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ENGLISH (FA1F) LECTURE NOTES
PREPARED BY Mr. R. GOVINDAN & Ms. SONA S

ENGLISH – I
UNIT – I (PROSE)
LAW AND LANGUAGE
Unit I: ADVICE TO A YOUNGMAN INTERESTED IN GOING INTO LAW
- Felix Frankfurter

Introduction

Felix Frankfurter was born in Vienna, Austria, on Nov. 15, 1882. At the age of 12 he
and his six brothers and sisters were taken to the United States. Following graduation from
the College of the City of New York in 1902, Frankfurter entered Harvard Law School. He
became editor of the Harvard Law Review and earned his degree in 1906 with honors. Henry
Stimson, the U.S. attorney for the Southern District of New York, appointed Frankfurter an
assistant in 1906. When President William Howard Taft named Stimson secretary of war in
1911, Stimson took Frankfurter along as law officer of the Bureau of Insular Affairs.
Frankfurter was made a Supreme Court justice in 1939. As he had no children, he adopted
three English refugee children.

Letter of M. Paul Claussen Jr.

In May 1954, a twelve years old school boy M. Paul Claussen Jr. from Alexandria,
Virginia wrote a letter to Justice Felix Frankfurter. In the letter he expressed his interest in
going into law as his career. He wanted to start his preparation from the junior school itself.
He sought the advice and guidelines of the Justice Felix Frankfurter in this regard. The
present prose work is the reply letter of Felix Frankfurter to Paul Claussen.
Truly Competent Lawyer
Felix feels that if one wants to be a capable lawyer, he must be a cultivated man. He
advised to Paul that he can first forget the technical preparation for law. To prepare for law
career, he must enter into Law course as a well-read personality.
Use of English Language
To become a true lawyer, he must have the knowledge of Standard English language.
By acquiring the capacity of using English in both speech and thinking, one can acquire the
true knowledge. Such knowledge can only be given by the truly liberal education.
Employing Imaginative Facilities

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Felix is expressing that, for a lawyer, he must develop his imaginative faculties by
reading poetry, seeing great paintings and listening to music. By doing the above-mentioned
things, one may get peace of mind, clear mindset and can do well in his duties.
Conclusion
He finally says that, he must read a lot and deposit that knowledge in his mind for the
future. By learning the mysterious of this universe, he can widen and deepen his feelings. If
he (Paul) follows the words of Felix, he may forget all about his future career, because, the
above things are the foundation for starting the good career.

THE LANGUAGE OF THE LAW

-Urban A. Lavery
Introduction
Urban Augustin Lavery was born on January 6, 1885 in Lavery, Pennsylvania, United
States. His parents are Sylvester and Elizabeth (Tracy) Lavery. He obtained his Bachelor of
Science, University Pennsylvania, 1906, Master of Arts, 1907. Student Columbia, 1907-
1908. Juris Doctor, U. Chicago, 1910.
He was admitted to Illinois bar, 1910. He became the Managing editor American Bar
Association Journal, 1939-1942. Individual practice, specializing in Federal law matters,
since 1942. Assistant to attorney general of the United States in anti-trust matters, 1944-
1946. He won noted Children’s Case in 1946. Then he served as a Legislative draftsman
Illinois Constitutional Convention, 1919-1921 and Public member War Labor Board, Illinois,
1942-1945.
The purpose of this prose work “The Language of the Law” is to point out the
defects of the language of the lawyers and not finding fault with the skills of the Lawyers.
The King’s English
The author Urban A. Lavery is pointing the following faults. The lawyers think that
the King’s English is better than his fellows. Here the author raises a question. The lawyers
speak King’s English but what about their writing? Lavery says that the Lawyers have no fair
writing skills. They overuse the words in their legal documents.
Art of Teaching & Writing
In the work “Art of Teaching”, it is mentioned that teaching the art of writing is an
easy task. But writing is very difficult one. Especially teaching the art of legal writing is very
difficult. In the present world, numbers of books are available on the topics like “Writing
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Scientific English”, “Writing Prose”, “Writing Poetry”, and “Writing Plays”. But there is no
book available on the title “Writing Legal English”.
Length of Laws
The length of the law is also criticized by Lavery. The law is written in a very
decorative language and the length is also difficult to follow. H gives an example for this
from Constitution of the State of New York, Article- 8, and section- 10. This section’s first
line alone has 462 words. He feels that this first line is longer than the 10 Commandments of
Christianity.
Length of The Modern Law
The same style is being continued in the modern law also. For instance, the modern
law book of Foster, “Federal Practice” is having 352 words in a sentence. That sentence is
having 15 -16 main verbs and many phrases and clauses. Bentham, a famous law reformer
has written some books Law. His early books have been very simple and the later books
become unreadable. The only reason behind this is the language.
Usage of Jargons
It is criticized that the Lawyers are using more ‘jargons’ in their written documents. The
Cambridge Professor Arthur Quiller feels that this should be avoided. Because that can be
understood by the Justices and Lawyers but the laymen cannot understand the meaning. He
pointed out the two vices of Jargons.
They are,
1. They go round the things and not straight to the points.
2. Such usages are very vague and abstract.
Conclusion
Finally Lavery criticizes the faulty grammar of the lawyers in their documents. He has told
that, the Lawyers consult 100 Law books to prepare a legal document but not even a single
grammar book. He concludes the prose work by saying that, the legal writing of the Lawyers
should be clear and error free which should be understandable for all people including
common man.
THE LANGUAGE OF THE LAW
-Urban A. Lavery
Urban A. Lavery, in his essay “The Language of the Law” deals with the trifling facts
of a lawyer’s language. The ability of the lawyer to confuse others has been the subject of

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proverbs. Nevertheless, the author says that it is not the purpose of this paper to praise the
linguistic brilliance of the lawyer, but to consider some of his defects.
The author throws light on the general decline in the standards of legal writing. A
lawyer who speaks the Kings English better than other seems to lose his mastery when it
comes to writing. It is a difficult task to teach others the art of writing. There are books on
writing subjects like poetry, prose, scientific English, but none on writing legal English.
Laws are so abundant and common that they must be understood and obeyed by all
sections of the people. Ignorance of law excuses no man. Therefore laws must be drafted in
such a way that the language is simple and easily understandable to layman as well as
lawyers.
The sentence is the basic unit expression. As a general rule sentences should be short
because short sentences are more quickly and easily understood than long sentences. A
sentence, containing not more than fifteen words is called a short sentence. It is sad to note
that lawyers seldom look into grammar or composition books. They do not consider the use
of proper adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions etc., and the author even criticizes Jeremy
Bentham the greatest law reformer in England whose later writing’s became difficult to
read.
Another chief defect in the writing of lawyers is the fact that they use circumlocution
rather than straight blunt speech. They prefer to go round a subject with their words rather
than straight to it. Considering the complexities of the subject, it may be admitted that the
lawyer’s problem in writing is a difficult one. But the fact remains that they do not give due
attention to the art of writing. What is well spoken may not look nice when put into writing.
It is just the difference between oral and written words which makes that dictated brief
horrible. Such a document fails to realize the technique which lies in the art of writing legal
English. It is a technique which can only be acquired by persistent effort and it does not
come with the profession as many lawyers think.
IN THE COURT
- Anton Chekhov
Introduction
In the court was first published in 1886. The story relates to Chekhov’s experiences
from 1884- 1886, when he worked as a substitute country doctor in Zvenigorod. Chekov saw
patients, conducted autopsies, and testified in courts as an expert witness. A lawyer by the
name serpovsky wrote that Chekhov was keenly interested in the court proceedings and was
very well acquainted with the judicial procedures. Leo Tolstoy considered this story to be
one of the best that Chekhov wrote and called it “a true pearl.”

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The story is a satire on the Russian judiciary. Chekhov, as is true to his style, does not
give a realistic portrayal of the court proceedings. His aim through the story is to criticize the
incompetencies of the Russian judiciary. A system that fails in all aspects of serving justice.
His major tool in doing so is satire.
Case of Nikolay Harlamov
The case is that of a peasant called Nikolay Harlamov, who has been accused of
murdering his wife, on the evening of the ninth of June. She was found in the porch with her
broken skull lying in a pool of blood and an axe beside her. She had been spotted by her
neighbours and when they went to inform Nikolay about the calamity, he wasn’t to be
spotted anywhere. He in fact had disappeared and two days later, came on his own accord to
the police office, looking pale, in torn clothes, trembling all over. He was then put in a lock
up.
Description of the Court
Chekhov wants to highlight the apathy shown by the officials of the circuit court. He
starts the narrative, setting the background for the reader, wherein he brings out the general
dull appearance of the court even on a bright spring day. On clear moonlight nights, Chekhov
says that the court stood like an oppressive mass of stone above the modest landscape and
little dwelling houses which seemed plunged in quiet slumber.
The case was heard on a dull autumn day, where the court was described as an
unattractive bam coupled with the looks of a dismal barrack like appearance with dingy
windows and cinnamon colored filthy perspiring walls, noisy due to the whirring of the
ventilation wheels, in other words the noise of fan was deafening. All these accentuated the
unattractive state of the circuit court. The disgusting odour of fumigating candles gives the
reader a feeling that it must have been suffocating inside. Further Chekhov mentions that it
had no comforts internally or externally.
What added to the gloom of the court was the proceedings conducted by the most
disinterested officials, where the service is described as a church service without a choir. The
officials could not be bothered about the misfortunes, the truth, the lies spoken inside the
courtroom. It spilled over to Nikolay Harlamov’s case too, which came up for hearing at two
o’clock in the afternoon. The officials could not care less that a murder case had to be heard
and a man’s life was at stake. A man, who had been accused of murdering his wife, who had
denied the charges and was supported by his neighbours who testified that the man in
question, Nikolay Harlamov had been good to his wife, except perhaps when he was in an
inebriated state.
Evidences of the Case
The material evidences like the full-skirted coat, the sleeve which had dark brown
stain of blood, axe ect. were examined. Harlamov denied that the brown coloured stain was
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possibly his wife’s blood. When the question of the possession of an axe arouse, he first
denied that he had an axe; then he claimed that he did have a smaller one but was lost by his
son Prohor, two years before Prohor joined the army.
The Trial Process
During the entire prosecution process, all the officials were unmistakably detached
and showed no emotion. The officials included the secretary, who read the case in a
monotonous, bored voice, rapidly like a sacristan or a church officer, the president who was
more worried about his comforts and took a deep interest in the clothes of other members, the
Assistant Prosecutor who sat motionless as a statue, busy reading with full attention Bryon’s
Cain, lifting his head occasionally. Compounding the narcotic and still character of the
courtroom was the expression of the counsel for Harlamov, who had boredom written on his
face, an expression which is seen on the faces of school boys and men on duty, who are
forced from day to day to sit in the same place and see the same faces and walls everyday.
What added to the woes of the accused was the doctor’s tawdry investigation, where all the
possible witnesses had not been examined such as the accused’s brother or the elders of the
village; neither was the mental state of the accused examined. All they were interested was to
get done with the prosecution and wind up with the case as soon as possible.
Intially Harlamov looked with dull witted respectfulness at the judges uniforms at the
weary faces of the jurymen and blinked calmly thinking that would be given a proper
hearing. Later as the hearing proceeded, he was irritated that he was not properly heard.
When the trail came to a close and the prisoner was escorted back it was a painful moment,
which was felt by the audience too. Chekhov leaves it to the audience to draw their own
conclusion about the case, as he ends the case without the judgement being pronounced.
Conclusion
Chekhov’s objective is to bring out the boredom and apathy among the court officials
that was seen in Russian courts back then. That a man’s life was at stake did not emotionally
move them to their job diligently and sincerely. He presents this story in the most satirical
way to an audience that includes thinking readers who can very well empathize with the
accused and realise the importance of an efficient and accountable judiciary system.
IN THE COURT
- Anton Chekhov
“In the court’’ is a very vivid description of the trial of a peasant named Nikolay
Harlamov, charged with the murder of his wife. The author Anton Chekhov, at the outset,
gives a picture of the circuit court at the district town where the Justices of the peace, the
Rural Board, the Liquor Board, the Military Board and many others sat by turns. The
building is a very old one and it bears a dismal appearance without any kind of comfort.

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The sitting of the circuit court began between nine and ten. The cases came on one
after the other and ended quickly like a church service without a choir. At precisely two o’
clock the presiding officer announced that the case of Nikolay Harlamov could next be
heard. Harlamov, the prisoner, tall, thick-set peasant of about fifty five years was brought in.
The presiding officer, the assistant prosecutor, the counsel for the defense and all the
officials of the court wore a monotonous look in their routine work. No one seemed to have
any special interest in his particular case.
At this stage the author reveals the mental make-up of the prisoner who for the first
time got into the clutches of law. He looked with dull-witted respectfulness at the judges
uniforms and blinked calmly. The charge of murder hung over him and yet here he met with
neither threatening faces nor indignant looks. He did not understand that the men in the
court were accustomed to the dramas and tragedies of life.
In the meantime, after the customary questions to the prisoner, the charge against the
prisoner was read. The charge was that he murdered his wife on the evening of ninth June.
The presiding officer asked him whether he pleaded guilty. When the prisoner denied the
charge, the trial began. The court proceeded with the examination of witnesses. Two peasant
women, five men and the village policeman, who had made the inquiry, were examined. All
of them testified that Harlamov lived well with his wife. On the particular day the body of
the woman was found in the porch with her skull broken. An axe also lay beside her in a
pool of blood. Harlamov had disappeared and came to the police station after two days.
When asked by the president Harlamov told that he was wandering about the fields on
those two days as he was afraid that he might be judged guilty. The district doctor was also
examined. When the defense counsel tried to get an answer to his question from the doctor,
regarding the mental condition of the criminal, he could not get it. Then the material
evidences like the cloth, axe etc., were examined. Harlamov denied that he had an axe and
also he gave different reason for the blood stain in his coat. Harlamov was irritated that he
was not properly heard. The trail came to a close and the prisoner was escorted back and it
was a painful moment. The author ends the description without giving the judgment
pronounced.
Anton Chekov presents this story in the most satirical way that indulges readers to
think and empathize with the accused and realize the importance of an efficient and
accountable judiciary system. This Story is an attempt to bring out the boredom and
indifference peculiar to criminal trials. The attitude of a poor villager charged with a grave
offence is well described.

EDUCATING LAWYERS FOR A CHANGING WORLD

- Erwin.N.Griswold

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Erwin N. Griswold in his essay “Educating Lawyers for a changing world” underlines
the need for change in the legal education to keep pace with the changes in the society. He
says stress on research in law as in other subjects of study.
Legal education in our country is only about eighty years old. During this period there
have been many changes and developments in the law schools and law teaching. These
changes reflect not merely growth and development in our law and society, but also, a
marked change in the legal profession. In the recent decades, the traditional role of a lawyer
has changed and his functional area has considerably expanded to business counseling,
public service labour law, administrative law, taxation etc. As a result of this, effective
teaching in these subjects is necessary to equip the lawyers to meet the challenges of the
profession.
Much of our legislation is piecemeal and for the most part drafted by part time
legislators with little or very limited opportunities for detailed discussion ‘The re-
examination and analysis of these laws has been a major task which practicing lawyers
cannot effectively do. This is an area where the law schools can make a major contribution.
The challenge put to the law schools in our times is that in addition to being effective
teaching agencies, they must become centers for carrying on research into the law, its
development and its application to the solution of current problems. Much of the legal
research of the past has become inadequate in view of the modern development in law.
Therefore, serious attempts must be made in the field of legal research. The research
activities contribute directly to the teaching. The findings of the research become available
for teaching. The students can often engage directly, in the research activities.
The importance given to research in subjects like medicine, engineering etc. is not
given to law. Natural science deals with phenomena that are measurable with accuracy.
Experiments are simple and can be conducted in a short interval of time, whereas, the
problems of the social science the adjustment of human relations in society are more
complex. Yet the problems are more important to mankind than anything related to natural
science. The basic problem confronting the society is whether it will be able to control the
forces that science has developed. This involves baffling questions relating to human nature,
Psychology, economics, political science law and other fields also. We have begun to
explore these areas, but the results are not encouraging. Still in certain areas we have made
progress.
We cannot predict the manner in which developments may take place in the future. We
must be prepared to face the challenges thrown by them. We cannot make progress in the
field of adjusting human relations unless we work at it intensively.
MR. HAVLENA’S VERDICT
- Karel Capek

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Mr. Havlena’s ‘Verdict is an interesting account of an imaginary criminal case which

got wide publicity. The author highlights the general trend of reporting sensational criminal
case in newspaper almost every day in order to attract the reading public. Police news
reporters used to hatch out novel cases for themselves and could find a regular market for
them. Mr. Havlena the person who supplied the case in the essay was a law student who
discontinued his studies. Still he was well-versed in legal matters, especially criminal cases.
He used to supply cases for police reporters. His cases were well received by the readers and
he was paid in terms of cigar and beer.
One day Havlena imagined a case. It was the case of an old bachelor who had a quarrel
with a widow who lived opposite to him. So he got a parrot and trained it well so that
wherever the lady appeared on her balcony it screeched out at the top of its voice “You slut”
which means “dirty woman” The widow brought an action against him for defamation of
character. The district courts sentenced him to fourteen days imprisonment.
This case appeared in about six newspapers under various headlines such as “Far from
the Madding Crowd “Landlord and Poor Widow” “Accusation against parrot” etc. The
ministry of Justice decided to file an appeal against the order of the district court and asked
for the particulars of the case from the newspaper. When this was taken to the knowledge of
Havlena, he got angry, drew up a detailed statement to vindicate the Verdict and sent it to
the Ministry of Justice. It was not taken notice of by Ministry and Havlena stopped giving
judgments afterwards.
However, Havlena was not prepared to take this disgrace lying down. Soon he was
back in business. He got a parrot, trained it up and made it utter the words ‘You slut’ at the
old woman living opposite to his house. Contrary to his expectation the woman was not
offended by the words uttered by the parrot. Havlena tried his best to persuade her to bring
an action against him and at last succeeded in his attempt. She brought an action for
defamation of character.
When the case came up for trial, Havlena gave a long speech admitting all the
allegations against him. But the magistrate wanted to hear the parrot and adjourned the case.
At the next hearing the parrot was brought to the court. The parrot uttered the words ‘you
slut’ towards all persons irrespective of sex. Therefore, it became clear that the words were
not intended to defame the woman. Havlena strongly argued that it was his intention to
defame her. However the court found no reason in it and acquitted Havlena. He went out of
the court in anger, saying that he would file an appeal in the High Court. The appeal was
also dismissed and thereafter Havlena was found wandering about the street like a lost soul.
Karel Capek’s attempt to bring to light the tendency among the reading public to go
after interesting police reports is commendable.
THE FIVE FUNCTIONS OF THE LAWYER

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- Arthur T. Vanderbilt
Lawyers in the modern society have multifarious roles to play According to Arthur T.
Vanderbilt, there are five important functions assigned to a great lawyer. They are
1. Counseling
2. Skill in advocacy
3. Improving the profession
4. Leading public opinion and
5. Accepting public office when called for.
First of all a truly great lawyer is a wise counselor to men in their crises. A lawyer
must possess a sound knowledge of the principles of law to render effective counseling. A
lawyer must also have a wide and deep knowledge of human nature and of modern society.
Secondly a lawyer must be skilled in the art of advocacy and well-trained in defending
the legal rights of his clients both in the trial courts and on appeal. A lawyer must be well-
experienced so that he can defend the cause of his client and help the court in setting the
course of law. Advocacy is not the gift of god it involves general distinct arts which must be
studied and mastered. Constant reading and assimilation of facts and modern trends in the
field of law will go a long way helping a lawyer to develop the skill of advocacy.
The third task of a lawyer is to improve his profession individually and as a member of
the organized Bar. Every man is under an obligation to build up the profession to which he
belongs. Indeed, this obligation is exactly what distinguishes a profession from business.
The advances in natural science and technology and the changes in business and in social
life are so startling that a lawyer must improve his profession to keep pace with them. The
law schools also must come forward to perform their task in equipping the young lawyers to
face the challenges of the profession.
The fourth function of a lawyer is to act an intelligent and unselfish leader of public
opinion. Sound public opinion is so indispensable that it can even change the course of
history. The author cites an example from Charles Lindbergh’s warning about the war
planes in Germany, over six months before the outbreak of wood war II. If the news of
Charles Lindbergh had been supported by strong public opinion, the course of history would
have been different.
In view of the deteriorating standards in public life the author makes very strong plea
for the lawyers to take up public office whenever there is a call. The professional thoughts
and brilliance of a lawyer should not end in his own private clients. A lawyer with his

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profound knowledge in human relations and social conditions can easily solve many of the
problems of the day.
These are the five important functions of a great lawyer. Education in these five
functions of the lawyer is partly the province of the college, partly the duty of the law
school, but in large measure it is the responsibility of the individual lawyer. The institutions
imparting legal education have realized their responsibilities and started planning the
curriculum accordingly.
COMPARATIVE LAW
- Rene David and John E.C. Brierley
The emergence of comparative law as an important subject of study is relatively
recent. Only from the second half of the 19th Century comparative law became an important
branch of study. The need for comparing laws slowly became more and more apparent.
Hearing, a German jurist proclaimed that it was the method of future jurist.
In many countries of the world, especially in France, the importance of comparative
Law came to be stressed in the early part of the 19th century. Comparative law under the
modest title of comparative legislation appeared at this time. France, which was following
Napoleonic codes for a Long time began to accept suggestions for improvement in
legislation. An “Office of Foreign legislation” to inform judges about foreign laws were
created in the year 1869.This simplified the comparison of laws by publishing translations
of foreign codes. This first international congress of comparative law was held in Paris in
1900. The principle idea that emerged from the discussion was the creation of a droit
common legislative, (Common Law) the law of the 20th century shared by all civilized
humanity The legislations of the different nations acting together by means of international
treaties were to promulgate the common law and make it the positive law of their countries
During, the period between 1918 and 1945 some attempts were made to promulgate
common law of all countries. But the growth in this area was hampered to some extent by
the international political climate prevailing then. However, a new thrust was given to the
development of comparative law after World War II. Technical discoveries profoundly
changed the conditions of life. Distances disappeared and national boundaries to a great
extent ceased to have any meaning. The economic and social developments and the impact
of globalization and liberalization in the present context have necessitated a fresh look at
law and legislation at the international level. The jurist cannot be blind to the new balance of
power which has been established in world polities & economics. The result is that the study
of law in the contemporary world has become international.
The uses of comparative law
1. Unification of Laws

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The idea of world unification of law through legislative agreements has become
relevant and very useful in new area such as space law atomic law, television law, maritime
law etc., where there is no rooted tradition. However, in other fields such as commercial law
also, uniformity is desired in the context of the different regional agreements throughout the
world, juristic efforts are on to verify the laws by means of legislation.
2. International understanding
Comparative law promotes international understanding of the basic principles of law
and the legislation. This ensures harmonious co -existence which is the condition precedent
for the preservation and progress of any nation. The world today is different from what it
was a century ago. The position of Western Europe and the thinking of the jurist’s Roman
tradition are not fully endorsed. International political and commercial relation must take
into account these new circumstances.
3. Better knowledge of national law :

Apart from unification and the other uses, comparative law has a new function. It
helps us to know; to understand and to probe our own legal system. It also helps us to show
how some questions can be more relevantly asked and how certain parts of our law are not
properly drafted. Judicial nationalism is provincialism and irreconcilable with the
development and even the application of a national law.
Thus, it has become imperative that Legal education must have its focus, on foreign
thought and experience so as broaden the outlook of the jurists.
THE HYPOTHESES OF FAILURE
- O. Henry
Introduction
This is a short story written by the American writer, O’ Henry. There are five
characters namely Lawyer Gooch, his assistant, Archibald, Mr. and Mrs. Billings and Henry
K. Jessup. The main theme is about the bungling and finally losing a case by lawyer Gooch
due to mistaking the identity of his clients. It probably has an underlying message that
lawyers first understand and estimate their clients to be a successful lawyer.
Ideals of Lawyer Gooch
Lawyer Gooch, despite being a divorce lawyer is portrayed as a conservative person
believing in the sanctity of marriage. When estranged couples approach him, he would try
his best to reunite them instead of breaking the marriage. At times he would train the
children to pull them together. Out of gratitude for saving their marriage, the rejoined couple
would pay the lawyer a fat fee. After few months due to differences cropping up again, the
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same couple would come back seeking a divorce, for which they have to pay his fee. In this
way, the lawyer gets paid twice for one case.
Description of the Office and the Clients
Lawyer Gooch has constructed his office like the bottom of a ship, each compartment
being water-tight. There are three rooms in his office in a row, connected to the central room
and the hallway. This is to ensure that clients do not mingle. The month of June is considred
to be a lean season for divorce lawyers as it is the month of Cupid, the god of love and
hymen, the goddess of marriage. One day in June, the lawyer was sitting in his office room
least expecting a client. A knock was heard on the outermost door and when Archibald
opened it, a visitor pushed him aside and entered the lawyer’s room. Before lawyer Gooch
could react the stranger who looked bold and arrogant asked the lawyer whether he was
Phineas C.Gooch. Offering the lawyer a cigar, the man stated a hypothetical case and
wanted the lawyer’s honest comments. He refused to reveal his name, despite the lawyer
asking him.
In a small town called Susanville, Mr. and Mrs. Billings lived. He was a businessman
who gave importance to earning money. The lady was more inclined towards academics and
enjoyed attending meetings, speaking about scientific developments, reading poetry etc.
They were not made for each other and there was no love lost between them. In such a
situation, Henry K. Jessup, a real estate agent came to Susanville to do some business. Mrs.
Billings falls in love with him and starts openly proclaiming her love. Startled by this,
Jessup leaves Susanville, but she leaves her home and follows him. The first client finishes
the hypothetical and asks the lawyer to get a divorce for that lady so that she can marry
Jessup. He assures the lawyer that Jessup will definitely take care of her once she gets her
divorce. He agrees to pay 500 dollars towards that. Before the lawyer could reply, Archibald
announces the arrival of a lady. Taking the first client to the adjoining room, he excuses
himself saying he has to write a will to a lady and that he will come back on finishing that.
Latching the door from outside the lawyer tells Archibald to send that lady.
A very good looking, well dressed lady with flowing robes and accessories is
welcomed by the lawyer. She also states the same hypothetical case. It is clear to the lawyer
that she is Mrs. Billings. Instead of coming to the point, she beats round the bush, irritating
the lawyer. When prodded to come to the point, the lady asks whether she can get a divorce
for 340 dollars, for her friend got one for that amount. Before the lawyer could discuss the
matter, Archibald announces the arrival of a client. Lawyer Gooch takes that lady to the
other empty room, and asks her to write a will for an old man. Coming to the middle office
room, he permits the third client to enter.
Client number three is a very irritated looking man, who seems to be having some
problem. Though he was wearing good quality clothes, it looked like he had travelled a lot
and seemed to be tired and worn out. He too without revealing his identity presented the
same hypothetical case. He looked disturbed and pleaded with the lawyer to see that the lady
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unites with her husband since only he knows how to handle her. He promised to pay one
thousand dollars to the lawyer that day she returned to her husband, who he claimed was
waiting for her.
Master plan of Lawyer Gooch – A Failure
This was a situation that pleased lawyer Gooch. He realized that all the three related
people in the hypothetical were with him and he was the master of their destinies. Asking
Archibald to close the outer door and not allow anyone, he enters the room where the first
client is waiting, to get the best deal. He demands a fee of 1500 dollars, which the first client
refuses to pay and he exits through the hall way without being able to see the other clients.
The lawyer now goes to the third client to clinch the deal. He assures the client that he will
definitely bring together the Billings couple and assuming him to be Mr. Billings, he
dramatically reveals the presence of Mrs. Billings in the adjoining room. On hearing that,
the startled third client gets up from his chair, runs to the open window and from the second
floor attempts to jump down. The shocked lawyer pleads with him to come back to his wife,
assuming him to be Mr. Billings and runs towards the window. Throwing the bag in his
hand, the client jumps down. It hits the lawyer on his face, who staggers back. The contents
of the bag spill out and it comes out that the man was not her husband as wrongly assumed
by the lawyer. The husband was asking for a divorce to his wife so she can marry Jessup,
while Jessup was willing to pay 1000 dollars so that the lady remains with her husband. So
both the men did not want the lady and were trying to pass her to the other.
Conclusion
Lawyer Gooch decided not to take up that case, asked Archibald to send her off by
telling her that Sir was gone to the Supreme Court. Thus due to wrong assumption made by
the lawyer, the case went out of his hand.
THE HYPOTHESES OF FAILURE
- O. Henry
“The Hypotheses of failure” deals with the way a lawyer handles clients with
conflicting interests. Lawyer Gooch a leading practitioner mainly on matrimonial disputes
was fond of comparing his suite of office rooms with the bottom of a ship. Just as the water
tight compartments in the bottom of a ship, there were separate rooms for clients in his
office. When he was occupied with a client, if another client with a conflicting interest
called on him, he would be accommodated in another room with the help of the office boy.
Both the clients would not be allowed to meet each other. This way lawyer Gooch, a man of
humour used to settle disputes and to get huge amount as fees.
One day, in the ninth of June, when Gooch was sitting in his office almost idle, a man
called on him. He looked a bit arrogant and did introduce himself. He started asking many
questions about Gooch and wanted to state a hypothetical case. The case was that a fine-
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looking woman, wife of Thomas R. Billings ran away with Henry K. Jessup; a licentious
man. He asked Gooch whether a married woman, well educated in science and culture can
take the man she likes, when the matrimonial home becomes incompatible. Gooch answered
in the affirmative and agreed to get her divorce and the man agreed to pay fees of five
hundred dollars.
While the conversation was still on, a lady client called on Gooch and she was led into
a separate room. Gooch kept his first client waiting and entertained client number two, a tall
lady with wealthy appearance. She also wanted to state a hypothetical case and get divorce
for the woman. The facts of the case were the same as already stated by the first client.
At this stage the third client, a gentleman called on Gooch and he was also kept in a
separate room. He looked nervous and much worried. He also narrated a hypothetical case
the pathetic plight of a husband whose wife ran after another man, wrecking a matrimonial
home. The facts were the same but he did not want divorce for the woman, instead he
pleaded with Gooch to act as a mediator and reunite the estranged husband and wife. He
promised one thousand dollars as fee for the settlement.
Lawyer Gooch knew very well that the three individuals sitting in separate rooms were
the real parties in the hypothetical case, though they were not conscious of one another’s
presence within his reach. Gooch kept me third client waiting and went back to his first
client and demanded one thousand and five hundred dollars as fee for getting divorce. When
he refused to pay the amount he was shown the way out. Gooch is now hopeful of bringing
about a settlement between the husband and wife with the third party out of the scene.
Gooch tried to bring them together, but he could not succeed. The third client Mr. Billings,
on seeing his wife Mrs. Billings ran down the building through the open window without
even stopping to take his bag and hat. Mr. Billings also left the office in anger.
Thus the tricks of lawyer Gooch misfired and the good ship of his business wrecked.
THE MIND AND FAITH OF JUSTICE HOLMES
-Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes

Justice Holmes analyses the different theories of punishment and concludes that the
‘Retributive Theory of punishment is still relevant despite the emergence of the other
modern theories. Satisfaction of the desire for vengeance continues to be one of the objects
of punishment. Where compensation to the victim is not possible, by reason of the
impossibility of estimating the worth of the suffering in terms of money is to the property of
the Criminal it may be said that one of its objects is to gratify the desire for vengeance. The
prisoner pays with his body. Sir James Stephen says “The Criminal law stands to the passion
of revenge in much the same relation as marriage to the sexual appetite”.

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However, the retributive -theory has been criticized on the ground that it does not
attach any purpose to punishment. According to the theory, punishment is an end in itself.
The theory does not care for the Criminal and so has no social content.
Justice Holmes has taken into account the merits of the other theories, such as the
preventive theory and the Reformative theory. The Preventive theory says that punishment
should be a means to an end. Therefore, prevention of Crime must be the end in punishing a
criminal Hegel, one of the exponents of this theory says that punishment must be equal in
the sense that it must be proportionate to the crime, because its only purpose is to prevent it.
It is objected that, the preventive theory is immoral because it does not furnish any measure
of punishment except the law giver’s subjective opinion in regard to the sufficiency of the
amount of punishment. In spite of all this, the preventive theory is accepted as a modern
theory
The Reformative theory of punishment is considered as the most modern one.
According to this theory, the purpose of punishment is to reform the criminal. This theory
advocates human approach towards the criminal to, reform him and to make him conform to
the social pattern. But Justice Holmes does not agree with this theory. He says that
according to this theory no criminal can be punished.
Justice Holmes maintains that there is an affirmative argument in favour of the theory
of retribution. The fitness of punishment following wrong doing is recognised by the
exponents of all theories. The feelings of fitness is in fact vengeance in disguise. Therefore
vengeance is an element though not the chief element of punishment. Neither of these
theories can be strictly applied in certain cases. For Example, self- Preference or the right of
private defense is recognized by criminal law administration in general. In this case a man
cannot be punished for talking the life of another man. On the other hand there is a doctrine
which says that Ignorance of law is no excuse for breaking it. Here, one can be punished for
doing an act without learning that it was violation of law.
Therefore, it follows that any theory of punishment must be based on a perfect
balancing of the competing and conflicting interests in the society, which lies in the people
interest and the public interest.
A PLEA FOR THE SEVEREST PENALTY UPON HIS CONVICTION FOR
SEDITION
- Mahatma Gandhi
Mahatma Gandhi was tried ‘or several political offences in India. In 1922 he was
arrested and charged with sedition for three of his articles in his magazine ‘Young India’. At
the conclusion of the trail Gandhiji was asked by the judge if he wished to make statement
before receiving sentence Gandhiji expressed his willingness to make a statement entirely
endorsing the learned Advocate General’s remarks. He said that it had become a passion

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with him to preach disaffection towards the existing system of government. He added that it
was his painful duty to admit before the court that it started much earlier than his connection
with ‘Young India’. He knew that he was playing with fire still he reiterated that he would
do the same thing if he was set free.
Gandhiji had a very strong faith in Nonviolence. To quote him, “I wanted to avoid
violence; Nonviolence is the first article of my faith. It is also the last article of my creed”.
He admitted that the people sometimes had gone mad and turned violent, but he felt sorry
for it and submitted himself to the highest penalty provided by law.
Gandhiji read out his statement which described the circumstances that turned him an
uncompromising disaffectionist and non-co-operator. Gandhiji’s public began in 1893 in
South Africa in troubled weather. Soon he realized that he had no rights as a man because he
was an Indian. Yet he did not wish the destruction of the system of the government. He
extended his full co-operation whenever the existence of the empire was threatened. When
the world war broke out in 1914, he stood by one British Empire and was acknowledged as
a true loyalist. In all his services to the Empire, he was actuated by the belief that it was
possible to gain status of full equality in the Empire for the Indian’s.
All his hopes were shattered by the Rowlatt Act of 1919, a law designed to rob the
people of all freedom. Gandhiji led a series of agitations against it. Then it was followed by
the Punjab horrors beginning with the massacre at Jalianwala Bagh. The British
administration became oppressive and the Indian’s were, subjected to public flogging and
humiliations of all sorts.
The British administration, through various measures fully exploited the masses. With
the result, India became poor and helpless with little power of resting famines. In ninety-
nine cases out a hundred, justice was denied to Indians as against Europeans in the courts of
India. Section 124-A of the Indian penal code was designed to suppress the liberty of the
citizen. Gandhiji told that he has no disaffection or ill-will against any single administrator
or against the king’s persons. But he was justified in being disaffected towards a
government which had done more harm to India than any previous system.
For the reasons stated above Gandhiji was of the opinion that non co-operation with
evil is as much a duty as co-operation with good. He admitted all the charges against him
and submitted cheerfully to the highest penalty that could be inflicted upon him by a law.
The statement of Mahatma Gandhi is one of the greatest treatises related to the chequered
history of the Indian freedom movement.
CROSS-EXAMINATION BY CHARLESS RUSSELL OF PIGOTT BEFORE THE
PARNELL COMMISSION
- Sir Charles Russell

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About the Author

Charles Arthur Russell, Baron Russell of Killowen (10 th November, 1832 to 10th
August 1900), was an Irish statesman and Lord Chief Justice England.
Early Life and Education
Russell was born as the eldest son of Arthur Russell and Margaret Mullin. He had
three sisters and one brother. He studied at the diocesan seminar and Castle Knock College,
in Dublin. He worked in some law offices and in 1854 was admitted as a Solicitor in 1854.
As a legal professional
In 1856 with his success in many cases, he became a barrister in London by entering
Lincoln’s Inn due to his success, he was called to the Bar in 1859 and in 1872, he became a
Queen’s counsel. His name and fame was increasing steadily. In 1894, he was made Lord of
Appeal in Ordinary and was raised to a life peerage taking his title Baron Russell of
Killowen. The same year he was appointed as Lord Chief Justice of England.
Political Career
He was an advocate of Home Rule in Ireland. In 1880, he was knighted and the same
year was appointed as the Attorney-General and for the second time in 1892. He was a strong
advocate of Irish Home Rule in Parliament. His Cross examination of the witnesses of the
Times and his exposure of Richard Pigott, the author of the forgeries made a favourable
verdit inevitable. His famous eight-day speech for the defence was his greatest forensic
effort.
Analysis
Charles S Parnell was a nationalist leader of the Irish Home Rule movement in the
late 19th century. In 1875, he was elected as a member of the British Parliament to advocate
the cause of Home Rule for Ireland. The Times started the publication of letters supposed to
have been written by Parnell, in which he excused the murderers of Lord Frederick
Cavendish, Chief Secretary for Ireland, and Mr. Burke. Under Secretary in Phoenix Park,
Dublin on May 6,1882. Since Parnell was a Member of Parliament representing Ireland, his
support of a murderous Irish group created a big stir in and outside Parliament. In the House
of Commons he stated that the letter was a forgery and asked for the appointment of a select
committee, returned to Times the retainer he had enjoyed from them for many years.
In the course of investigation it came to light that the Times bought the letter from
Mr. Houston, the Secretary of the Irish Loyal and Patriotic Union. He in turn bought it from
Pigott, a journalist who had bought these letters in Paris from an outlawed underground
group clan-na-Gael. The Irish Loyal and Patriotic Union wanted Pigott to hunt up documents
to incriminate Parnell.
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Sir Charles Russel’s cross- examination of Pigott, was very dramatic and widely
acclaimed Pigott, was the chief witness in this case, which was an attack upon Charles
Parnell and sixty five Irish members of Parliament for belonging to a lawless and murderous
organization working for the overthrow of the rule in Ireland.
The cross-examination commenced with Sir Charles Russell asking Pigott to write
some words on a sheet of paper. The startled witness was forced to do what he was asked to
do. He wrote the word ‘hesitancy’ as ‘hesitency’. The committee was informed by Pat Egan,
an Irish politician that Pigott normally spelt the word wrongly, and so he suspected him to
have forged the letter. Pigott normally spelt wrongly, and so he suspected him to have forged
the letter. After the first round, Sir Charles Russell started intense rounds of questioning
about the publication of the articles, the date the content etc and Pigott’s knowledge about all
these. After Pigott gave the answers, Russel read a letter written by Pigott to the Archbishop
Walsh on 4th March 1887, 3 days prior to the publication of the letter by the Times. Pigott
said that he was not aware of the publication or the contents of the letter. But in his letter he
had written about the publication of certain statements hurting the prospects of Mr. Parnell
and his party men inviting criminal proceedings against them by the Government.
After every round of questioning, a part of Pigott’s letter was read out which clearly
revealed that he was lying. At the end of his battle, Russell was victorious, Pigott was beaten,
but he did not confess. His answers were nailed one after the other by Russell.
After Pigott’s cross-examination was finished he went to Paris without informing and
from there sent a letter confessing his guilt, admitting his perjury and giving the details of
how he had forged the letter by tracing words and phrases from genuine Parnell letters,
placed against the window pane and sold the forged letter for 605.
The confession was read and the commission declared it as a forgery. The Times
withdrew the letter and a warrant was issued for Pigott’s arrest on the charge of perjury. The
police went to his hotel in Madrid to arrest him. He went inside to collect his belongings and
committed suicide by shooting himself. The case served as a good example of how a skilful
cross-examiner can use a damaging letter to tear a dishonest witness’s defence to pieces and
expose his lies.
ON THE ENTIRELY REASONABLE MURDER OF A POLICE CONSTABLE
- George Bernard Shaw
George Bernard Shaw was asked to give his opinion on capital punishment with
reference to the murder of a police constable named Gutteridge. The murder was so
sensational that it was described as brutal and callous. The murder was committed in a
scientific manner. The Criminal in an encounter with the constable shot him dead. Knowing
that the last picture that was focused on the constable eye was that of him destroyed the two
eyes with two more shots. The criminal was a habitual offender. He was also sensitive and

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imaginative because only such people risk hanging to avoid penal servitude. The murder
gave no clue to him.
Bernard Shaw calls this the most reasonable murder and says that such crimes are very
dangerous. He says that such criminals threaten not only the police force but the whole body
of citizens whose only means is to call the police when confronted with the criminal.
The peculiarity of these murders has also’ an important bearing on the question of the
death penalty. According to Bernard Shaw the only excuse for capital punishment is that the
criminal gives more trouble to the community than he is worth. The state is justified in
taking away the life of a criminal only when the crime is so heinous that the repetition of
which cannot be even imagined of. The theories of retaliate punishment and expiatory
punishment are out-dated. If such theories are strictly applied we should spare some murders
and kill quite a number of intolerable nuisances whom we suffer in silence.
A criminal who shoots to escape detection as a matter of business is like a soldier. The
remedy in his case is to give up our cruel punishments and to give him a better chance for
the honest employment of his talents than what our present system offers. Shaw says that the
deterrent theory of punishment is only the judicial theory. He gives two objections to it. The
first is that no severity of punishment deters when detection is uncertain, as it must always
be. When pickpockets were hanged, pockets were picked under the gallows. Now that the
penalty is comparatively less severe, pockets are still picked, but never when a police man is
looking on. The second is that the deterrence theory leads to the conclusion that somebody
must be punished for every crime to deter others from committing it. Whether that
somebody has committed the crime or not is of no consequence. An innocent person also
may be punished.
For the reasons stated above Bernard Shaw pleads for a much liberal approach towards
criminals and punishment with a purpose and a human touch.
HIGH COURT OF JUSTICE OF THE IRISH FREE STATE
- LYNCH V. FITZGERALD AND OTHERS (1938) I.R. 382
The present prose work is a description of the case Lynch V. Fitzgerald & Others
which took place in Ireland’s High Court in 1938. A boy was killed by the detective service
agents repressing an attempt to disrupt a cattle sale in Cork. The trial took place in the court
of Justice Hanna.

It was described that the Sheriff of Cork seized number of Cattle under a warrant
from the Irish Land Commission and attempted to sell them with a force of about 200 Guards
with about 12 armed detectives was placed outside the yard, and 40 Guards including 10
ordinary detectives were placed inside the place of sale. The security was there in Marsh’s
Yard in Copley Street, Cork due to a threatened demonstration against the sale of cattle.

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Only the prospective buyers were there to take part in the sales as it was said that the
buyers and their representatives were only allowed in the yard. For some time before the hour
fixed for the sale, a large crowd of about 1500 people had collected in Anglesea Street which
was the main street into which Copley Street opened. By the time, a lorry filled with men
carrying sticks came through the crowd in Anglesea Street, turned into Copley Street. It was
driven against the several barriers of the Guards and crashed into the gates of the yard
breaking through it. After a few moments, the crowd outside the yard was held in check with
the exception of one or two, who succeeded in entering into the yard. Immediately, the three
detectives of the Special Branch of the Civic Guards Moore, Condon, and Rodgers opened
fire which killed Lynch, who had followed the lorry to see what was happening.

Against this unlawful event, the father of killed boy filed a case against three
detectives of the Special Branch of the Civic Guards Moore, Condon, and Rodgers as the
first three defendants and the fourth defendant was Mr. Fitzgerald, the Chief Superintendent
of Civic Guards who was in charge of the Civic Guards at Cork and he claimed damages
under the Fatal Accidents Act, 1846.

Justice Hanna expressed his views on this case in the trial that there is no case or
authority dealing with the position of an uncontrolled body of men in the employment of the
State left to use their firearms at their own discretion. He further quoted Case of Arms (1596),
‘a cry of made for weapons to keep the peace’ and in later cases, with instances where the
soldiers of the regular Army have fired upon civilians either with or without orders. In
addition, he mentioned Curwood’s Hawkins’ Pleas of the Crown in which the regulation of
firearms was given. Apart from the above he cited various acts, reports, legal papers with
regard to the same.

The justice expressed the three defendants did not follow the instructions issued to the
Civic Guards on the use of firearms, dated November 24 th, 1932, copies of which the Chief
Commissioner had sent for the use of the Court. The justice said that, according to law,
armed forces could use firearms only against an unlawful or riotous assembly only where
such a course was necessary as a last resort to preserve life. But what was done by the
defendants was not so and they violated the law. The Justice came to the conclusion that the
shot was done not to protect lives of buyers and others and completely was an unjustifiable
act and they (the three defendants) were acted as a group with a common unlawful purpose.
So, the Justice imposed a damage of 300 Pounds in favor of the Plaintiff under the Fatal
Accidents Act, 1846. Further, the Justice ordered for the criminal liability against the three
defendants.

OPINION AND DISSENTING OPINION IN REPOUILLE V. UNITED STATES BY

- JUDGE LEARNED HAND & JUDGE JEROME FRANK

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The current topic “Opinion and Dissenting Opinion in Repouille V. United States” is
the description of the opinions expressed by two Circuit Judges namely Judge Learned Hand
& Judge Jerome Frank in the Circuit Court of Appeals, Second Circuit on 05 th December,
1947.

THE OPINION
The opinion expressed by the judge Learned Hand given below as the first. The
District Attorney, on behalf of the Immigration and Naturalization Service, appealed from an
order, naturalizing the appellee, Louis Loftus Repouille who was a refuge. The ground of the
objection in the District Court and the Circuit Court of Appeals was that he (Repouille) did
not show himself to have been a person of “good moral character” for five years which
preceded the filing of his petition.
The facts of the case were that the petition was filed on September 22, 1944 and on
th
12 October 1939, he had deliberately put to death his son, a boy of thirteen by means of
Chloroform. The said reason for this was that the child had suffered from birth from a brain
injury which destined him to be an idiot and a physical monstrosity malformed in all four
limbs. The child was blind, mute, and deformed. Repouille had other four children at that
time and having responsibility of caring the burden of fifth. Initially, he was charged for
manslaughter in the first degree and because of clemency, the judge brought in a verdict of
manslaughter in the second degree. The judge sentenced him to not less than five years nor
more than ten. He conducted himself as a person of “good moral character” during the five
years before he filed his petition.
The Judge said that “good moral character” in the Nationality Act was like a test
which was very similar to a Gallup Poll. The killing of child was not deliberate but the moral
standards should properly be applied and followed in the society. He compared this case with
of a similar offender in Massachusetts who was not executed but imprisoned for life. Thus,
the judge Learned Hand dismissed the petition of Repouille for the citizenship.

THE DISSENTING OPINION

The Judge Frank opined that by filing a new petition, the petitioner might get the
citizenship promptly. But he felt that, filing a petition might cause a long and injurious delay.
He added that the District Judge found enough reasons to grant him the citizenship but not by
the Circuit Judge. He thought that the constitutional test showed the ethics of the leaders who
designed them. But, the judgment of another Judge was made upon the public opinion. Here,
he recalled the remark of Gibbon that “the opinion of the world at large”. He said that in such
cases ‘Judicial notice’ (the knowledge which is attributed by law to judicial persons, and
which does not require to be given them particular case by evidence) could be applied. But,
this ‘judicial notice’ was not considered by judges in this case. It might be because of the
shortage of staff in the courts according to his opinion. He further said that because of the
lacking of Judge’s knowledge, the man’s legitimacy should not be put into danger.
Therefore, the Judge Frank pronounced that a few directions could be given to the
district judge to reconsider the petition of Repouille. The said conditions were to collect all

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the data for both the petitioner’s side and Government side and to put them in record. Based
on those records, the judge should reconsider his decision and arrive at a conclusion. He
finally said that public opinion in this regard (for such cases) was not necessary. By giving
such verdict, Judge Frank recommended for a reconsideration of Repouille’s petition.

THE LAW IS A JEALOUS MISTRESS - A POPULAR FALLACY

- Joseph W Planck

Joseph W Planck (1915-2004) was a former President of the State Bar of Michigan
(1951-1952) and was a member of the Michigan Board of Bar Examiners. A native of Union,
Michigan, he received his A.B from the University of Michigan in and later did his LL.B. He
was practicing in Lansing ever since being graduated from law school.
Joseph W Planck refutes the statement that the Law is a jealous mistress, which was a
popular proverb among the Anglo-American law fraternity. He believed that the statement
was a libelous one on a great profession like law and was utterly false or a fallacy. He put
forward the views of lawyers and litterateurs who were eminent authorities in their respective
fields, who agreed to and disagreed to the fundamentals of this statement/proverb.
He believed that the Lady Common Law does not like to lie alone, as believed by a
few eminent professionals. Instead he proposed that this venerable ghost be laid to rest. He
believed that law cannot be mastered in isolation. He said that the Lady of Common Law
requires a host of bedfellows. Some of them are decidedly practical. He was driving home
the point that ultimately the purpose of law is to attain social justice and therefore, it must be
mastered along with other disciplines such as History, Anthropology, Natural Science, Social
Science, Political Science, Economics, Psychology, and the like, which will help a student of
law integrate the philosophy of learning and life with practicing law.
Merely memorizing statues and law reports without paying attention to the subject of
Jurisprudence or Literature or Science is to give a poverty stricken meaning to the subject of
law. A lawyer must not merely store the precedents of law in his knowledge bank but must
possess the width of comprehension, the serenity of a broad overall outlook of life and the
catholicity of compassion, which can be attained by gaining an overall knowledge of all
aspects by interacting with subject matter experts from all fields like Philosophy, Economics
or History to name a few.
In this piece of prose, he put forward the thoughts and views expressed by many
eminent lawyers and specialists from Juvenal, a powerful Roman poet to Dean Leon Green
of North-Western University of the United States to Sir Frederick Macmillan, a British
Publisher, widely respected names in the literary circles and among the fraternity of lawyers.
He concluded by saying that it is time for the law fraternity to bury the popular fallacy that
the Law is a Jealous Mistress and an epitaph reading ‘Requiescat in pace!’ must be put on the
tombstone.
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ENGLISH (FA1F) LECTURE NOTES
PREPARED BY Mr. R. GOVINDAN & Ms. SONA S

UNIT – II
GRAMMAR & USAGE
1. COMMON ERRORS

Incorrect subject-verb agreement

• The relationship between a subject and its verb

Incorrect: It is a combination of factors that cause the present situation

Revised: It is a combination of factors that causes the present situation
Note: I/you/they/we these cause he/she/it/this causes
Note: common academic mass/uncountable nouns are software, data, information,
equipment, machinery, knowledge, space, oxygen, steel, water, environment and technology
– these do not have plural forms; this means that information does not exist!
Subject Verb Agreement

a. Of all the countries in that area of the world, perhaps Nigeria ___the most potential.
(have/has)

b. Houses built in Victoria less than those in New South Wales. (cost/costs)

c. As most sports magazines can attest, playing sports such as tennis and basketball
____not only mental ability but also physical strength. (require/requires)
d. Common knowledge to anyone who studies science, the earth on its own axis once
every 24 hours. (revolve/revolves)

e. Of all the grammar points I have studied in my seven years of English, the most recent
unit me the most for a variety of reasons. (confuse/confuses)

Wrong tense or verb form

• The verb form that shows whether you are referring to the past, future or present

Incorrect: It was not until a sociological view of the situation was combining with a
psychological approach that some progress was made.

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PREPARED BY Mr. R. GOVINDAN & Ms. SONA S

Revised: It was not until a sociological view of the situation combined with a
psychological approach that some progress was made.
Activity: Correct Verb Form

a. After I had eaten my lunch, I to her while she was eating hers. (was talking/have
talked/talked)

b. He has a party every weekend and his friends to it without fail. (come/are
coming/came)

c. He told me that the sun with a beautiful display of colours. (rises/rose/is rising)

d. She was late and he on the corner long before she came. (has been standing/had
been standing/is standing)

1. Incorrect singular/plural agreement

• Agreement between noun forms

Incorrect: Tourism have been considered one of the most important factor in the
town’s economic development.
Revised: Tourism has been considered one of the most important factors in the town’s
economic development.
Note: Uncountable nouns such as knowledge, information, advice, progress, research
and machinery can be problematic

2. Incorrect word form

• Using the wrong form – verb, adjective, noun or adverb – of a word

Incorrect: The primary emphasis of early research on leadership was psychologically

and focused on the personality characteristics typical found among success leaders.
Revised: The primary emphasis of early research on leadership was psychological and
focused on the personality characteristics typically found among successful leaders.
Note: to address this problem you need to change the format of the sentence to find
the correct form – you may need to use a dictionary or thesaurus.

3. Unclear pronoun reference

• Unclear pronoun reference makes sentences confusing, vague, and difficult to understand.
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ENGLISH (FA1F) LECTURE NOTES
PREPARED BY Mr. R. GOVINDAN & Ms. SONA S

Incorrect: Both Isabel and Barbara loved her children.

Revised: Both Isabel and Barbara loved Isabel’s/Barbara’s/their children.
Note: Find the pronoun and replace it with the antecedent. If the pronoun reference is
clear, the sentence should make sense.

4. Incorrect use of articles

• The incorrect use or omission of a, an and the

Incorrect: The meeting ended with a call for humanitarian approach to be taken over a
plight of the refugees around the globe.
Revised: (general – around the globe) The meeting ended with a call for a
humanitarian approach to be taken over the plight of refugees around the globe.
Revised: (specific place – in East Timor) The meeting ended with a call for a
humanitarian approach to be taken over the plight of the refugees in East Timor.
Note: if a word begins with a consonant, but sounds as if it begins with a vowel it
should be treated as if it starts with a vowel, i.e. an hour, an heir
Activity: Articles
1) Are you shopping for health club to join so you can get in shape?

a) a b) an c) the d) no article is needed

2) Shop wisely! You could end up choosing wrong club and losing more money
than pounds.

a) a b) an c) the d) no article is needed

3) You may find that European vacation is just what you need.

a) a b) an c) the d) no article is needed

4) When you undertake a research, you will need to gather data samples.

a) a b) an c) the d) no article is needed

5) Doctors often use information manuals to keep up to date with new medications.

a) a b) an c) the d) no article is needed

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ENGLISH (FA1F) LECTURE NOTES
PREPARED BY Mr. R. GOVINDAN & Ms. SONA S

5. Wrong or missing prepositions

Using the wrong preposition is a common error as most prepositions are not stressed or
pronounced clearly in speech. They are also often left out accidentally in writing.
Incorrect: The study emphasised on the need of further research to ascertain the
influence by television violence to young children.
Revised: The study emphasised on the need of further research to ascertain the
influence of television violence on young children.

6. Omitted commas

Commas should be used in compound sentences, before conjunctions, after transitions

and between clauses. Use or omission of commas can change the emphasis of the
sentence.
Incorrect: When it comes to eating people differ in their tastes.
Revised: When it comes to eating, people differ in their tastes.
Incorrect: My s1ster who lives in New York is doing a PhD.
Correct: My s1ster, who lives in New York, is doing a PhD.

7. Too many commas

Unnecessary commas make sentences difficult to read.

Incorrect: Field trips are required, in several courses, such as, botany and geology.
Revised: Field trips are requiring in several courses, such as botany and geology.
Incorrect: The term, “computer literacy," has become almost a cliché, in educational
circles.
Revised: The term “computer literacy" has become a cliché in educational circles.

8. Possessive apostrophe error

Apostrophes indicate possession for nouns, omissions in contractions and are, in general,
not used to indicate plurals.

Incorrect: In the current conflict, it’s uncertain who’s borders they are crossing.
Revised: In the current conflict it is uncertain whose borders they are crossing.

9. Incorrect word use

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ENGLISH (FA1F) LECTURE NOTES
PREPARED BY Mr. R. GOVINDAN & Ms. SONA S

Using a word with the wrong meaning often due to similar spelling or pronunciation can
occur when using spell check!

Incorrect: The recession had a negative affect on sales.

Revised: The recession had a negative effect on sales.
Incorrect: The purpose of there visit was political.
Revised: The purpose of their visit was political.
Incorrect: The types of information are quiet different.
Revised: The types of information are quite different.
PRACTICE
Identify any grammatical errors in the following sentences and correct them
where necessary.
This report gives an analytical of the financial stableness of XYZ Ltd.
This report gives an analysis of the financial stableness of XYZ Ltd.
The more rapidly the economy grows and the complexities of business increases, the
more rapidly the need for accounting grow.
The more rapidly the economy grows and the complexities of business increases, the
more rapidly the need for accounting grows.
The financial information cons1sts of a profit-and-loss statements for the year ending
30/6/96, and a balance sheet as at 30/6/96 for three separate accounting system.
The financial information consists of a profit and loss statement for the year ending
30/6/96, and a balance sheet as at 30/6/96 for three separate accounting systems.
Form yourselves into the groups of four or five people and develop marketing plan for
the new product.
Form yourselves into groups of four or five people and develop a marketing plan for
the new product.
UNIT – II 2. SENTENCE STRUCTURE
(A) SENTENCE PATTERN

What is sentence pattern?

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ENGLISH (FA1F) LECTURE NOTES
PREPARED BY Mr. R. GOVINDAN & Ms. SONA S

Systematic arrangement of words in a sentence meaningfully is sentence pattern.

There are five basic patterns. They are:
1. SV ( Subject + Verb )

2. SVO ( Subject + Verb + Object )

3. SVIODO ( Subject + Verb + Indirect Object + Direct Object )

4. SVC ( Subject + Verb + Complement )

5. SVOC ( Subject + Verb + Object + Complement )

SUBJECT: Subject is a word or group of words in a sentence about which something is

said.
VERB: Verb is a word or phrase expressing existence, action or occurrence.
COMPLEMENT: Complement is a word or phrase that usually come after a ‘be’
verb such as am, is, are, was and were to make the sense complete. Sometimes
COMPLEMENT comes after certain verbs such as become, turn, look, appear, feel,
etc.
OBJECT: Object is a word or phrase in a sentence towards which the action of
the verbal element is directed.
If there are two objects in a sentence, the answer for the question.
WHAT? IS DIRECT OBJECT(DO) and WHOM? IS INDIRECT OBJECT (IDO).
I. SV( Subject
+Verb) Verb

The bird flies.

The cattle are grazing.
The boy ran.
The girl was dancing.
It will rain.
II. SVO ( Subject + Verb + Object )

Subject Verb Object

The man Sold his house.
My father is buying a new car.
His uncle Runs a business.

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ENGLISH (FA1F) LECTURE NOTES
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Rahul Loves his mother.

Madan Spent all his money

III. SVIODO ( Subject + Verb + Indirect Object + Direct Object )

Subject Verb Indirect Object Direct Object

The teacher taught Us grammar.
My mother presented my friend a gift.
Rakesh wrote to his parents a letter.
My friend sent Me a message
Sarvesh gave Her advice.

IV. SVC ( Subject + Verb + Complement )

Subject Verb Complement

The rose is flower.
Football is a game.
Monica looked Bewildered
Rajan remained a bachelor.
Mr. Kamalesh is an LIC agent.

V. SVOC ( Subject + Verb + Object + Complement )

Subject Verb Object Complement

The parents named the child Angeline.
The Committee elected Krish their leader.
He painted his house yellow.
They appointed Him the captain
This programme will keep the audience spell bound.

Note: There are 144 patterns totally. They can be formed adding “Adjunct” to
the basic patterns.
ADJUNCT is the optional element in the sentence.
It answers the questions How? Why? When? Where?
VI. SVA ( Subject + Verb + Adjunct )
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ENGLISH (FA1F) LECTURE NOTES
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Subject Verb Adjunct

Mahesh got up early.
The Prime Minister Arrives tomorrow.
Mani Writes beautifully.
The accused will be tried next month.
My father Works in Bangalore.

VII. SVOA ( Subject + Verb + Object + Adjunct )

Subject Verb Object Adjunct

The school organizes a tour to North India.
The new Principal stated his policy clearly.
Everyone attends the meeting regularly.
People throw the garbage on the road.
My daughter plays key board very well.

VIII. SVOAA ( Subject + Verb + Object + Adjunct + Adjunct )

Subject Verb Object Adjunct Adjunct

The peon rang the bell at 5 o’ clock in the evening.
The court began its session Late in the morning.
The CEO will visit our school frequently this year.
The poor received Help from the government today.
The Inspector enquired the criminal very pleasantly in the station.

IX.SVOCA ( Subject + Verb + Object + Complement + Adjunct )

Subject Verb Object Complement Adjunct

The Rotarians elected Prabhakar President last month.
They made Shankar the chief of the council.
The parents named Her Angel through baptism.
The committee made Me secretary of the school
They painted the museum red purposely.

X.ASV( Adjunct + Subject + Verb )

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ENGLISH (FA1F) LECTURE NOTES
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Adjunct Subject Verb

Now You may go.
Quickly They returned.
Tonight We shall relax.
Early morning They leave.
These days selfish people prosper.

XI.ASVO (Adjunct + Subject + Verb + Object )

Adjunct Subject Verb Object

Every day he Sends message.
Once a month I Meet my parents.
Last time India Won the world cup.
Every morning he Recites the mantra.
Once while we must take rest.

XII.ASVC (Adjunct + Subject + Verb + Complement )

Adjunct Subject Verb Complement

Usually she gets angry.
Occasionally he becomes restless.
Generally the boss Is punctual.
Unfortunately the girl was sick.
Rarely the Doctor becomes uneasy.

XII.ASVIODO (Adjunct + Subject + Verb + Indirect Object + Direct Object )

Adjunct Subject Verb Indirect Object Direct Object

Yesterday she gave Me a gift.
Last Monday Kala sent Him a greeting card.
Last year the school gave the teachers mementoes.
Every year the govt. gives the students uniform.
This morning our teacher taught Us mathematics.

XIII. ASVIODO (Adjunct + Subject + Verb + Object + Complement + Adjunct )

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ENGLISH (FA1F) LECTURE NOTES
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Adjunct Subject Verb Object Complement Adjunct

Yesterday the priest Named Her Beautrice in the church.
Last week the CM Called his min1ster Efficient during the function.
Next month we will make Ganesh Chairman of our company.
Tomorrow the committee will elect Sachin Captain of our cricket team.
Last night Motilal dreamt a dream a hearty dream about his success.

XIV.AASVC (Adjunct + Adjunct + Subject + Verb + Complement)

Adjunct Adjunct Subject Verb Complement

Last week in CTS Leo was made a team leader.
Every morning in the assembly the students remain quiet.
In summer during May the Sun shines bright.
During winter in July the days are very chill
In the jungle in dark walking becomes difficult

UNIT – II 2. (B) PRINCIPAL AND SUBORDINATE CLAUSES

Clauses are the building blocks of the English language. Any sentence that you write
which has a subject (the doer of the action) and a verb (an action word) is called a clause.
Whereas a phrase is a group of words which makes sense but not complete sense, a clause
makes complete sense.
For example, "a clear blue sky" (is a phrase) and "A clear blue sky welcomed me in Leh" (is
a clause-The subject is 'A clear blue sky' and the verb is 'welcomed').
There are two kinds of Clauses:
a. Principal or Main Clause
A main clause is a clause that contains a subject and an object. They make sense on their
own.
For example, "I like ice-cream" is a simple sentence made of a main clause.
"I like ice-cream and I like chocolate" is a compound sentence made up of
two main clauses ('I like ice-cream' and 'I like chocolate'). The two main clauses are joined
by the conjunction 'and.'
b. Subordinate Clause
A subordinate clause contains a subject and a verb but it depends on the main clause for
making sense as it does not make complete sense on its own.
For example, "I will go to the market if you come with me" is a complex sentence. It has a
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ENGLISH (FA1F) LECTURE NOTES
PREPARED BY Mr. R. GOVINDAN & Ms. SONA S

main clause 'I will go to the market' and a subordinate clause 'if you come with me'. The
main clause 'I will go to the market' makes complete sense on its own. But, the subordinate
clause 'if you come with me' does not make complete sense on its own and depends on the
main clause for its complete meaning.
Based on the function they perform in the sentence, clauses can be categorized as:
• Noun Clause- is a group of words which contains a Subject and Predicate of its own, and
does the work of a noun. For example, "I like what I see" as a way of saying "I like cakes".
The highlighted portion is a clause that is functioning as noun.
• Adjective Clause-usually comes after the noun it qualifies and is made up of several
words which, like all clauses, will include a subject and a verb. It answers the adjective
questions 'What kind? How many? Or Which one?" For example, "The umbrella which has a
broken handle is mine”. The highlighted portion is a clause that is functioning as an
adjective.
• Adverb Clause-is a group of words which contains a Subject and Predicate of its own,
and does the work of an adverb. It answers the adverb questions How? When? Where? Or
Why? For example, "You may sit wherever you like." The highlighted portion is a clause that
is functioning as an adverb.
Identify the clauses and point it whether it is a Noun Clause, Adjective Clause, Adverb
Clause.
a. The bankers need to know what they should do.
b. The books, which are lost, are not really necessary.
c. Whether you like it or not, you have to go to bed now.
d. Students who are intelligent get good grades.
e. No one knows he is.
f. When I was younger, I thought so.
g. He laughs best who laughs last.
h. I went to see what had happened.
i. He met a girl whose eyes were blue.
j. I shall remain where I am.
UNIT – II 2. (C) ‘WH’ QUESTIONS AND OTHER QUESTIONS

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ENGLISH (FA1F) LECTURE NOTES
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Sometimes we want to use a question as part of another question or a statement. This is

called an embedded question.
1. We can use embedded questions as part of other questions. This is sometimes called an
indirect question and is often used to be polite.
 Normal question: Where is the station?

 Indirect question (that includes an embedded question): Could you tell me where the
station is?

2. We can also use embedded questions as part of statements. The embedded question is a
noun clause and can be used in a similar way to a noun. For example, we can use it as the
subject or the object of the main clause.
 Normal question: Where does she work?

 Embedded question in a statement: I don’t know where she works. (Here ‘where she
works’ is the object.)

 Normal question: Where does she work?

 Embedded question in a statement: Where she works is very far. (Here ‘where she
works’ is the subject.)

Forming embedded questions

We use the same rules with embedded questions in statements as we do with embedded
questions in indirect questions.
1. If there is a question word, we keep it.

2. If there is no question word, we use ‘if’ or ‘whether’.

3. We use normal sentence grammar (so we don’t need ‘do / does / did’).

4. We use normal sentence word order (subject + verb, not the opposite).

5. We use a full stop and not a question mark at the end of the sentence.

Here are some examples of verbs that we often use with embedded questions:
 Wonder I wonder why she said that.

 Know They don’t know what they’re doing.

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ENGLISH (FA1F) LECTURE NOTES
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 Remember We don’t remember where the house is.

 Be sure I’m not sure when we’re going to arrive.

 Find out Let’s find out what time the show starts.

 Think about She’s thinking about how she’s going to do it.

 Forget I’ve forgotten why I started this.

Subject questions
If you start with a subject question, you don’t need to change the grammar much, because it
is already similar to a statement.
 Normal subject question: Who loves Julie?

 Embedded subject question: I don’t know who loves Julie.

 Normal subject question: What happened?

Embedded subject question: We are trying to find out what happened.

UNIT – II 2. (C) TAG QUESTIONS
Question tags are short questions at the end of statements.
They are mainly used in speech when we want to:
 Confirm that something is true or not, or

 To encourage a reply from the person we are speaking to.

Format of Question Tags

(1) Affirmative – Auxiliary verbs + subject + ?
(2) Negative – Auxiliary verbs + n’t + subject + ?
Remember the following facts during making question tags:
1. The main verbs such as – go, drink, come etc., are not used to make question tags:
He writes a letter, don’t write he? (wrong)
He writes a letter, doesn’t he? (correct)

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ENGLISH (FA1F) LECTURE NOTES
PREPARED BY Mr. R. GOVINDAN & Ms. SONA S

He does not drink milk, does drink he? (wrong)

He does not drink milk, does he? (correct)
2. ‘Pronouns’ and ‘There’ are used as subject in question tags.
3. ‘Nouns’ are not used as subjects in question tags.
4. The use of ‘Auxiliary Verbs’ or ‘Auxiliary verbs + n’t’ in question tags depends on the
number and person of the subject used in question tags or on the tense of given sentence.
5. If a question tag is used in the last of a sentence, the selection of Auxiliary verbs of the
question tag depends on the auxiliary verbs used in the sentences.
6. If an auxiliary verb is not used in a sentence, the auxiliary verbs – do, does and did are
used in question tags according to need.
How to make Question Tags:
Rule (1)
The question tag of an affirmative sentence is negative. In other words, the structure
‘Auxiliary Verb+ n’t + subject +?’ is u
Note:
He writes a letter, doesn’t
he? She is ugly, isn’t she?
He came here last night, didn’t he?
You are courageous, aren’t you?
She was a sales girl, wasn’t
she? I am wrong, aren’t I?
You will help me, won’t you?
He spoke the truth, didn’t he?
He has done his homework, hasn’t
he? He had gone there, hadn’t he?
Rule (2)

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ENGLISH (FA1F) LECTURE NOTES
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The question tags of negative sentence is affirmative; as,

She does not make a noise, does she?
I don’t drink wine, do I?
You are not laborious, are you?
She did not tell me a story, will he?
I am not right, am I?
He did not tell a lie, did he?
He has not helped her, has he?
You had not played well, had you?
She was not lazy, was she?
Rule (3)
If negative words such as – Neither, no, not , never, none, no one, nobody, nothing, few,
little, hardly, rarely, scarcely, seldom….etc are used in a sentence, the meaning of the
sentence is negative and it is considered to be negative sentence. Therefore, its question tag is
affirmative.
We have no friends, have we?
No one knows this matter, do they?
They have nothing, have they?
Nobody is perfect, are they?
A barking dog seldom bites, does he?
Nothing is yours, is it?
Few students have come to attend the class, have they?
Neither of us helped you did we?
I know little about you, do I?
It is rarely found, is it?
Rule (4)

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ENGLISH (FA1F) LECTURE NOTES
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The question tag of an affirmative imperative sentence is both affirmative- ‘will you?’ and
negative – ‘won’t you?’; as,
Switch on the radio, will you?
Switch on the radio, won’t you?
Please give me money, will you?
Please give me money, won’t you?
Kindly post this letter, will you?
Kindly post this letter, won’t you?
Rule (5)
The question tag of a negative imperative sentence is affirmative – ‘will you?’; as,
Don’t open the window, will
you? Don’t spit here, will you?
Don’t switch off the light, will you?
Don’t be late tomorrow, will you?
Don’t make a noise, will you?
Rule (6)
If an affirmative imperative sentence is used to express the sense of ‘more urgency’, the
negative question tag – ‘won’t you?’ is used; as,
Remember to shut the window, won’t you?
Be careful while solving the sums, won’t you?
Rule (7)
If the verb used in an imperative sentence denotes the sense of reprimand, the question tag-
‘can’t you?’ is used; as,
Use your own mind, can’t you?
Use your own book, can’t you?
Rule (8)

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ENGLISH (FA1F) LECTURE NOTES
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If the imperative sentences begins with ‘Let us’ or ‘Let’s’, it denotes ‘proposal’ or
‘suggestion’ and the question tag – ‘shall we?’ is used for it; as,
Let us dance together, shall we?
Let us help her, shall we?
Let us do this work, shall we?
Let’s go there, shall we?
Let’s read the Gita, shall we?
Rule (9)
If the imperative sentence begins with ‘Let me’, ‘Let him’, ‘Let her’, ‘Let them’, ‘Let
Karan’; as,
Let me do this work, will you?
Let her be my beloved, will you?
Let him go, will you?
Let them do their homework, will you?
Let Aman watch, TV will you?
Rule (10)
If the verb – ‘used to’ is used in a sentence, the negative verb- ‘usedn’t’ or ‘didn’t’ is used in
a question tag; as,
He used to come here, usedn’t he?
He used to come here, didn’t he?
They usedn’t to come here, used they?
They used n’t to come here, did they?
Rule (11)
If the marginal Auxiliary verbs- ‘dare not’ or ‘daren’t’ and ‘need not’ or ‘needn’t’ are used in
a sentence, the affirmative question tag structure; as,
He daren’t come here, dare he?

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ENGLISH (FA1F) LECTURE NOTES
PREPARED BY Mr. R. GOVINDAN & Ms. SONA S

I needn’t go there, need I?

He need not work hard, need he?
You dare not face you teacher, dare you?
They daren’t touch the naked wire, dare you?
Rule (12)
If the verb – ‘dare’ and ‘need’ are used as main verbs in a sentence, its question tag is formed
like this; as,
He dares to oppose his father, doesn’t he?
She needs your note book, doesn’t she?
We needed your help, didn’t we?
She dared to abuse me, didn’t she?
You don’t dare to go there, do you?
They do not need to go there, do they?
He did not need to read the Gita, did he?
I don’t dare to beat him, do I?
Nobody will dare to beat me, will they?
He will need nothing, will he?
HOW TO SELECT THE SUBJECTS OF QUESTION TAGS
Generally, we confuse about the selection of subjects during making question tags. For
avoiding confusions, here we shall study about the selection of subjects of question tags.
Rule (1):
If the personal pronouns – I, we, you, he, she, it, they….etc are used as subjects of a
sentence, the same personal pronouns are used as the subjects of question tags; as,
They write, don’t they?
He reads the Ramayana, doesn’t he?
You know me, don’t you?

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ENGLISH (FA1F) LECTURE NOTES
PREPARED BY Mr. R. GOVINDAN & Ms. SONA S

We did our homework, didn’t we?

I did not see her yesterday, did I?
Rule (2):
If a noun is the subject of a sentence, the personal pronouns- he, she, it and they are used as
the subjects of question tags according to the number,
There is a book on the table, isn’t there?
One cannot do this sum, can one?
This is my table, isn’t it?
There are your caps, aren’t they?
Those were his buffaloes, weren’t they?
Note:-
When the words – one, this/that, these/those are used before a noun, they are adjectives.
If they are used as the subjects of sentences, the personal pronouns- he, she, it and they are
used as the subjects of question tags according to the number, person and gender of the noun
used after the words – one, this/that, these/those; as,
One girl can do this work, can’t she?
This man always d1sturbed me, didn’t he?
This pen is useless, isn’t it?
That boy has no knowledge, has he?
These books are yours, aren’t they?
Those women were beautiful, weren’t they?
Rule (4):
If the Indefinite Pronouns- everybody, somebody, anybody, nobody, everyone, someone,
anyone and no one are used as the subjects of a sentence, the personal pronoun- ‘They’ is
used as the subject of question tags but the personal pronoun- ‘he’ is not used as the subject
of question tags; as,
Someone stole my watch, didn’t they?

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ENGLISH (FA1F) LECTURE NOTES
PREPARED BY Mr. R. GOVINDAN & Ms. SONA S

Anyone can lift this box, can’t they?

Everybody is the master of his fate, aren’t they?
Nobody has seen God, have they?
Somebody knocked at the door, didn’t they?
Rule (5):
If the phrases – All of us, All of you, All of them, None of us, None of you, None of them,
One of us, One of you, One of them, Anyone of us, Any one of you, Some of us, Some of
you, Some of them, Most of us, Most of you, Most of them, neither of us, neither of you,
either of you, either of us are used as the subjects of a sentence; the personal pronouns- we,
you and they are used as the subject of question tags respectively as,
All of us can do this sum, can’t we?
All of you can do this sum, can’t you?
All of them can do this sum, can’t they?
Either of you is innocent, aren’t you?
Neither of us was laborious, were we?
None of them have seen the Taj Mahal, have they?
Most of you are honest, aren’t you?
Most of them don’t know this, do they?
Some of us are intelligent, aren’t we?
Every one of them has courage, haven’t they?
UNIT – II 2. (D) TRANSFORMATION OF SENTENCES (SIMPLE-COMPOUND-
COMPLEX)
Sentences are the foundation of writing: they are the means through which ideas are
communicated. Experience writers know how to vary the length and structure of sentences
and use them to their advantage. They can use short, choppy sentences. They can use longer
sentences that seem to drag on and on sentences that contains lots of thoughts and ideas;
some of which seem to never end to capture the readers’ attention.
Knowing about sentence structure- about simple, compound, and complex sentences will
help you utilize sentence variety more effectively. They make writing interesting!

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ENGLISH (FA1F) LECTURE NOTES
PREPARED BY Mr. R. GOVINDAN & Ms. SONA S

I. SIMPLE SENTENCE

A simple sentence, which is really just an independent clause, contains a subject and a
predicate and expresses a complete thought.
Examples:
A. Roses are red.

B. Violets are blue.

C. I like giant clams and hate fresh ginger.

D. Robert and Martha are very nice people.

Notes:
 In example C, there are two verbs (like and hate) but only one subject (I). In example
D, there are two subjects (Robert and Martha) but only one verb (are). These are
known as compound verbs and compound subjects, respectively.

 “Simple” does NOT mean the same thing as “short.” This is a simple sentence:
Charles, my seven-year-old dog, is really lethargic and doesn’t like doing anything
besides sleeping all day, barking at family members but not strangers, chasing after
the cat, and waiting for his steak dinner.

 We mentioned that a simple sentence cons1sts of a subject and predicate. However,

there are sentences that are complete without a subject; they are called imperative
sentences. They are used for demands or requests.

Examples:
A. Bring your No. 2 pencil. (Understood: You bring your No. 2 pencil.)
B. Get the check. (Understood: You get the check.)

II.COMPOUND SENTENCE

A compound sentence contains two independent clauses that are joined together by a comma
and a coordinating conjunction. These coordinating conjunctions are: for, and, nor, but, or,
yet, and so. (Together, they spell FANBOYS.)
Examples:

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ENGLISH (FA1F) LECTURE NOTES
PREPARED BY Mr. R. GOVINDAN & Ms. SONA S

A. The sun is out, and the sky is blue.

B. I ate breakfast, but I skipped dinner.

Notes:
 The coordinating conjunction that you use (yes, that one little word) can have a
dramatic impact on the meaning of your sentence. Consider these examples:

A. George came to see me this weekend, but I was sad.

B. George came to see me this weekend, so I was sad.

 You need both the comma and the coordinating conjunction to join two independent
clauses. Without the comma, it would be a run-on sentence. Without the coordinating
conjunction, the sentence would have a comma splice. (We will discuss these errors
at the “Common Errors” workshop).

 Instead of using a comma and a coordinating conjunction to join two independent

clauses, you could use a colon, a semicolon, or a dash. However, these punctuation
marks have different usage implications, and we will cover them in more details at
the “Semicolon, Colon, and Dashes—Oh My!” workshop.

III. COMPLEX SENTENCE

A complex sentence contains an independent clause and one or more dependent

clauses. A dependent clause is preceded by subordinators such as because, since, although,
when, or after or a relative pronoun such as who, which, or that.
Examples:
A. When the sun is down, the birds go to sleep.

B. The universe is still after the wolves howl.

Notes:
 We use a comma if the dependent clause comes before the independent clause. We
don’t use one if the dependent clause comes after the independent clause.

Even though each clause in example A contains a subject and a verb, we cannot put a period
after “When the sun is down” because it is not a complete thought on its own. It leaves us
hanging and makes us want to ask, “When the sun is down, then what happens?”.

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ENGLISH (FA1F) LECTURE NOTES
PREPARED BY Mr. R. GOVINDAN & Ms. SONA S

Simple Complex Compound

to so that and /or

We read to learn We read so that we can learn We read and we
learn
Though/Although
Inspite of/Despite Though he is poor he but
Despite being poor he is honest. He is poor but he is honest.
is honest.
Since/As and so
As he was punished, he wept. He was punished and so
he wept.
Verb+ing so…..that(negative)
Being punished he wept. He is so weak that he cannot very…..and
enough/too ….to walk. He is very weak and he
He is too weak to walk. If/In case cannot walk.
If you do not read you or
Without will fail Read or fail/you will fail.
Without reading you will fail.
when
at the time He woke up when it and
was raining. It was raining and he woke up.
He woke up at the time
of raining that/which and
It was a ball that/which was It was a ball and it was red.
Adjective red.
It was a red ball.

State which of the following sentences are Compound, and which are Complex.
1. The horse reared and the rider was thrown.
2. Walk quickly; else you will not overtake him.
3. The town in which I live is very large.
4. I called him, but he gave me no answer.
5. I agree to your proposals, for I think them reasonable.

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ENGLISH (FA1F) LECTURE NOTES
PREPARED BY Mr. R. GOVINDAN & Ms. SONA S

6. I went because I was invited.

7. Either he is drowned or some passing ship has saved him.
8. 1 returned home because I was tired.
9. They always talk who never think.
10. He came oftener than we expected.
UNIT – II 3. (i) TENSE
Tenses denote the time of action. They show when the work is done. They are:
 Present Tense

 Past Tense

 Future Tense

They are further divided into:

 Present Tense

(1) Simple Present- It is used to denote scientific facts, universal truths and work
done on daily basis.

ASSERTIVE RULE --- sub + V1 + s/es + object

Example – She writes a letter.

NEGATIVE RULE --- sub + does not + v1 + s/es + object

Example – She does not write a letter.

INTERROGATIVE RULE --- Does + sub + v1 + s/es + object

Example – Does she write a letter?

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ENGLISH (FA1F) LECTURE NOTES
PREPARED BY Mr. R. GOVINDAN & Ms. SONA S

INTERROGATIVE NEGATIVE ASSERTIVE --- Does + sub + not + v1 + s/es + object

Example – Does she not write a letter?

(2) Present Continuous– It is used to express an action taking place at the time of
speaking.

ASSERTIVE RULE --- sub + is/am/are + v1 + ing + object

Example – she is writing a letter.

NEGATIVE RULE --- sub + is/am/are + not + v1 + ing + object

Example – She is not writing a letter.

INTERROGATIVE RULE --- is/am/are + sub + v1 + ing + object

Example – Is she writing a letter?

INTERROGATIVE NEGATIVE RULE --- is/am/are + sub + not + v1 + ing + object

Example – Is she not writing a letter?

(3) Present Perfect– It is used to show an action that started in the past and has
just finished.

ASSERTIVE RULE --- sub + has/have + v3 + object

Example- She has written a letter.

NEGATIVE RULE --- sub + has/have + not + v3 + object

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ENGLISH (FA1F) LECTURE NOTES
PREPARED BY Mr. R. GOVINDAN & Ms. SONA S

Example – She has not written a letter.

INTERROGATIVE RULE --- has/have + sub + v3 + object

Example- Has she written a letter?

INTERROGATIVE NEGATIVE RULE ---has/have + sub + not + v3 + object

Example– Has she not written a letter?

(4) Present Perfect Continuous– This tense show the action which started in the
past and is still continuing.

ASSERTIVE RULE --- sub + has/have + been + v1 + ing + object

Example – She has been writing a letter.

NEGATIVE RULE --- sub + has/have + not been + v1 + ing + object

Example– She has not been writing a letter.

INTERROGATIVE RULE ---has/have + sub + been + v1 + ing + object

Example – Has she been writing a letter?

INTERROGATIVE NEGATIVE RULE --- has/have + she + not + been + v1 + ing + object

Example – Has she not been writing a letter?

 Past Tense

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ENGLISH (FA1F) LECTURE NOTES
PREPARED BY Mr. R. GOVINDAN & Ms. SONA S

Tense symbolizes the ever moving, non-stop wheel of time which is forever busy gathering
moments of future and throwing them into the dustbin of past

Past (before
now)

Past Past Perfect

Simple Past Past Perfect
Continuous Continuous

1. Simple Past
Used to indicate an action completed in the past. It often occurs with adverb of time.
Sometimes it is used without an adverb of time.
Used for past habits.
Eg. I played football when I was a child.
Rule: Subject + V2
Eg She wrote a letter
1. Assertive Sentences – Subject + V2 + Object + (.)

She wrote a letter.

2.Negative Sentences- Subject + didn’t + V1 + Object + (.)

She didn’t.write a letter.

3.Interrogative Sentences- Did + Subject + V1 + Object + (?)

Did she write a letter?

3.Interrogative Negative Sentences- Did + Subject + not + V1 + Object + (?)

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ENGLISH (FA1F) LECTURE NOTES
PREPARED BY Mr. R. GOVINDAN & Ms. SONA S

Did she not write a letter?

 Past Continuous Tense
Used to denote an action going on at some time in the past.
e.g. I was driving a car. Rule: was/were + ing
1.Assertive Sentences –

Subject + was/were +V1+ ing + Object + (.)

She was writing a letter.
2.Negative Sentences-

Subject + was/were + not + ing + Object + (.)

She was not writing a letter.
3.Interrogative Sentences-

Was/were + Subject + ing+ Object + (?)

Was she writing a letter?
4.Interrogative Negative Sentences-

Was/were + Subject + not + ing+ Object + (?)

Was she not writing a letter?
 Past Perfect Tense
Used to describe an action that is completed before a certain moment in the past, usually a
long time ago. If two actions happened in the past, past perfect is used to show the action that
took place earlier.
E.g. The patient had died before the doctor came.
1.Assertive Sentences –

Subject + had + V3 + Object + (.)

She had written a letter.
2.Negative Sentences-

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ENGLISH (FA1F) LECTURE NOTES
PREPARED BY Mr. R. GOVINDAN & Ms. SONA S

Subject + had + not + Object + (.)

She had not written a letter.
3.Interrogative Sentences-

Had + Subject + V3 + Object + (?)

Had she written a letter?
4.Interrogative Negative Sentences-

Had + Subject + not + V3 + Object + (?)

Had she not written a letter?
 Past Perfect Continuous Tense
Used to denote an action that began before a certain point in the past and continued up to
some time in past.
E.g. I had been learning English in this school for 20 days.
1.Assertive Sentences –

Subject + had been +V1 + ing + Object + (.)

She had been writing a letter.
2.Negative Sentences-

Subject + had + not been + V1+ ing + Object + (.)

She had not been writing a letter.
3.Interrogative Sentences-

Had + Subject+ been+ V1 + ing + Object + (?)

Had she been writing a letter?
4.Interrogative Negative Sentences-

Had + Subject +not + been + V1 + ing + Object + (?)

Had she not been writing a letter?
 FUTURE TENSE
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ENGLISH (FA1F) LECTURE NOTES
PREPARED BY Mr. R. GOVINDAN & Ms. SONA S

Time and tide wait for no man. So, a period of time following the moment of speaking or
writing is called as future tense.
For e.g. - She will write a letter.

Tense

Past (before Future (After

Present (now)
now) now)

Future Future Perfect

Simple Future Future Perfect
Continuous Continuous

 Simple Future
This tense tells us about an action which has not occurred yet and will occur after saying or
in future
Rule: Will/Shall + Verb (1st form)
In Future Tense helping verb ‘Shall’ is used with ‘I’ and ‘We’. Helping verb ‘Will’ is used
with all others. When you are to make a commitment or warn someone or emphasize
something, use of 'will/shall' is reversed. ‘Will’ is used with ‘I’ & ‘We’ and 'shall' is used
with others.
In general speaking there is hardly any difference between 'shall & will' and normally ‘Will’
is used with all.
Now, let us use this rule in various forms of sentences;
1.Positive / Affirmative Sentences –

Subject + Will/Shall + Verb (1st form) + Object + (.)

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ENGLISH (FA1F) LECTURE NOTES
PREPARED BY Mr. R. GOVINDAN & Ms. SONA S

She will write a letter.

2.Negative Sentences-

Subject + Will/Shall + Not + Verb (1st form) + Object + (.)

She will not write a letter.
3.Interrogative Sentences-

Will/Shall + Subject + Verb (1st form) + Object + (?)

Will she write a letter?
4.Interrogative Negative Sentences-

Will/Shall + Subject + Not + Verb (1st form) + Object + (?)

Will she not write a letter?
 Future Continuous Tense
It is used to express an ongoing or continued action in future.
E.g. He will be d1stributing sweets in temple tomorrow at 12 o'clock.
In the example, the action will start in future (tomorrow) and action is thought to be
continued till sometime in future.
We use the future continuous to talk about something that will be in progress at or around a
time in the future.
Rule: Will/Shall + be + Verb (1st form) + ing
Now, let us use this rule in various forms of sentences;
1.Positive / Affirmative Sentences –

Subject + Will/Shall + be + Verb (1st form) + ing + Object + (.)

She will be writing a letter.
2.Negative Sentences-

Subject + Will/Shall + Not + be + Verb (1st form) + ing + Object + (.)

She will not be writing a letter.

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ENGLISH (FA1F) LECTURE NOTES
PREPARED BY Mr. R. GOVINDAN & Ms. SONA S

3.Interrogative Sentences-

Will/Shall + Subject + be + Verb (1st form) + ing + Object + (?)

Will she be writing a letter?
4.Interrogative Negative Sentences -

Will/Shall + Subject + Not + be + Verb (1st form) + ing + Object + (?)

Will she not be writing a letter?
 Future Perfect Tense
It is used to express an action which will happen/occur in future and will be completed by a
certain time in future.
We use the future perfect to say that something will be finished by a particular time in the
future.
E.g. They will have shifted the house by Sunday morning. Rule: Will/Shall + Have + Verb
(3rd form)
Now, let us use this rule in various forms of sentences;
1.Positive / Affirmative Sentences –

Subject + Will/Shall + Have + Verb (3rd form) + Object + (.)

She will have written a letter.
2.Negative Sentences-

Subject + Will/Shall + Not + Have + Verb (3rd form) + Object + (.)

She will not have written a letter.
3.Interrogative Sentences-

Will/Shall + Subject + Have + Verb (3rd form) + Object + (?)

Will she have written a letter?
4.Interrogative Negative Sentences-

Will/Shall + Subject + Not + Have + Verb (3rd form) + Object + (?)

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ENGLISH (FA1F) LECTURE NOTES
PREPARED BY Mr. R. GOVINDAN & Ms. SONA S

Will she not have written a letter?

 Future Perfect Continuous Tense
It is used to talk about actions that will commence at a fix time in future and will continue for
some time in future.
If there is no time reference, then it is not a Future perfect continuous tense. Without
continued time reference, such sentences are Future Continuous Tense. Continued time
reference only differentiates between Future Continuous Tense and Future Perfect
Continuous Tense.
The future perfect progressive emphasize the duration of an activity that will be in progress
before another time or event in the future.
E.g.: This time tomorrow, I will be enjoying the cricket match in the stadium. It is also used
to talk about planned actions or actions expected to happen.
E.g. They will be staying for a week’s
The future perfect progressive emphasize the duration of an activity that will be in progress
before another time or event in the future.
Rule: Will/Shall + Have been + Verb (1st form) + Ing
Now, let us use this rule in various forms of sentences;

1. Positive / Affirmative Sentences –

Subject + Will/Shall + Have been + Verb (1st form) + Ing + Object + (.)
She will have been writing a letter.

2. Negative Sentences-
Subject + Will/Shall + Not + Have been + Verb (1st form) + Ing + Object+ (.)
She will not have been writing a letter.

3. Interrogative Sentences-
Will/Shall + Subject + Have been + Verb (1st form) + Ing + Object +(?)
Will she have been writing a letter?

4. Interrogative Negative Sentences-

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ENGLISH (FA1F) LECTURE NOTES
PREPARED BY Mr. R. GOVINDAN & Ms. SONA S

Will/Shall + Subject + Not + Have been + Verb (1st form) + Ing + Object +(?)
Will she not have been writing a letter?
UNIT – II 3. (ii) CONCORD
Introduction
Concord literally means harmony, agreement. Thus, it means harmony between different
members of a group. When we talk of sentences, concord means harmony or agreement
between different parts of a sentence, specially the subject and the verb.
Every sentence says something about a person or thing. The part of a sentence that names the
person or thing is called Subject or the part, which gives us information about the Subject is
called Predicate.
It should be noted that the article is used only once if the two nouns refer to the same person.
If different persons were referred to, the article would be used before each noun and the verb
would be plural.
E.g., The orator and the statesman are dead.
• If two subjects together express one idea, the verb will be in the singular,
E.g., Early to bed and early to rise makes a man healthy, wealthy and wise.
Slow and steady wins the race.
• If singular subjects have ‘each’ or ‘every’ before them, the verb is usually singular.
E.g., Every man, woman and child was lost.
Each day and each hour brings its duty.
• Two or more singular subjects connected by ‘or’, ‘nor’, ‘either’, ’neither’ or ‘nor’ take a
verb in the singular,
E.g., Neither Hari nor Ravi has come.
No nook or corner was left unexplored.
• When the subjects joined by ‘or’, ‘nor’ are of different numbers, the verb must be plural,
and the plural subject must be placed next to the verb. e.g.,
Hari or his brothers have done this.
Either the boy or his parents have gone there.

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ENGLISH (FA1F) LECTURE NOTES
PREPARED BY Mr. R. GOVINDAN & Ms. SONA S

• When the subjects joined by ‘or’, ‘nor’ are of different persons, the verb agrees in person
with the one nearest to it,
E.g., Either he or I am mistaken.
Neither you nor he is to blame.
• A collective noun takes a singular verb when the collection is thought of as a whole.
E.g., The counsel has chosen its president.
The fleet has set sail.
• It should however be kept in mind that if the individuals of which the collective noun is
composed of are thought of, it can take a plural verb.
E.g., The military work called out.
The crews were taken prisoners.
• Some nouns which are plural in form, but singular in meaning, take a singular verb,
E.g., The news is true.
Physics is a branch of natural science.
• When a plural noun counts between a singular subject and its verb, the verb used is singular
in form.
E.g., Each of the sisters is clever.
A variety of objects charms the eye.
The quality of the mangoes was not good.
• Words joined to a singular subject by with, together with, in addition to or as well as are
parenthetical and therefore do not affect the number of verb.
E.g., The chief, with all his men, was killed
Justice as well as mercy, allows.
• When the subject of the verb is a relative pronoun, care should be taken to see that the verb
agrees in number and person with the antecedent of the relative.
E.g., I, who am your friend, will guard you interest.
You, who are my friend, should not worry me.
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ENGLISH (FA1F) LECTURE NOTES
PREPARED BY Mr. R. GOVINDAN & Ms. SONA S

• The title of a book, play, story, musical composition and the name of a country, even
though plural in form take a singular verb,
E.g., Sons and Lovers is an interesting Novel.
The United States of America is a developed country.

Assessment Questions
Fill in the blanks with correct form of the verb:
1. Two and two ……………… four.
2. Bread and butter ……………. take wholesome food.
3. Gulliver’s travels ……………. written by swift.
4. A good man and useful citizen ……………passed away.
5. Each of the boys…………………….rewarded.
6. The jury…………………divided in their opinion.
7. He is one of the authors who…………………destined to be immortal.
8. Neither of the boys…………….quite at his ease.
9. The cost of these articles……………risen.
10. Every leaf and every flower……………..stripped off the tree.
11. The horse and trap………………………been waiting for a long time.
12. The Arabian Nights……………delighted many generations.
13. Kindness as well as justice……………..to be our guide.
14. No news …………………good news.
15. Forty yards ………………a good distance.
16. The meeting …………………..chosen a president.
17. The public……………….requested not to walk on the grass.
18. Iron as well as gold……………………..found in India.

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ENGLISH (FA1F) LECTURE NOTES
PREPARED BY Mr. R. GOVINDAN & Ms. SONA S

19. Which one of these umbrellas………………..yours?

20. To take pay and then not to do work……………dishonest.

Correct the following sentences:

1. Sita as well as Ram like fruit.
2. The owner of these houses are very clever.
3. There is eleven players in the ground.
4. Rice and curry are his favourite dish.
5. ‘Great Expectations’ are a good book.
6. Both of the books requires careful reading.
7. Neither Tina nor his friends is going there.
8. A doctor as well as a nurse are working in the hospital.
9. A doctor and a nurse is working in the hospital.
10. A number of books is missing.
UNIT – II 3. (ii) VOICE- ACTIVE AND PASSIVE
A sentence can be written in either active voice or passive voice without changing the
meaning of it.
When the verb in a sentence shows that the subject is the doer of the action, the verb is in the
active voice.
Examples:
1. Children painted these pictures. (Children – subject; painted – verb; pictures – object)

2. James writes a letter (James – subject; writes – verb; letter – object)

When the verb in a sentence shows that the subject is not the doer of the action, the verb is in
the passive voice. (Generally you will find “by” in the sentence. If “by” is not there, you can
put a question “Who?”, you will get an answer.)
Examples:

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ENGLISH (FA1F) LECTURE NOTES
PREPARED BY Mr. R. GOVINDAN & Ms. SONA S

1. These pictures were painted by children: (pictures – subject; painted – verb; children -
object

2. A letter is written by James (letter – subject, written – verb; James – Object)

Rules for conversion from Active to Passive Voice

1. The subject and object are interchanged

2. The preposition BY is added before the object

3. The verb is changed to past participle (3rd form of verb)

4. A new auxiliary is added to the Past Participle form of verb.

5. If the subject or the object in an active voice sentence is a pronoun (I, we, you, he,
she, they, it) it changes: (I-me; we-us; you-you; he-him; she-her; they-them; it-it) and
vice-versa. E.g. I wrote a letter – A letter was written by me. The prefect does keep
accusing me daily – I am being accused by the prefect daily.

6. If the subject in the active voice sentence is unknown or unimportant or obvious, by +

object is omitted. We make butter from cow’s milk. Butter is made from cow’s milk.

7. If the verb in the active voice sentence has a modal in it, the verb is changed to –
modal + be + the past participle. E.g. Rajesh can lift this box. This box can be lifted
by Rajesh. We should obey the rules. The rules should be obeyed.

8. When there are two objects, only one object is interchanged. The second object
remains unchanged. (He told me a story – He- subject; me – object 1; a story – object
2) (I was told a story by him; a story was told to me by him).

The table below shows how the verb is changed into its passive voice form in different
tenses.

Tense Active Voice Passive Voice

The simple present He eats an apple An apple is eaten by him.

The present continuous He is eating an apple. An apple is being eaten by

him.

The present perfect He has eaten an apple. An apple has been eaten
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by him.

The simple past He ate an apple. An apple was eaten by

him.

The past continuous He was eating an apple An apple was being eaten
by him

The past perfect He had eaten an apple An apple had been eaten
by him

The simple future He will eat an apple An apple will be eaten by

him.

The Future continuous He will be eating an apple. An apple will have been
eaten by him.

The Future in the past He would have eaten an An apple would have been
apple eaten by him

Note: Some of the sentences like – sentences constructed using auxiliary verbs ( Hariharan is
a good boy); perfect continuous tenses ( in all the three time periods – Present, Past, Future)
(My roommate has been copying my homework) and intransitive verbs ( I go to temple or
she has gone to the market) cannot be converted into passive form .
UNIT – II 4. REPORTED SPEECH
TENSE CHANGES

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DIRECT INDIRECT
• Present Simple • Past Simple

He said, “I write letters.” He said that he wrote letters.

• Present Continuous • Past Continuous

He said, “I am writing letters.” He said that he was writing letters.

• Present Perfect Simple • Past Perfect Simple

He said, “I have written letters.” He said that he had written

letters.
• Present Perfect • Past Perfect Continuous
Continuous
He said that he had been writing letters.
He said, “I have been writing letters.”
• Past Perfect Simple
• Past Simple
He said that he had written letters.
He said, “I wrote letters.”
• Past Perfect Continuous
• Past Continuous
He said that he had been writing letters.
He said, “I was writing letters.”
• Conditional Simple
• Future Simple
He said that he would write letters.
He said, “I will write letters.”
• Conditional Continuous
• Future Continuous
He said that he would be writing letters.
He said, “I will be writing letters.”
to + root of verb
• Imperative
I told him to write letters.
I said, “Write letters!”
He said that he could write letters.
• Modals
He asked if he should write letters.
He said, “I can write letters.”
He said that he might write letters.
He asked, “Shall I write letters?”
He said that he had to write letters.
He said, “I may write letters.”

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He said, “I have to / must write letters.”

Note:
1. The Past perfect Simple and Past Perfect Continuous do not change in reported speech.

2. The modals should, could, would, might and ought to do not change.

3. When we report questions, we also change the word order to that of a regular sentence.

“Why are you late? = She asked why I was late.

Other changes in reported speech include: time expressions, demonstratives and

pronouns.
DIRECT INDIRECT
Time expressions
now then
today that day
yesterday the day before, the previous day
tomorrow the next / following day, the day after
next week / month the next / following week / month
last week / month the previous week / month, the week /
month before
the week before
a week ago
Demonstratives
this that
these those
here there
Pronouns
The change in pronouns will depend on the
person being referred to in the reported
speech.
“I gave you my notebook,” Sally said to

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Peter. Sally told Peter that she had given him her
notebook.

Reported Speech Introductory Verbs

Purpose Verb Construction
accusation accuse someone of doing something
admission admit something
that you have done something
(to) having done something
advice advise someone / something
someone on / about something
doing something
someone to do something
agreement agree to an idea, suggestion etc. (say “All right”)
with someone / something (have the same opinion)
to do something
that something is a good idea etc.
(plural) on a plan etc.
apology apologise (to someone) for (having done) something
begging beg someone to do something
complaint complain (to someone) about something
that something has (not) been done
denial deny something
that you have done something
having done something
exclamation exclaim that something has happened
explanation explain something to someone
that something has happened
how, why, what …
information inform someone of / about something
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someone that something has happened

invitation invite someone to something
someone to do something
offer offer something to someone
someone something
to do something (for someone)
order order someone to do something
preference would rather do one thing rather than other
prefer (doing) one thing to another
promise to do one thing rather than to do another
promise to do something
(someone) that you will do something
refuse
refusal to do something
remind something
reminder someone of someone / something
someone to do something
request someone that something must be done
request someone to do something
suggest something
suggestion (doing) something (to someone)
threaten that someone should do something
threat to do something (to someone)
someone with something
warn that you will do something (to someone)
warning someone of / against / about something
someone (not) to do something
wonder someone that something may happen
wonder if / what / why …

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EXERCISES
I. Write these sentences in Reported Speech. Use as many specifying verbs as
possible.

1. “If I had spoken to my father as you speak to me he’d have beaten me,” he said to me.

___________________________________________________________________
2. “Will you help me, please?” she said. “I can’t lift it by myself”.

___________________________________________________________________
3. Tom: I’ll pay.

Ann: Oh no, you mustn’t.

Tom: I insist on paying.
___________________________________________________________________
4. “Will the investigation take place next week? The reporter inquired.

___________________________________________________________________
5. The detective inquired, “What was the time of death?”

___________________________________________________________________
6. “How can I possibly run in this tight skirt?” she inquired.

___________________________________________________________________
7. She explained, “It’s very cold in here. The heater must have broken down.”

___________________________________________________________________
8. “It’s seven”, he said. “She’ll be at home now. What about ringing her up?”

___________________________________________________________________

II. Fill the gaps using the verbs in the box. Use each verb only once.

advise hope promise suggest beg insist

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remind threaten deny invite refuse warn

1. “I didn’t do it,” she said.

She ________________ having done it.

2. “Have lunch with me,” she said.

She ________________ me to have lunch with her.

3. “Why don’t you buy one?” said Tom.

Tom _______________ I buy one.

4. “I promise I’ll take you to Prague,” said Mary.

Mary _______________ to take me to Prague.

5. “I hope Andy phones tonight,” said Clare.

Clare _______________ Andy would phone that night.

6. “Please, please don’t tell any one!” he said.

He ________________ me not to tell anyone.

7. “I won’t do it,” he said.

He ________________ to do it.
8. You should have lessons,” she said.

She _______________ me to have lessons.

9. “We really must go with you,” they said.

They _______________ on going with me.

10. “Don’t forget to phone Granny,” said Mum.

Mum _______________ me to phone Granny.

11. “If you wear my T-shirt again, I’ll pinch you very hard,” said Maggy.

Maggy _______________ to pinch me very hard if I wore her T-shirt again.

12. “Don’t fly kites near electric overhead cables,” said my father.

My father _______________ me not to fly kites near electric overhead cables.

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III. Put the following into direct speech with the appropriate punctuation.

1. My employer hoped I would not be offended if he told me that, in his opinion, I would do
better in some other kind of job.

________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
2. He said that two days previously an enormous load of manure had been dumped at his
front gate and that since then he hadn’t been able to get his car out.

________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________
3. They offered me some more wine and I accepted.

___________________________________________________________________
4. He said that if I found the front door locked I was to go round to the back.

___________________________________________________________________
5. He suggested that Tom and I should go ahead and get the tickets.

___________________________________________________________________
6. He said that if I didn’t like escalators I could go up an emergency staircase. I thanked him
and said that I would do that.

________________________________________________________________________
7. I asked him if he had enjoyed doing his military service and he said that he hadn’t.

___________________________________________________________________
8. I asked if she had looked everywhere and she said that she had.

___________________________________________________________________

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I. Match the sentences in direct speech in column A to the appropriate incomplete

reported sentences in column B. Then complete the sentences in column B, in
which the specifying verb and construction have been provided.

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A B
1. I’m not going to answer your a) They accused her of…
questions.
b) He admitted that…
2. I didn’t do anything wrong.
c) The doctor advised me not to…
3. I’ll lend you the money when you need
it. d) She agreed to…

4. You stole the money, didn’t you? e) He apologized to me for…

5. What is going to happen to us? f) He begged me not to…

6. I’d rather wait until I know her g) He complained to……. about…

opinion. h) He denied having done…
7. Don’t forget to ring Aunt Helen! i) She explained …… to me.
8. Don’t cross the railway lines! It’s j) They invited him to…
dangerous.
k) He offered to…
9. All right. I’ll come with you.
l) He ordered them to…
10. Please don’t tell my parents.
m) He said he preferred to…
11. Stop fighting!
n) He promised to…
12. It’s true! I took the money.
o) She refused to…
13. This soup is cold, waiter!
p) She reminded me to…
14. I’m sorry I was so rude to you.
q) He suggested that I should…
15. Would you like to spend the weekend
with us? r) They threatened to… if we…

16. If you don’t pay me the money, I’ll s) She warned them not to… because…
take you to court.
t) They wondered what…
17. You shouldn’t smoke so much.

18. Why don’t you go away for the

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weekend?

19. The word has different meanings. It

can mean a line of houses, or of seats
in a classroom. With a different
pronunciation, it can mean an
argument.

20. Shall I take you to hospital?

Match the purposes in A with the sentences in B and write the reported sentences.

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A B
a) accusation 1. Would you like to go to the cinema with me this
evening?
b) admission
2. I’d rather have Chinese food than a hamburger.
c) advice
3. If you do that again, McDonald, do you know what I’m
d) agreement going to do to you?
e) apology 4. Would you like me to lift it for you, Mum?
f) begging / a 5. I didn’t do it, I tell you! I didn’t kill him!
request
6. You won’t forget to post the letter, will you, dear?
g) complaint
7. Well, in a situation like this, I always say it’s better to
h) denial tell the truth and pay the fine.
i) exclamation 8. I’m terribly sorry I said that.
j) information 9. I’ll wear this ring till the day I die!
k) invitation 10. Get out! Get out of my sight!
l) offer 11. Waiter! There’s a fly in my soup.
m) order 12. Why don’t you write her a letter?
n) preference 13. What a horrible dress you’re wearing, dear!
o) promise 14. I’m afraid I did it. I took it. It’s my fault.
p) refusal 15. The next train leaves at five o’clock, madam.
q) reminder 16. No! I don’t see why I should do your work for you.
r) suggestion 17. Please Mum, please, can I stay up late and watch the
s) threat film?

t) warning 18. You did this, Burkin. You stole the money!

19. Hey! Be careful with that broken glass!

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20. I had exactly the same impression as you did.

UNIT – II 5. DEGREES OF COMPARISON

Degrees of Comparison are used when we compare one person or one thing with
another.
There are three Degrees of Comparison in English.
1. Positive degree.
2. Comparative degree.
3. Superlative degree.
 Positive- dark, tall, useful
 Comparative- darker, taller, more useful
 Superlative- darkest, tallest, most useful
There are two ways of forming the comparative and the superlative:
1) By adding er, est to the positive:
Small smaller smallest
Tall taller tallest
2) By means of more and most:
Difficult more difficult most difficult
C) When an adjective of one syllable ends in e, only r and st are added:
Brave braver bravest
Wise wiser wisest
D) When an adjective of one syllable ends in y preceded by a consonant, we change the
‘y’ into i before adding er, est:
Happy happier happiest
Merry merrier merriest

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Exception: shy, shyer, shyest

E) But is the final Y is preceded by a vowel, we simply add er, est:
Gay gayer gayest
Grey greyer greyest
F) Adjectives of two syllables ending in er, le, y and ow generally form their
Comparative and Superlative in the same way as the adjectives of one syllable:
clever cleverer cleverest
noble nobler noblest
happy happier happiest
mellow mellower mellowest
II. Adjectives of more than two syllables, and many adjectives of two syllables, form the
comparative and superlative by means of more and most.
Awful more awful most awful
Careful more careful most careful
Beautiful more beautiful most beautiful
We can change the degrees of comparison of adjectives and adverbs, without changing the
meaning of the sentences.
Examine the following examples:
1) Positive: I am not so/as tall as he.
Comparative: He is taller than I
2) Positive: He is as dull as an ass.
Comparative: An ass is not duller than he is.
3) Superlative: London is the biggest city in the world.
Comparative: London is bigger than any other city in the world.
Positive: No other city in the world is so big as London.
4) Superlative: Subhas Bose was one of the greatest Patriots of India.
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Comparative: Subhas Bose was greater than most (many) other patriots of India.
Positive: Very few patriots of India were so great as Subhas Bose.
5) Positive: Some girls in the class are at least as beautiful as Sita.
Comparative: Sita is not more beautiful than some other girls in the class Or
Some girls in the class are not less beautiful than Sita.
Superlative: Sita is not the most beautiful of all the girls in the Class.
Bits for practice
1) This summer is _________ than the previous summer. (hot)
2) Harsha is the _________ boy in the class. (intelligent)
3) Her doll is _________ than yours. (pretty)
4) Name the _________ city in the world. (big)
5) He is the _________ friend I have. (good)
6) Iron is _________ than any other metal. (useful)
7) Ram’s work is bad, Hari’s is _________, but Govind’s work is the _________. (bad)
8) Silver is _________ than gold. (cheap)
9) The Eiffel Tower is _________ than the Qutub Minar. (tall)
10) Akbar was the _________ Mughal Emperor. (great)
11) Prevention is _________ than cure. (good)
12) Mathematics is the _________ subject. (difficult)
13) Apples are _________ than oranges. (Costly)
14) Mr. Sharma is the _________ person I have ever seen. (fat)
15) This suitcase is _________ than that one. (heavy)
16) The number of boys present was _________ than the number of girls present in the class.
(many)
17) Sita was the _________ tired of them all. (little)

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18) Rohan’s house is the _________ from college. (far)

19) Have you heard the _________ news? (late)
20) He is the _________ member in the Rajya Sabha. (old)
Answer Key
1) hotter 2) most intelligent 3) prettier 4) biggest 5) best 6) more useful 7) worse, worst 8)
cheaper 9) taller 10) greatest 11) better 12) most difficult 13) costlier 14) fattest 15) heavier
16) more than 17) least 18) farthest 19) latest 20) oldest
Write answers to the following as directed
Exercise I:
1) Mount Everest is the highest peak in the world. (Use ‘higher than’)
2) ‘Shakuntula’ is better than any other drama in Sanskrit. (Use ‘as good as’)
3) No other town in Malaysia is as old as Malacca (use ‘the oldest’)
4) The lion is the most ferocious animal. (Use ‘as ferocious as’)
5) He is richer than all other men in the village. (Use ‘the richest’)
Exercise II:
1) Very few animals are as useful as the cow. (Use ‘the most useful’)
2) Latif is more hardworking than most other boys. (Use ‘as hard working as’)
3) Ashoka was one of the most powerful emperors. (Use ‘more powerful than’)
4) India is hotter than most other countries. (Use ‘the hottest’)
5) Very few poets are as great as Keats. (Use ‘greater than’)
Exercise III:
1) Silver is not as precious as gold. (Use ‘more precious than’)
2) The pen is mightier than the sword. (Use ‘not as mighty as’)
3) A deer runs faster than a horse. (Use ‘not fast as’)
4) Your knife is not as sharp as mine. (Use ‘sharper than’)
5) A foolish friend is not as good as a wise enemy. (Use ‘better than’)
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Exercise IV:
1) Sharukh Khan is not greater than Dilip Kumar. (Use ‘as great as’)
2) My house is at least as big as yours. (Use ‘not bigger than’)
3) The Taj Mahal is at least as famous as the Statue of Liberty. (Use ‘not more famous than’)
4) Sanjeev is not fatter than Veeru. (Use ‘as fat as’)
5) This tree is as old as that tree. (Use ‘not older than’)
Exercise V:
1) Tennyson is not greater than some other poets. (Use ‘not the greatest)
2) Some boys are at least as industrious as Suresh (use ‘not more industrious than’)
3) This is not the best college in the city. (use ‘as good as’)
4) Rohan is not the dullest boy in the class. (Use ‘not duller than’)
5) Some students are at least as clever as Rani. (Use ‘not the cleverest’)
Answer Key
Exercise I:
1) Mount Everest is higher than any other peak in the world.
2) No other drama in Sanskrit is as good as Shakunthala.
3) Malacca is the oldest town in Malaysia.
4) No other animal is as ferocious as the lion.
5) He is the richest man in the village.
Exercise II:
1) The cow is one of the most useful animals.
2) Very few boys are as hard working as Latif.
3) Ashoka was more powerful than many other emperors.
4) India is one of the hottest countries.
5) Keats is greater than many other poets.
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Exercise III:
1) Gold is more precious than silver.
2) The sword is not as mighty as the pen.
3) A horse doesn’t run as fast as a deer.
4) My knife is sharper than yours.
5) A wise enemy is better than a foolish friend.
Exercise IV:
1) Dileep Kumar is not as great as Sharukh Khan.
2) Your house is not bigger than mine.
3) The Statue of Liberty is not more famous than the Taj Mahal.
4) Veeru is as fat as Sanjeev.
5) That tree is not older than this tree.
Exercise V:
1) Tennyson is not the greatest poet.
2) Suresh is not more industrious than some other boys.
3) Some colleges in the city are at least as good as this.
4) Rohan is not duller than some other boys in the class.
5) Rani is not the cleverest student.

UNIT – III
VOCABULARY
1. PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES

What are Prefix and Suffix?

We will start with the prefix. A prefix is generally a letter or a group of letters which
appears at the beginning of any word. It can also change the original meaning of any word.
Like organised and disorganized, here “dis” is the prefix of the word organised. While suffix
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is also a letter or a group of letters, but it appears at the end of any word. It is used to change
the word so that it can fit into a sentence grammatically. Like forget and forgetful “ful” is the
suffix here.
Collectively, if suffix and prefix are combined then it is known as affixes. Both prefix
and suffix are not words in general, but the addition of either of them can make or break a
word. When you use only suffix or prefix in a sentence than it would not make sense. To
denote the incompletion of a word, we put a hyphen to denote them.
We need to study prefix and suffix so that we can be comfortable with the English
language. Further, you develop an ability to easily recognize the word that you do not know
of or you are not familiar with. It is already known that confidence with vocabulary goes a
long way in speaking, listening, reading, and writing. There are a few things you need to
understand while learning prefixes and suffixes.
Important Points on Prefixes
1. Different prefixes which are used in the English language can also have the same
meaning. For example, in-, un-, not- all have the same meaning which is, ‘opposite
of’ or ‘not’. Similarly, the prefix is- and mis- means incorrectly or wrongly.

2. Repetition of letters is also possible. That is to say that when im- or unto word and if
the word starts with ‘m’ and ‘n’ respectively then the double letters are also possible.
For example immeasurable and unnoticeable.

3. You need to be careful while seeing the words which starts with the prefix but do not
contain the prefix. For example, the word uncle is a whole word. It does not have any
prefix at the beginning.

4. The addition of prefix should not change the spelling of the base word. For example,
when you add ‘un’ to the word happy the spelling will be unhappy which is the same
spelling as the base word.

Important Points on Suffixes

1. Like prefixes, many suffixes have the same meaning. The best example is the use of
the word ‘er’, which when you add to the end of any word, represents a person who is
performing an action. Further, ‘er’ is also added at the end of adverbs and adjectives.
This helps in the comparison of two things. Like slow will be slower and fast will be
faster.

2. For suffixes, the spelling of the base word can change when you add a suffix at the

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end. This is mostly true for the words ending with ‘y’ at the end. For example, when a
suffix is added to the word crazy it will change into crazier or craziness.

3. The above statement is also true for the base words which end with a silent ‘e’. For
example, make and manage will change into making and managing when you add the
suffix ‘ing’ to both the words. But not all words ending with ‘e’ will have a different
spelling.

Practice Questions
Type I: Use prefix in the below words to find out its opposite word.
1. Sense

2. Happy

3. Wrap

4. Connect

Answer:
1. Nonsense

2. Unhappy

3. Unwrap

4. Disconnect

Type II: Use the prefix or suffix to the given word provided in the bracket in its
appropriate form.
1. You can’t just believe it. The plot was _____ (believable)

2. I saw her just a few days ago, still, I miss her. It looks like she just _______
(appeared)

3. I am sorry; I didn’t mean to hurt you. I must have ______ you. (Understood)

Answer:

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1. Unbelievable

2. Disappeared

3. Misunderstood

UNIT – III 3. ONE WORD SUBSTITUTION

One word substitution is a process in which people use one word to replace a wordy
phrase, to make the sentence structure more clear. This also makes work more succinct,
instead of convoluted. For example, if you have a sentence that states 'He drives me in a
vehicle around town.' instead you can use 'He chauffeurs me around town.' The meaning is
identical, yet the sentence is shorter. This adds a complexity to writing, while still making
sure the writing is concise.
List of one word substitutions:
1. A person who cares about the needs and happiness of others more than his own –
Altruist

2. A person who can efficiently use both of his hands. – Ambidextrous

3. A person who does not believe in the existence of God.- Atheist

4. A person who starves the body for the good of soul.- Ascetic

5. A person who lends money at unreasonably high rates of interest.- Usurer

6. A person sent out on a mission- Emissary

7. A person who eats too much- Glutton

8. A person who believes that the pursuit of pleasure is the most important thing in life –
Hedonist

9. A person who compiles dictionaries – Lexicographer

10. One who is all powerful – Omnipotent

11. A person reserved or uncommunicative in speech – Taciturn

12. A person who speaks less – Pacifist

13. A person who lives a solitary life and tends to avoid other people- Recluse

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14. One who knows everything – Omniscient

15. One who is all powerful – Omnipotent

16. One who is present everywhere – Omnipresent

17. One who does not believe in institution of marriage – Misogamist

18. A person who looks at the bright side of the things – Optimist

19. A person who looks at the dark side of things – Pessimist

20. A government tax on goods brought into the country – Customs

21. A government tax on goods made within a country – Excise

22. A person who eats too much – Glutton

23. To change a law in order to improve it – Amend

24. To correct the mistakes in manuscript etc.

25. Open refusal to obey – Defiance

26. One who comes to a foreign land to settle there – Immigrant

27. One who leaves his native place to settle in another – Emigrant

28. A list of headings of the business to be transacted at a meeting – Agenda

29. The practice of having two wives of husbands at same time – Bigamy

30. A lover and collector of books – Bibliophile

31. A nation or person engaged in war or conflict – Belligerent

32. A person who hates mankind – Misanthropist

33. A person who escapes law or justice – Fugitive

34. Obeying rules and requests – Compliance

35. To free somebody from all blames – exonerate

36. Having peculiar habit – idiosyncrasy

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37. A phrase or words written especially as an inscription on a tombstone – epitaph

38. Study of birds – Ornithology

39. Study of man – Anthropology

40. Study of races – Ethnology

41. The science of origin and growth of language – Philology

42. The study and classification of speech sounds – Phonetics

43. The science of teaching – Pedagogy

44. One who is greedy for money – Avaricious

45. A person who is new to a subject or activity – Neophyte

46. One who donates for charitable purposes – Philanthropist

47. One incapable of being tired – Indefatigable

48. One who hates women – Misogynist

49. A man with characteristics what are more often associated with females – Effeminate

50. A person who believes easily whatever is told – Credulous

51. A person who draws maps and charts – Cartographer

52. Study of coins – Numismatics

53. That which cannot be seen through – Opaque

54. A man employed to look after the horses of people staying at an inn – Ostler

55. A position with no work but high salary – Sinecure

56. An assembly of worshippers – Congregation

57. A new word or expression – Neologism

58. Comical use of words – Malapropism

59. State of too much worry – Dysphoria

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60. State of too much excitement – Euphoria

61. Vehicle to carry dead bodies – Hearse

62. Animals having two feet – Biped

63. Animals with four feet – Quadruped

64. Belief in more than one god – Polytheism

65. Light fine rain – Drizzle

66. Strong and not easily damaged – Sturdy

67. One who talks in sleep – Sommiloquist

68. A person who eats too much – Glutton

69. A person who knows many languages – Polyglot

70. A person who speaks less – Reticent

71. A person who cuts precious stones – Lapidist

72. Violence activity to damage public property without any good reason – Vandalism

73. An exact copy – Facsimile

74. Safe to drink – Potable

75. Able to be easily carried or moved – Portable

76. A person who has habit of stealing – Kleptomania

77. A person sad in nature – Despondent

78. A study of derivation of words – Etymology

79. The study of mountains – Orology

80. Study of earthquakes – Seismology

81. Study of secret writings – Cryptography

82. A planned route or journey – Itinerary

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83. Short journey made by a group of persons together – Excursion

84. A disease prevailing in a locality – Endemic

85. A disease that spreads over a huge area – Epidemic

86. A disease that spreads over a whole country or the world – Pandemic

87. Disease which is spread by contact – Contagious

88. Medical prediction of the likely development of a disease – Prognosis

89. Loss of speech – Aphasia

90. To make additions to a book or piece of writing – Interpolate

91. List of goods with their price – Invoice

92. Like a cat – Feline

93. Like a wolf – Lupine

94. Like a pig – Porcine

95. Like a monkey – Simian

96. Like a fox – Vulpine

97. Language difficult to understand – Jargon

98. A passage taken from a book – Excerpt

99. An exaggerated statement – Hyperbole

100. A summary of written work – Epitome

UNIT–III 4. ANTONYMS & SYNONYMS

Synonyms
A synonym is a word, or in some cases a phrase that has the same meaning as another
word with regards to the same language. If the meaning is not exactly the same, the words
have very similar meanings in the context.
When two words are synonyms of one another, we call them synonymous words. Let

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us take the example of the word “jump”. The words leap, bounce, hop are all synonymous to
jump, i.e. they have the same (or very similar) meanings.
At sometimes there are cases where the word has more than one meaning. The meaning
of the word can only be judged by the context in which it has been used as a sentence. In
such a case the synonyms of the word will also differ according to the context. Let us take
the example of the word “free”.
 One meaning of the word free is to be without restrictions, and in this case, the
synonym would be ‘independent’.

 Another meaning of the word free is to be free of charge, and so here the synonym
would be ‘complementary’ or ‘gratuitous’.

Antonyms
Now as opposed to a synonym, an antonym is a word whose meaning is exactly
opposite to another word, in the same language. It originates from the Greek word “anti”
which stands for opposite and “onym” which stands for “name”. For example the antonym
for hot is cold, and the antonym for up is down.
Antonyms are actually quite useful in the English language. At times it is easy to
understand the meaning and the context of a difficult word, by knowing what the opposite of
the word means. Take for example the word “mundane” whose synonym is “humdrum”. The
antonym of mundane is “extraordinary” or “imaginative”. Now the word mundane has much
better clarity.
Even while writing, one may be using the same words too often making the prose drab
and boring. Using antonyms, without changing the meaning of a sentence, can be a good way
to make things interesting.
Examples of Synonyms and Antonyms

Word Synonym Antonym

Abundant Plentiful, Ample Scarce, Sparse

Appeal Attract, Interest Bore

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Elaborate Detailed, Intricate Simple, Plain

Optimistic Bright, Promising Pessimistic

Boisterous Lively, Exuberant Quire, Restrained

Inept Incompetent, Unskilled Competent

Soothe Ease, Relieve Aggravate

Linger Stay put, Remain Vanish

Vital Essential, Crucial Unimportant

UNIT – IV
COMPREHENSION

Passage: 01
Read the passage and answer the questions that follow:
Mike and Morris lived in the same village. While Morris owned the largest jewelry
shop in the village, Mike was a poor farmer. Both had large families with many sons,
daughters-in-law and grandchildren. One fine day, Mike, tired of not being able to fed his
family, decided to leave the village and move to the city where he was certain to earn enough
to feed everyone. Along with his family, he left the village for the city. At night, they stopped
under a large tree. There was a stream running nearby where they could freshen up
themselves. He told his sons to clear the area below the tree, he told his wife to fetch water
and he instructed his daughters-in-law to make up the fire and started cutting wood from the
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tree himself. They didn’t know that in the branches of the tree, there was a thief hiding. He
watched as Mike’s family worked together and also noticed that they had nothing to cook.
Mike’s wife also thought the same and asked her husband, “Everything is ready but what
shall we eat? ” Mike raised his hands to heaven and said, “Don’t worry. He is watching all
this from above. He will help us.”
The thief got worried as he had seen that the family was large and worked well
together. Taking advantage of the fact that they did not know he was hiding in the branches,
he decided to make a quick escape. He climbed down safely when they were not looking and
ran for his life. But, he left behind the bundle of stolen jewels and money which dropped into
Mike’s lap. Mike opened it and jumped with joy when he saw the contents. The family
gathered all their belongings and returned to the village. There was great excitement when
they told everyone how they got rich.
Morris thought that the tree was miraculous and this was a nice and quick way to earn
some money. He ordered his family to pack some clothes and they set off as if on a journey.
They also stopped under the same tree and Morris started commanding everyone as Mike had
done. But no one in his family was willing to obey his orders. Being a rich family, they were
used to having servants all around. So, the one who went to the river to fetch water enjoyed a
nice bath.
The one who went to get the wood for fire went off to sleep. Morris’s wife said ”
Everything is ready but what shall we eat ?” Morris raised his hands and said, “Don’t worry.
He is watching all this from above. He will help us.” As soon as he finished saying, the thief
jumped down from the tree with a knife in hand. Seeing him everyone started running here
and there to save their lives. The thief stole everything they had and Morris and his family
had to return to the village empty handed having lost all their valuables that they had taken
with them.

Question 1: Why did Mike and his family decide to rest under the thief’s tree?

A) Being a large family, they knew that they could easily defeat the thief
B) It was a convenient spot for taking a halt at night
C) There was a stream nearby and wood enough to build a house
D) That was the only large tree that could shelter their large family
Solution: B) It was a convenient spot for taking a halt at night

Question 2: Which of the following best describes Morris?

A) He was a rich businessman

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B) He bullied his wife

C) He paid his servants well
D) He was greedy and imitated Mike
Solution: D) He was greedy and imitated Mike
Question 3: What did Mike mean when he said “He is watching all this from above”?
A) He had spotted the thief and wanted to scare him
B) He was telling his wife to have faith in god
C) It was just a warning for his family members to stick together
D) He was begging the thief to help his family
Solution: B) He was telling his wife to have faith in god

Question 4: Why did the thief return to the tree?

A) To wait for Mike to return
B) To set up a trap
C) To wait for Morris’s family
D) Not mentioned in the passage
Solution: D) Not mentioned in the passage

Question 5 : How did the fellow villagers react to Mike getting rich overnight?
A) They were jealous of him
B) They were very excited
C) They followed his example
D) They envied him
Solution: B) They were very excited.
Passage: 02
The Economic transformation of India is one of the great business stories of our time.
As stifling government regulations have been lifted, entrepreneurship has flourished, and the
country has become a high-powered centre for information technology and pharmaceuticals.
Indian companies like Infosys and Wipro are powerful global players, while Western firms
like G.E. and I.B.M. now have major research facilities in India employing thousands.
India’s seemingly endless flow of young, motivated engineers, scientists, and managers
offering developed-world skills at developing-world wages is held to be putting American
jobs at risk, and the country is frequently heralded as “the next economic superpower.”
But India has run into a surprising hitch on its way to superpower status: its
inexhaustible supply of workers is becoming exhausted. Although India has one of the
youngest workforces on the planet, the head of Infosys said recently that there was an “acute
shortage of skilled manpower,” and a study by Hewitt Associates projects that this year
salaries for skilled workers will rise fourteen and a half per cent, a sure sign that demand for
skilled labor is outstripping supply.
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How is this possible in a country that every year produces two and a half million
college graduates and four hundred thousand engineers? Start with the fact that just ten per
cent of Indians get any kind of post-secondary education, compared with some fifty per cent
who do in the U.S. Moreover, of that ten per cent, the vast majority go to one of India’s
seventeen thousand colleges, many of which are closer to community colleges than to four-
year institutions. India does have more than three hundred universities, but a recent survey by
the London Times Higher Education Supplement put only two of them among the top
hundred in the world. Many Indian graduates, therefore, enter the workforce with a low level
of skills. A current study led by Vivek Wadhwa, of Duke University, has found that if you
define “engineer” by U.S. standards, India produces just a hundred and seventy thousand
engineers a year, not four hundred thousand. Infosys says that, of 1.3 million applicants for
jobs last year, it found only two per cent acceptable.
There was a time when many economists believed that post-secondary education
didn’t have much impact on economic growth. The really important educational gains, they
thought, came from giving rudimentary skills to large numbers of people (which India still
needs to do—at least thirty per cent of the population is illiterate). They believed that, in
economic terms, society got a very low rate of return on its investment in higher education.
But lately that assumption has been overturned, and the social rate of return on investment in
university education in India has been calculated at an impressive nine or ten per cent. In
other words, every dollar India puts into higher education creates value for the economy as a
whole. Yet India spends roughly three and a half per cent of its G.D.P. on education,
significantly below the percentage spent by the U.S., even though India’s population is much
younger, and spending on education should be proportionately higher.
The irony of the current situation is that India was once considered to be
overeducated. In the seventies, as its economy languished, it seemed to be a country with too
many engineers and Ph.D.s working as clerks in government offices. Once the Indian
business climate loosened up, though, that meant companies could tap a backlog of hundreds
of thousands of eager, skilled workers at their disposal. Unfortunately, the educational
system did not adjust to the new realities. Between 1985 and 1997, the number of teachers in
India actually fell, while the percentage of students enrolled in high school or college rose
more slowly than it did in the rest of the world. Even as the need for skilled workers was
increasing, India was devoting relatively fewer resources to producing them.
Since the Second World War, the countries that have made successful leaps from
developing to developed status have all poured money, public and private, into education.
South Korea now spends a higher percentage of its national income on education than nearly
any other country in the world. Taiwan had a system of universal primary education before
its phase of hypergrowth began. And, more recently, Ireland’s economic boom was spurred,
in part, by an opening up and expansion of primary and secondary schools and increased

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funding for universities. Education will be all the more important for India’s well-being; the
earlier generation of so-called Asian Tigers depended heavily on manufacturing, but India’s
focus on services and technology will require a more skilled and educated workforce.
India has taken tentative steps to remedy its skills famine—the current government
has made noises about doubling spending on education, and a host of new colleges and
universities have sprung up since the mid-nineties. But India’s impressive economic
performance has made the problem seem less urgent than it actually is, and allowed the
government to defer difficult choices. (In a country where more than three hundred million
people live on a dollar a day, producing college graduates can seem like a low priority.)
Ultimately, the Indian government has to pull off a very tough trick, making serious changes
at a time when things seem to be going very well. It needs, in other words, a clear sense of
everything that can still go wrong. The paradox of the Indian economy today is that the more
certain its glowing future seems to be, the less likely that future becomes.
Questions:
1. Which of these could you infer according to the passage?

a. Wages in the Developing countries are less as compared to wages in the developed
countries.
b. Wages in the Developing countries are more as compared to wages in the developed
countries.
c. Wages in the Developing countries are same as wages in the developed countries.
d. None of these.
2. What does “American jobs” in the last line of the first paragraph of the passage
imply?

a. Jobs provided by American companies.

b. Jobs held (or to be held) by American people.
c. Jobs open to only American citizens.
d. Jobs provided by the American government.
3. According to the passage, why India does not have enough skilled labour?

a. The total amount of the young population is low.

b. The total number of colleges are insufficient.

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c. Students do not want to study.

d. Maximum universities and colleges do not match global standards.
4. What can you infer as the meaning of ‘stifling’ from the passage?

a. Democratic.
b. Liberal.
c. Impeding.
d. Undemocratic.
5. What is an appropriate title to the passage?

a. Growing Indian Economy.

b. Higher education in India.
c. India’s Skill Shortage.
d. Entrepreneurship in India.
6. In the third sentence of the third paragraph of the passage, the phrase “closer to
community colleges” is used. What does it imply?

a. Near to community colleges.

b. Like community colleges.
c. Close association with community colleges.
d. None of these.
7. According to the passage, what is the paradox of the Indian economy today?

a. The economic progress is impressive, but the poor (earning one dollar per day) are not
benefited.
b. The economic progress is impressive disallowing the government to take tough decisions.
c. There is not enough skilled workforces and the government does not realize this.
d. Government is not ready to invest in setting up new universities.
8. Why are salaries for skilled workers rising?

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a. Companies are paying hire to lure skilled people to jobs.

b. American companies are ready to pay higher to skilled workers.
c. Entrepreneurship is growing in India.
d. There are not enough skilled workers, while the demand for them is high.
Answers:
1. a. Wages in the Developing countries are less as compared to wages in the developed
countries
2. b. Jobs held (or to be held) by American people
3. d. Maximum universities and colleges do not match global standards
4. c. Impeding.
5. c. India’s Skill Shortage
6. b. Like community colleges
7. b. The economic progress is impressive disallowing the government to take tough
decisions.
8. d. There are not enough skilled workers, while the demand for them is high

UNIT – V
COMPOSITION
1. PRECISE WRITING

A precise is a summary. Precise writing is an exercise in compression. A precise is

the gist of a passage expressed in as few words as possible. A precise should give all
essential points so that anyone reading it will be able to understand the idea expressed in the
original passage.
Note that precise writing is different from paraphrasing. In a paraphrase you should
give all the details: you should not leave out any details. A paraphrase will be at least as long
as and sometimes longer than the original. A precise, on the other hand, must always be
shorter than the original. It should express only the main theme that too as briefly as possible.
How long should a precise be?

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There are no rigid rules regarding the length of a precise. But as a general rule, it
should not contain more than a third of the total number of words in the original passage.
Uses of Precise writing
Most people read carelessly and fail to fully comprehend the meaning of the passage.
Precise writing forces them to pay attention to what they read because no one can write a
summary of a passage unless they read it carefully. So summarizing teaches one to read with
concentration.
Precise writing also improves your overall writing skills. It teaches you how to express
your thoughts clearly, concisely and effectively. You learn to choose your words carefully
and construct your sentences in a logical and concise manner.
Features of a Good Precise
 A good Precise:

 is marked by clarity, brevity and precision.

 is not just lifting of the sentences from the original. It should be written in the
precise writer's own words.

 is a miniature version of the original passage.

 must have a logical order and be well-knit and well connected.

 must have coherence; must use linking devices such as so, therefore, and,
because further etc. and must follow the

 order of ideas of the original.

 must have a title.

 is written in reported speech.

 must not contain any details not found in the original.

 Do's in a Precise:

 Start your précis by highlighting the main idea of the passage and you should
create contextual environment where you can place the necessary points. Once
the main idea is established in the précis, you can present the methods, points,
facts etc. used by the author of the passage.

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 Compress and clarify a lengthy passage, article, or book, while retaining

important concepts, key words, and important data.

 Remove what is superfluous and retain the core essence of the work.

 Always remember that mentions about history/writing about history should be

advisably done in the past tense.

 State the purpose of the research or piece of writing (why was it important to
conduct this research or write on this topic?)

 Don'ts in a Precise:

 Do not express your own opinion, wish, remark or criticism.

 Do not insert any question in your précis. Its significance, if essential, may be
expressed by a statement.

 Do not use abbreviations or contractions.

 Do not be jerky. This suggests that most probably, you have not understood
the sense of the passage properly.

Precise in the making

When one is writing a précis, one should take care of a few essential points. The first
thing is that one needs to convey the general idea of the argument with absolute clarity. The
second thing that you need to do is to make sure that all the important points of the original
passage are included in the precise. Lastly, make sure that the language of the précis is clear,
crisp and concise, and follows the rule for correct diction.
The following rules are general guidelines you should follow while writing a Precise:
 Closely read the passage, and identify the central idea of the passage. It is vital to
identify the general idea of the passage and incorporate it in one’s precise.

 Look-out for the total number of words. If the number is not provided, quickly
calculate the number using approximations.

 In order to understand the passage clearly, make sure that you read the passage
closely, and give it a couple of reads before you start writing the precise.

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 Highlight the most important points in the passage, and make notes. Leave out all
non-essential information from the precise.

 Provide an apt heading to your precise.

 Note making is an essential task for writing précis. You should try to arrange the
points in most logical order, and ensure the order of thought is the same as the
original.

 The three grammatical rules you need to follow while writing a precise are: write it in
third person, indirect form and appropriate past tense.

 It is advisable to provide designations of officials rather than names and titles. In case
the official designation is not provided, you can use the personal name. Kindly be
consistent with the pattern you adopt.

 Make sure you review your rough draft, remove the chinks and ensure that you have
made no language related errors.

 Before writing your precise, make sure you have a glance over the original to make
sure you have not missed anything.

 Finally, a wise policy would be a count the words of your precise and put them down
in a bracket at the end.

Passage:
There is an enemy beneath our feet - an enemy more deadly for his complete impartiality.
He recognizes no national boundaries, no political parties. Everyone in the world is
threatened by him. The enemy is the earth itself. When an earthquake strikes, the world
trembles. The power of a quake is greater than anything man himself can produce. But today
scientists are directing a great deal of their effort into finding some way of combating
earthquakes, and it is possible that at some time in the near future mankind will have
discovered a means of protecting itself from earthquakes.
An earthquake strikes without warning. When it does, its power is immense. If it strikes a
modern city, the damage it causes is as great as if it has struck a primitive village. Gas mains
burst, explosions are caused and fires are started. Underground railways are wrecked.
Buildings collapse, bridges fall, dams burst, and gaping crevices appear in busy streets. If the
quake strikes at sea, huge tidal waves sweep inland. If it strikes in mountain regions,
avalanches roar down into the valley.

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Consider the terrifying statistics from the past 1755: Lisbon, capital of Portugal - the city
destroyed entirely and 450 killed. 1970: Peru: 50,000 killed. In 1968 an earthquake struck
Alaska. As this is a relatively unpopulated part, only a few people were killed. But it is likely
that this was one of the most powerful quakes ever to have hit the world. Geologists estimate
that during the tremors, the whole of the state moved over 80 feet farther west into the Pacific
Ocean. Imagine the power of something that can move an entire subcontinent! This is the
problem that the scientists face. They are dealing with forces so immense that man cannot
hope to resist them. All that can be done is to try to pinpoint just where the earthquake will
strike and work from there. At least some precautionary measures can then be taken to save
lives and some of the property. Based on the above paragraph, we-arrive at the following
theme sentences for the four paragraphs:
 Earthquake - the deadly enemy of mankind.

 Damage caused by an earthquake in general.

 Damage caused by an earthquake-in particular,

 What can the scientists do?

The above four theme sentences can be developed into the following outline:
 Earthquake - the deadly enemy of mankind.

 Earthquake strikes all without a distinction of national boundary or political

affiliation.

 The power of a quake is greater than that of a man-made weapon of

destruction.

 Scientists are trying to find out means to combat earthquakes; they will find
some way to protect themselves from earthquakes.

 Damage caused by an earthquake in general:

 Strikes without warning.

 Modern city when struck reduced to a primitive village.

 Damage caused by an earthquake in particular.

 Quake strikes plains, seas and mountains causing all round destruction.

 In 1755, Lisbon destroyed, 450 killed.

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 In 1970, Peru struck, 50,000 killed.

 What can the scientists do?

 In 1968, Alaska hit, subcontinent moved 80 feet into the Pacific Ocean.

 Scientists cannot resist the powerful earthquake.

 They can predict the place of origin of the quake so that precaution can be
taken to save man & property

Based on the above outline, we can make the following rough draft:
 Earthquake- The Great Destroyer

Earthquake is the deadly enemy of mankind. Earthquake strikes all without a

distinction of nationality or political affiliation. The power of a quake is greater than that of
any man-made weapon of destruction. An earthquake strikes mankind without a warning. A
modern city when struck is reduced to a rubble. A quake strikes plains, seas and mountains
causing all round destruction. The quake struck Lisbon in 1755 killing 450; Peru in 1970
killing 50,000; Alaska in 1968 moving it 80 feet into the Pacific Ocean. Scientists are trying
to find out means to combat earthquakes and they are able to predict at least where the
earthquake will hit so that precaution can be taken to save man and property from
destruction. As the number of words in the rough draft is more than required we shall have to
reduce it further without reducing the ideas.
The final draft would look as follows:
 Earthquake - The Great Destroyer

Earthquake is the mankind's deadly enemy. Earthquake strikes all without a distinction
of nationality or political affiliation. The power of a quake is greater than that of any man-
made weapon of destruction. An earthquake strikes mankind without a warning. A modern
city when struck is reduced -to a nibble. A quake strikes plains, seas and mountains causing
all round destruction. The quake struck Lisbon in 1755 killing 450; Peru in 1970 killing
50,000; Alaska in 1968 moving it 80 feet into the Pacific Ocean. Scientists are trying to find
out means to combat earthquakes, to predict the origin of the quake so that precaution can be
taken to save man and property from destruction.

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UNIT – V 2. FORMAL CORRESPONDENCE AND REPORTING INCLUDING

LETTER WRITING
REPORT WRITING
Some academic assignments ask for a ‘report’, rather than an essay, and students are
often confused about what that really means.
Likewise, in business, confronted with a request for a ‘report’ to a senior manager,
many people struggle to know what to write.
Confusion often arises about the writing style, what to include, the language to use, the
length of the document and other factors.
What is a Report?
In academia there is some overlap between reports and essays, and the two words are
sometimes used interchangeably, but reports are more likely to be needed for business,
scientific and technical subjects, and in the workplace.
Whereas an essay presents arguments and reasoning, a report concentrates on facts.
Essentially, a report is a short, sharp, concise document which is written for a
particular purpose and audience. It generally sets outs and analyses a situation or problem,
often making recommendations for future action. It is a factual paper, and needs to be clear
and well-structured.
Requirements for the precise form and content of a report will vary between
organisation and departments and in study between courses, from tutor to tutor, as well as
between subjects, so it’s worth finding out if there are any specific guidelines before you
start.
 Reports may contain some or all of the following elements:

 A description of a sequence of events or a situation;

 Some interpretation of the significance of these events or situation, whether solely

your own analysis or informed by the views of others, always carefully referenced of
course

 An evaluation of the facts or the results of your research;

 Discussion of the likely outcomes of future courses of action;

 Your recommendations as to a course of action; and

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 Conclusions.

Not all of these elements will be essential in every report.

If you’re writing a report in the workplace, check whether there are any standard
guidelines or structure that you need to use.
For example, in the UK many government departments have outline structures for
reports to ministers that must be followed exactly.
 Sections and Numbering

A report is designed to lead people through the information in a structured way, but
also to enable them to find the information that they want quickly and easily.
Reports usually, therefore, have numbered sections and subsections, and a clear and
full contents page listing each heading. It follows that page numbering is important.
Modern word processors have features to add tables of contents (ToC) and page
numbers as well as styled headings; you should take advantage of these as they update
automatically as you edit your report, moving, adding or deleting sections.
Report Writing
 Getting Started: prior preparation and planning

The structure of a report is very important to lead the reader through your thinking to a
course of action and/or decision. It’s worth taking a bit of time to plan it out beforehand.
Step 1: Know your brief
You will usually receive a clear brief for a report, including what you are
studying and for whom the report should be prepared.
First of all, consider your brief very carefully and make sure that you are clear who the
report is for (if you're a student then not just your tutor, but who it is supposed to be written
for), and why you are writing it, as well as what you want the reader to do at the end of
reading: make a decision or agree a recommendation, perhaps.
Step 2: Keep your brief in mind at all times
During your planning and writing, make sure that you keep your brief in mind:
who are you writing for, and why are you writing?
All your thinking need to be focused on that, which may require you to be ruthless in
your reading and thinking. Anything irrelevant should be discarded.

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As you read and research, try to organise your work into sections by theme, a bit like
writing a Literature Review.
Make sure that you keep track of your references, especially for academic work.
Although referencing is perhaps less important in the workplace, it’s also important that you
can substantiate any assertions that you make so it’s helpful to keep track of your sources of
information.
The Structure of a Report
Like the precise content, requirements for structure vary, so do check what’s set out in
any guidance.
However, as a rough guide, you should plan to include at the very least an executive
summary, introduction, the main body of your report, and a section containing your
conclusions and any recommendations.
Executive Summary
The executive summary or abstract, for a scientific report, is a brief summary of the
contents. It’s worth writing this last, when you know the key points to draw out. It should be
no more than half a page to a page in length.
Remember the executive summary is designed to give busy 'executives' a quick
summary of the contents of the report.
Introduction
The Introduction sets out what you plan to say and provides a brief summary of the
problem under discussion. It should also touch briefly on your conclusions.
Report Main Body
The main body of the report should be carefully structured in a way that leads the
reader through the issue.
You should split it into sections using numbered sub-headings relating to themes or
areas for consideration. For each theme, you should aim to set out clearly and concisely the
main issue under discussion and any areas of difficulty or disagreement. It may also include
experimental results. All the information that you present should be related back to the brief
and the precise subject under discussion.
If it’s not relevant, leave it out.
Conclusions and Recommendations

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The conclusion sets out what inferences you draw from the information, including any
experimental results. It may include recommendations, or these may be included in a
separate section.
Recommendations suggest how you think the situation could be improved, and
should be specific, achievable and measurable. If your recommendations have financial
implications, you should set these out clearly, with estimated costs if possibl

A Word on Writing Style

When writing a report, your aim should be to be absolutely clear. Above all, it should
be easy to read and understand, even to someone with little knowledge of the subject area.
You should therefore aim for crisp, precise text, using plain English, and shorter words
rather than longer, with short sentences.
You should also avoid jargon. If you have to use specialist language, you should
explain each word as you use it. If you find that you’ve had to explain more than about five
words, you’re probably using too much jargon, and need to replace some of it with simpler
words.
Consider your audience. If the report is designed to be written for a particular person,
check whether you should be writing it to ‘you’ or perhaps in the third person to a job role:
‘The Chief Executive may like to consider…’, or ‘The minister is recommended to
agree…’, for example.
A Final Warning
As with any academic assignment or formal piece of writing, your work will benefit
from being read over again and edited ruthlessly for sense and style.
Pay particular attention to whether all the information that you have included is
relevant. Also remember to check tenses, which person you have written in, grammar and
spelling. It’s also worth one last check against any requirements on structure.
For an academic assignment, make sure that you have referenced fully and correctly.
As always, check that you have not inadvertently or deliberately plagiarised or copied
anything without acknowledging it.

LETTER WRITING
A letter is a written message that can be handwritten or printed on paper. It is usually sent to
the recipient via mail or post in an envelope, although this is not a requirement as such. Any
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such message that is transferred via post is a letter, a written conversation between two
parties.
Now that E-mails and texts and other such forms have become the norm for communication,
the art of letter writing has taken a backseat. However, even today a lot of our
communication, especially the formal kind, is done via letters. Whether it is a cover letter for
a job, or the bank sending you a reminder or a college acceptance letter, letters are still an
important mode of communication. In which it is important that we know the intricacies of
letter writing.
Types of Letters
Let us first understand that there are broadly two types of letter, namely Formal Letters, and
Informal Letters. But then there are also a few types of letters based on their contents,
formalities, the purpose of letter writing etc. Let us have a look at the few types of letters.
 Formal Letter: These letters follow a certain pattern and formality. They are strictly
kept professional in nature, and directly address the issues concerned. Any type of
business letter or letter to authorities falls within this given category.

 Informal Letter: These are personal letters. They need not follow any set pattern or
adhere to any formalities. They contain personal information or are a written
conversation. Informal letters are generally written to friends, acquaintances, relatives
etc.

 Business Letter: This letter is written among business correspondents, generally

contains commercial information such as quotations, orders, complaints, claims,
letters for collections etc. Such letters are always strictly formal and follow a structure
and pattern of formalities.

 Official Letter: This type of letter is written to inform offices, branches, subordinates
of official information. It usually relays official information like rules, regulations,
procedures, events, or any other such information. Official letters are also formal in
nature and follow certain structure and decorum.

 Social Letter: A personal letter written on the occasion of a special event is known as
a social letter. Congratulatory letter, condolence letter, invitation letter etc are all
social letters.

 Circular Letter: A letter that announces information to a large number of people is a

circular letter. The same letter is circulated to a large group of people to correspond

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some important information like a change of address, change in management, the

retirement of a partner etc.

 Employment Letters: Any letters with respect to the employment process, like
joining letter, promotion letter, application letter etc.

Letter Writing Tips

Now that we have learned the basics of communicating via letters and the types of letters as
well, let us focus on some tips for the actual letter writing.
 Identify the type of letter
This obviously is the first step of the letter writing process. You must be able to identify the
type of letter you are to be writing. This will be dictated by the person the letter is addressed
to and the information that will be conveyed through the letter. Suppose you were writing to
the principal of your college to ask for leave, this would be a formal letter. But say you were
writing to your old college professor catching up after a long time. Then this would be a
personal (informal) letter.
 Make sure you open and close the letter correctly
Opening a letter in the correct manner is of utmost importance. Formal letters open with a
particular structure and greeting that is formal in nature. Informal letters can be addressed to
the person’s name or any informal greeting as the writer wishes.
Even when closing the letter, it must be kept in mind what type of letter is being written.
Formal letters end respectfully and impersonally, whereas informal letters may end with a
more personal touch.
 Establish the main intent of the letter

Once you start writing, make sure to get to the point as soon as possible. Especially in formal
letters, it is important to immediately make clear the purpose of the letter.
 Be careful of the language

A letter is always supposed to be polite and considerate. Even if it is a complaint letter, the
point must be made in a careful and courteous manner. So it is necessary to use polite
expressions and civil language in all types of letters.
 Length of the letter

And the other important factor to be considered is the length of the letter you are writing. It
should be kept in mind that formal letters are generally to the point, precise and short.

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Lengthy formal letters tend to not have the desired effect on the reader. The length of an
informal letter is determined by the message in the letter and the relation to the recipient.
FORMAL LETTER
A formal letter must follow certain rules and conventions. Such a format helps in relaying the
information in a professional way. It must be remembered that there are various such formats
for formal letters that people follow. The one explained here is the one most commonly used
for formal communication these days.

Sender’s Address: The sender’s address is usually put on the top right-hand corner of the page.
The address should be complete and accurate in case the recipient of the letter wishes to get in
touch with the sender for further communication.

Date: The sender’s address is followed by the date just below it, i.e. on the right side of the
page. This is the date on which the letter is being written. It is important in formal letters as they
are often kept on record.

Receiver’s Address: After leaving some space we print the receiver’s address on the left side
of the page. Whether to write “To” above the address depends on the writer’s preference. Make
sure you write the official title/name/position etc., of the receiver, as the first line of the address.

Greeting: This is where you greet the person you are addressing the letter to. Bear in mind that
it is a formal letter, so the greeting must be respectful and not too personal. The general
greetings used in formal letters are “Sir” or “Madam”. If you know the name of the person the
salutation may also be “Mr. XYZ” or “Ms. ABC”. But remember you cannot address them only
by their first name. It must be the full name or only their last name.

Subject: After the salutation/greeting comes the subject of the letter. In the centre of the line
write ‘Subject” followed by a colon. Then we sum up the purpose of writing the letter in one
line. This helps the receiver focus on the subject of the letter in one glance.

Body of the Letter: This is the main content of the letter. It is either divided into three Para or
two Para if the letter is briefer. The purpose of the letter should be made clear in the first
paragraph itself. The tone of the content should be formal. Do not use any flowery language.
Another point to keep in mind is that the letter should be concise and to the point. And always
be respectful and considerate in your language, no matter the subject of your letter.

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Closing the Letter: At the end of your letter, we write a complimentary losing. The words
“Yours Faithfully” or “Yours Sincerely” are printed on the right side of the paper. Generally, we
use the later if the writer knows the name of the person.

Signature: Here finally you sign your name. And then write your name in block letters beneath
the signature. This is how the recipient will know who is sending the letter.

Write a letter to the editor of a daily newspaper complaining about the construction work
on your road in the middle of monsoon season causing inconveniences to the people of
your locality.

From,

XYZ,

D- 1801, Neptune Society,

DS Marg, Lower Parel,

Mumbai 400 008.

11th June 2018.

To,

The Editor-in-Chief,

Hindustan Times,

Main Street,

Mumbai - 400 001.

Sir,
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Subject: Construction work in our locality during monsoon season causing us difficulties.

Through the medium of your esteemed and respected daily, I wish to inform the municipal
authorities of the difficulties the residents of my locality are facing due to the construction and
repair work currently happening in our area. Monsoon season has started a few days ago and is
compounding our problems.

The repair work has been ongoing for five weeks now and is falling way behind schedule. And
now with the current weather conditions, we are having persistent problems of water logging
and flooding in our area. Another worry is about the accidents that may occur due to the debris
lying around the road. Diseases caused due to waterlogging are another one of our concerns.

Therefore I wish to draw the attention of the concerned authorities with the help of your
newspaper. Hopefully, you will be able to help us in drawing their attention and resolving this
matter at the earliest.

Thanking You,

Your Sincerely,

**signature**

[Mr. XYZ]

INFORMAL LETTER
Informal letters are written to close acquaintances of the writer, their friends, family,
relatives etc. Since they are written to close relations the letters have an informal and personal
tone. Casual language is used while writing informal letters. And sometimes the letters may
even have an emotional undertone.

Informal letters are mainly used for personal communication. So they do not have to
follow any specific pattern, format or conventions. They can be written as per the writer’s
wishes and the requirement of the situation. So the letter is written in a personal fashion in
casual unassuming language.

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(An Example of an Informal Letter)

Format of Informal Letter

As we discussed earlier there is no set format when writing an informal letter. But there
is a general pattern, some conventions that people usually follow. We will be looking at this
pattern and certain tips on how to write effective and attractive informal letters. These can act as
guidelines when you are drafting a letter, they are not hard and fast rules. Let us begin.

Address
The first thing to write is your address, i.e. the address of the writer. We usually write
the address on the left-hand side of the page at the very top. The address should be accurate and

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complete. Even when writing to close friends or relatives the address must be written, so they
can reply back to the letter with ease. If the recipient of the letter is in another country, do not
forget to write your country as well in the address.

Date
Next just below the address we write the date. This allows the reader to have a reference
as to when the address was written. He can then relate better to the contents of the letter.

Greeting
Now since you know the person you are writing to, the greeting can be informal as well.
If it is a friend or someone close to your age you can greet them by their first name, like “Dear
Alex”. If you are writing to your relative like your mother/father/aunt/uncle etc, you may greet
them as such, for example, “Dear Mom”. And if you are writing to an elder person, someone
you respect greatly you can address them as Mr or Mrs. Like say for example you were writing
a congratulatory letter to your teacher, it can be addressed as “Dear Mrs. Alex”.

Introduction Paragraph
And now we begin writing the actual letter. The introductory paragraph sets the tone for
the whole letter. You might begin by asking the recipient about their well being. Or you may say
that you hope the letter finds them in good health and great spirits. The opening of informal
letters should be casual and comforting. It must not be formal and direct as in business letters.

Body of the Letter

The letter overall should maintain a friendly tone. But you have to adjust the language
and the wordings according to who you are writing to. With a friend, you can afford to be very
casual and flippant even. But if you are writing to an elder relative, you must be extremely
respectful and considerate. One way to determine the tonality of your letter is to remember how
you talk to the person in a conversation. And then apply the same syntax and sentiments to the
letter.
Conclusion
In the conclusive paragraph sum up the reason for writing the letter, i.e. summarize the
letter. Say a meaningful and affectionate goodbye to the reader. And do not forget to invite the
reader to write back or reply to your letter. It shows an intention to keep the conversation going.
Signature
There is no one way to sign off informal letters. Since they do not follow a strict format,
you may sign off as you please. Some commonly used phrases are

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 Lots of Love

 Best,
 Best Wishes,
 Kind Regards,
 Kindly,

Pick the one that best suits the occasion and then simply sign your name below the greeting.

------------------------------------------------------------------------

Faculty Name: Mr. R. GOVINDAN & Ms. SONA S

Signature:

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