traffic and connects your devices to the wider
Network Devices Overview Internet.

Network devices are hardware components that facilitate communication and data exchange
within and between networks. They include routers, which manage traffic between networks, 8. Gateway
switches, which direct data to specific devices, and modems, which connect networks to the ● Function: Serves as a bridge between different networks, often with different
internet. Other devices like hubs, repeaters, and network interface cards help connect and protocols.
boost network signals. Together, these devices ensure efficient and reliable network ● Usage: Connects networks that use different protocols or architectures, such as
operation. Here’s a quick look at some of the key network devices: connecting a company’s internal network to the Internet.
1. Modem
● Function: Modulates and demodulates signals between digital data from a
computer and analog signals for transmission over phone lines or cable. 9. Wi-Fi Card
● Usage: Connects your home network to the Internet via your ISP.
● Function: Allows a computer or device to connect to a wireless network.
● Usage: Provides wireless network access without the need for physical cables.

2. Ethernet Card
● Function: A hardware component that allows a computer to connect to a network
via Ethernet cables. Summary
● Usage: Provides wired network connectivity for data transfer
● Modem: Connects to the Internet by converting signals.
● Ethernet Card: Provides wired network connections.
● RJ45: Connector for Ethernet cables.
RJ45 Connector ● Repeater: Extends network range by boosting signals.
● Function: A type of connector used for Ethernet cables. It has eight pins that ● Hub: Basic device that broadcasts data to all connected devices.
connect to the wires inside the cable. ● Switch: Efficiently directs data to specific devices.
● Usage: Commonly used to connect computers, routers, and other network ● Router: Connects different networks and manages traffic.
devices. ● Gateway: Bridges networks with different protocols.
● Wi-Fi Card: Enables wireless network connectivity.

4. Repeater
● Function: Amplifies or regenerates signals to extend the range of a network. Network Topologies and Network Types
● Usage: Used to boost the signal in long-distance networks, such as in larger
buildings or between network segments.
Types of Networks Description: In a bus topology, all devices are connected to a single central cable, called
the bus topology or backbone. Data sent by a device travels along the bus and is received
Networks are categorized based on their size, scope, and the technology used to connect by all other devices.
devices. Here’s a quick overview of the main types: Characteristics:
1. Personal Area Network (PAN) ● Simplicity: Easy to set up and cost-effective for small networks.
● Definition: A small network designed for personal use, typically within a range of ● Performance: Can suffer from performance issues as more devices are added,
a few meters. due to data collisions.
● Scope: Connects devices such as smartphones, tablets, and laptops in close ● Failure: If the central bus cable fails, the entire network is affected.
proximity, usually within a room or small area. ● Example: Early computer networks often used bus topology, such as the old
● Example: Bluetooth connections between a smartphone and wireless Ethernet networks.
headphones or a USB connection between a laptop and a printer.

2. Star Topology
2. Local Area Network (LAN) Description: In a star topology, all devices are connected to a central hub or switch. The
● Definition: A network that covers a small geographic area, such as a single hub acts as a repeater for data transmitted from one device to another.
building or campus.
● Scope: Connects multiple devices within a limited area, allowing them to share Characteristics:
resources like files, printers, and internet access.
● Centralized Management: Easy to manage and troubleshoot since all
● Example: A home network connecting computers, smart TVs, and printers or a
connections are centralized at the hub.
school network connecting computers in a lab.
● Performance: Better performance compared to bus topology because each
device has a dedicated connection to the hub.
● Failure: If the central hub fails, the entire network is affected, but individual
3. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) device failures do not impact the rest of the network.
● Example: Most modern office networks use star topology, with a central switch
● Definition: A network that covers a larger geographic area than a LAN but connecting computers and printers.
smaller than a WAN, typically within a city or a large campus.
● Scope: Used to connect multiple LANs within a city or town, enabling
communication between different locations.
● Example: A network linking various branch offices of a company within a city or a 3. Tree Topology
public Wi-Fi network provided by a city. Description: Tree topology combines characteristics of both star and bus topologies. It
features groups of star-configured networks connected to a linear bus backbone.
Characteristics:
4. Wide Area Network (WAN) ● Scalability: Supports expansion by adding new star-configured networks to the
● Definition: A network that spans a large geographic area, often covering multiple backbone.
cities, countries, or continents. ● Hierarchy: Organized in a hierarchical manner, making it easier to manage large
● Scope: Connects LANs and MANs across broad distances, enabling networks.
communication on a global scale. ● Failure: A failure in the backbone can affect entire branches of the network, but
● Example: The Internet is the largest example of a WAN, connecting networks issues in individual star networks are isolated.
and devices worldwide. A company’s global network that links offices in different ● Example: Large organizational networks often use tree topology, allowing for
countries is another example. multiple departments or floors to be connected in a structured manner.

Networking Topologies Network Protocol

Network protocols define rules and conventions for communication between devices
Networking topologies refer to the physical or logical layout of devices in a network. They on a network. Here’s a brief overview of some key protocols: HTTP, FTP, PPP, SMTP,
determine how data is transmitted and how devices are interconnected. Here’s a brief TCP/IP, POP3, HTTPS, TELNET, VoIP
overview of three common topologies: Bus, Star, and Tree.
1. HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol)
1. Bus Topology
● Function: Used for transferring web pages and related resources over the
Internet.
 ● Port: 80 ● Usage: Used for secure communication over the Internet, such as online banking
● Usage: When you visit a website, HTTP is the protocol used to request and or shopping.
receive web pages from servers. ● Example: Accessing a secure website like https://www.example.com/
● Example: Browsing a website like www.example.com.

8. TELNET
2. FTP (File Transfer Protocol)
● Function: Provides a command-line interface for remote communication with
● Function: Transfers files between a client and a server on a network. other systems.
● Port: 21 (default) ● Port: 23
● Usage: Used to upload or download files from a server. ● Usage: Allows users to log in and interact with remote servers or devices.
● Example: Uploading a website's files to a hosting server. ● Example: Accessing a remote server to run command-line operations.

3. PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol) 9. VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol)

● Function: Establishes a direct connection between two network nodes,
commonly used for dial-up connections.
● Usage: Used for connecting to the Internet via a phone line or serial connection.
● Example: Dial-up Internet connections in the past. ● Function: Enables voice communication over the Internet.
● Usage: Used for making voice calls over IP networks instead of traditional phone
lines.
● Example: Services like Skype or Zoom for making voice or video calls.
4. SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)
● Function: Sends and routes email between servers.
● Port: 25
● Usage: Used by email servers to send messages to other servers or clients. Summary
● Example: Sending an email from [email protected] to [email protected].
● HTTP: Transmits web pages and resources.
● FTP: Transfers files between client and server.
● PPP: Connects two network nodes directly.
5. TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) ● SMTP: Sends and routes email.
● TCP/IP: Manages data transmission over the Internet.
● Function: A suite of protocols that manage how data is transmitted over the
● POP3: Retrieves emails from a server.
Internet.
● HTTPS: Secure version of HTTP for encrypted communication.
● Usage: Ensures reliable, ordered, and error-checked delivery of data between
● TELNET: Provides remote command-line access.
devices.
● VoIP: Allows voice communication over the Internet.
● Example: The fundamental protocols used for Internet communication.

Introduction to Web Services

6. POP3 (Post Office Protocol version 3)
Web services are technologies that enable different applications or systems to communicate
● Function: Retrieves email from a server to a client.
with each other over the Internet. They are fundamental to how data and services are
● Port: 110
accessed and shared across the web. Here’s a basic overview:
● Usage: Used to download emails from a mail server to an email client.
● Example: Accessing your email through an email client like Outlook. World Wide Web (WWW)
Definition: The World Wide Web is a system of interlinked hypertext documents and
multimedia content accessed via the Internet using web browsers.
7. HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure)
● Function: Secure version of HTTP, encrypting data to ensure privacy and Components:
security. ● Web Browsers: Software like Chrome, Firefox, and Safari that allows users to
● Port: 443 view and interact with web content.
 ● Web Servers: Computers that host websites and deliver web pages to users' ● Attributes: Elements can have attributes that provide additional information.
browsers upon request. Attributes are specified within the opening tag of an element.
● Web Pages: Documents that are linked together through hyperlinks and
displayed in a web browser.
● Example: When you search for information on Google and click on a link, you’re
accessing a web page through the WWW. Summary

Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) ● XML: A versatile and standardized format for structuring and exchanging data.
● Structure: Consists of a declaration, a single root element, nested child
Definition: HTML is the standard language used to create and design web pages. It elements, and optional attributes.
provides the structure and content of a web page using a set of tags and attributes. ● Usage: Commonly used in web services, configuration files, and data
Components: interchange between systems.

● Tags: HTML uses tags to define elements like headings, paragraphs, links, and
images. Tags are enclosed in angle brackets (e.g., <h1>, <p>, <a>).
● Attributes: Tags can include attributes to provide additional information (e.g., <a Domain Names and URLs
href="https://www.example.com/">).
● Elements: An HTML document is made up of elements, which include an Domain names and URLs (Uniform Resource Locators) are fundamental concepts in the
opening tag, content, and a closing tag (e.g., <p>This is a paragraph.</p>). structure of the Internet. They help in identifying and accessing resources on the web.
● Example: The basic structure of an HTML document includes elements like the Here’s a breakdown of each:
<!DOCTYPE html>, <html>, <head>, and <body> tags. A simple HTML page
might look like this: Domain Names
Definition: A domain name is a human-readable address used to identify a website or online
resource on the Internet. It translates numeric IP addresses into a format that is easy for
people to remember.
Extensible Markup Language (XML)
Domain Name
Structure:
XML (Extensible Markup Language) is a flexible and widely-used format for organizing and
structuring data in a way that is both human-readable and machine-readable. It is designed ● Top-Level Domain (TLD): The suffix at the end of a domain name, such as .com,
to store and transport data, making it a key technology for data interchange between .org, or .net. TLDs indicate the type or origin of the site.
systems. ● Second-Level Domain: The part directly before the TLD, often representing the
name of the organization or the website. For example, in example.com,
Key Features of XML "example" is the second-level domain.
● Self-Descriptive: XML documents are both human-readable and ● Subdomain: An optional prefix before the second-level domain that further
machine-readable. The tags used in XML are descriptive, which helps convey the divides the domain into sections. For instance, in blog.example.com, "blog" is the
meaning of the data. subdomain.
● Hierarchical Structure: XML organizes data in a tree-like structure with nested ● Example: In www.example.com, "example" is the second-level domain, and
elements. This makes it easy to represent complex relationships between pieces ".com" is the TLD.
of data.
● Extensible: XML allows users to define their own tags and data structures,
making it highly customizable to fit different needs.
● Standardized: XML is a W3C (World Wide Web Consortium) standard, ensuring URLs (Uniform Resource Locators)
compatibility and consistency across different platforms and applications. Definition: A URL is a specific type of Uniform Resource Identifier (URI) that provides the
address of a resource on the Internet and specifies the protocol to be used for accessing it.
Structure:
Basic Structure of an XML Document
● Protocol: Indicates the method used to access the resource, such as http://,
● Declaration: The XML declaration specifies the XML version and the character https://, ftp://.
encoding used. It is optional but recommended. ● Domain Name: Specifies the domain where the resource is hosted.
● Root Element: An XML document must have a single root element that contains all ● Path: Indicates the specific location of the resource on the server. It usually
other elements. It represents the top level of the hierarchy. follows the domain name and is separated by slashes.
● Child Elements: These elements are nested within the root element and can contain
other elements or data.
 ● Query Parameters (optional): Provide additional information to the server, Definition: A computer system or software that stores, processes, and serves web pages to
starting with a question mark and followed by key-value pairs separated by clients (web browsers) over the Internet. It responds to requests from browsers and delivers
ampersands. the requested content.
● Fragment (optional): Refers to a specific section within the resource, starting with
a hash symbol (#). Web Server
Functions:
● Hosting: Stores website files and resources.
● Serving Content: Processes incoming requests and sends the appropriate web
Uniform Resource Locator pages or data.
Example:
● Handling Requests: Uses protocols like HTTP/HTTPS to communicate with web
https://www.example.com//path/to/resource?name=value#section browsers.
● Examples: Apache HTTP Server, Nginx, Microsoft Internet Information Services
● Protocol: https:// (IIS).
● Domain Name: www.example.com
● Path: /path/to/resource
● Query Parameters: name=value
● Fragment: #section Web Hosting
Definition: A service that provides the technology and infrastructure needed to host a
website on the Internet. It involves renting space on a server where your website’s files are
stored.
Key Web Concepts: Website, Web Browser, Web Servers, Web Hosting
Here’s a concise overview of each concept: Web Hosting
Types:
Website
Definition: A collection of web pages and related content, typically hosted on a web server, ● Shared Hosting: Multiple websites share the same server resources, which is
and accessible via the Internet. Websites can include text, images, videos, and interactive cost-effective but can affect performance.
elements. ● VPS Hosting: Virtual Private Server hosting offers more resources and control
than shared hosting by partitioning a server into virtual machines.
Components: ● Dedicated Hosting: Provides an entire server exclusively for one website,
offering maximum control and performance.
● Web Pages: Individual documents that make up a website, usually written in
● Cloud Hosting: Uses a network of servers (the cloud) to host websites, providing
HTML and styled with CSS.
scalability and flexibility.
● Domain Name: The address used to access the website (e.g.,
● Example: Companies like Bluehost, HostGator, and SiteGround provide web
www.example.com).
hosting services where you can upload and manage your website’s files.
● Content: Includes text, images, videos, and other media displayed on the web
pages.
● Example: www.example.com is a website that might contain an about page, a
blog, and a contact form. Summary

● Website: A collection of web pages accessible through a domain name,

Web Browser containing various types of content.
Definition: A software application used to access and view websites and web pages. Web ● Web Browser: Software used to access and display web pages, like Chrome or
browsers interpret and display HTML, CSS, and JavaScript content. Firefox.
● Web Server: A system that hosts and serves web pages to browsers over the
Features: Internet.
● User Interface: Provides navigation controls like the address bar, back/forward ● Web Hosting: A service that provides the infrastructure to store and serve your
buttons, and bookmarks. website’s files on the Internet.
● Rendering Engine: Processes HTML and CSS to render web pages visually.
● Security: Offers features like private browsing and protection against malicious
sites.
● Examples: Google Chrome, Mozilla Firefox, Microsoft Edge, Safari.

Web Server