Course Code: IT-15

Course Name: Network Technologies

Credit Scheme Evaluation Scheme

Lecture Practical Credit Internal External Total

Written Practical Tutorial

3 Hrs./Week - 3 10 10 5 50 75

Course Description:

Prerequisite: Students should have fundamental knowledge of

computer network.
Course Objectives:
1. To understand various computer networks and technologies behind networks
2. To study TCP/IP protocol suite, IP addressing schemes and link layer
communication
3. To study routing concept along with Routing protocols
4. To study application layer protocols
5. To understand basics of cryptography and socket programming

Course Outcomes:
Student will be able to

CO1: Understand the basic concepts of Computer Network, and principle of layering
(Understand)
CO2: Apply the error detection and correction techniques used in data transmission
(Apply)
CO3: Apply IP addressing schemes and sub netting (Apply)
CO4: Understand the concept of routing protocols, Application layer protocols and
Network Security (Understand)
CO5: Apply the socket programming basics to create a simple chat application
(Apply)

Course Structure:

Sr. No. Topics Details Weightage No of

in % Sessions
1 1. Introduction to Data Communication and
Computer Networks 6 3
1.1. Internet basics and network components.
[Transmission Media-Guided, Unguided,
Network Devices]
1.2. Various types of Networks (only overview)
1.2.1. Connection Oriented N/Ws Vs
 Connectionless N/Ws,
1.2.2. Ethernet- Ethernet standards ZigBee,
WiFi, Access Technique -CSMA-CD,

Negotiation technique Overview

1.2.3. Wireless Network
1.3 Unified Communication –VOIP

Extra Reading: Switching Techniques, CSMA/CA,

CSMA/CD, Unified Communication
2 2. Principle of Layering concept 12 8
2.1 Need for layering
2.2 ISO-OSI 7 Layer Model
2.3 TCP/IP model
2.4 OSI Model vs TCP/IP mode

Extra Reading: Data Encapsulation, PDU Formation,

network devices
3 3. Link Layer Communication 25 10
3.1 Error detection and correction techniques
3.2 Framing and its types
3.3 Flow and error control
3.4 HDLC protocol
3.5 P2P Protocol
Note: Examples based on 3.1 to be covered

Extra Readings: DLL protocol examples, IEEE 802.2

MAC protocol
4 4. IP Addressing 25 10
4.1 Internet Protocol and IPv4 Packet format,
4.2 Addressing, Physical Addresses, Logical
Addresses
Port Addresses, Specific Addresses
4.3 IP Address- Network Part and Host Part
4.4 Network Masks, Network Addresses and,
Broadcast
Addresses, Loop Back Address
4.5 Address Classes
4.6 TCP and UDP Connections
4.7 TCP Performance in wireless network
4.8 Overview of IPv6
4.9 IP Routing - Types of routing protocol, Border
Gateway Protocol (BGP), Routing Information
Protocol (RIP), Open Shortest Path First (OSPF),
Routing Table concept
Notes: Examples based on IP addressing and sub netting
to be covered
Extra Reading: Network Monitoring Tools –Open NMS,
Putty, Wireshark, Nagios core, Cacti

5 5. Application Layer Protocols 15 6

5.1 DHCP – DHCP Client, DHCP server, DHCP
scope
5.2 DNS – Resolution process, Resource Records,
DNS protocol structure
5.3 HTTP – WWW architecture, HTTP: Request and
Response Message
5.4 Email protocols – SMTP, POP3, IMAP4 & MIME
5.5 FTP, Telnet

Extra Reading: Practical on FTP, Telnet, DNS, Putty

6 6. Network Security 5 2
6.1Active and Passive attacks
6.2Cryptography (Symmetric and Asymmetric)
6.3Firewall

Extra Reading: Examples on symmetric and asymmetric

algorithms
 7 7. Socket Programming 12 6
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Berkeley Sockets
7.3 Specifying A Protocol Interface
7.4 The Socket Abstraction
7.4.1 System Data Structures for Sockets
7.5 Specifying an Endpoint Address
7.6 A Generic Address Structure
7.7 Major System Calls Used with Sockets
7.8 Utility Routines for Integer Conversion
7.9 Using Socket Calls in A Program
(The socket can be created in any language)

Extra Reading: Client-Server Architecture and its

implementation using Socket programming
Total: 100 45

List of Practical assignments (Socket Programming):

1. Write the client and server programs for establishing termination of

connection between client and server using TCP. Assume the server can
handle only one client.
2. Write the client and server programs for simple data (hello) transfer between
client and server using UDP. Client will send hello server message to the
server program. In its reply the server will send hello client message. The
server and client programs should reside on different computers in a network.
3. Write the client and server programs for connectionless communication
between two different computers in the same TCP/IP network. The server
process receives a byte from the client process should and send back an should
acknowledgement to the client process.
4. Write program for implementing the sliding window protocol of window size
5.
5. Write the client and server program for implementing the broadcasting in the
local network.

Course References:

Recommended Books:

Text Books:

1. Network Essential Notes GSW MCSE Study Notes

2. Internetworking Technology Handbook CISCO System
3. Data and Computer Communication 8th Edition – William Stallings
4. Official Certification guide CCNA 200-301
5. TCP/IP Sockets in JAVA, Practical Guide for Programmers, Kenneth
L Calvert, Michael J Donahoo
 Reference Books:
1. Data Communication and Networking Behroz A.Forouzan, TMH, 4th
Edition
2. Computer Networks and Internets with Internet Applications Douglas
Comer
3. Cryptography and Network Security Atul Kahate, TMH 2nd Edition
4. Internetworking With TCP/IP Vol III: Client-Server Programming
And Applications BSD Socket Version Second Edition

Recommended Learning Material:

1. https://docs.oracle.com.javase/tutorial/networkingindex.html
2. https://docs.oracle.com/javase/tutorial/networking/overview/
networking.html

Recommended Certifications:

1. CISCO Networking Basics Specialization (Coursera) -

2. Network Protocols and Architecture (Coursera)
3. Data Communications and Network Services (Coursera)
4. Computer Networking-Digital Network Security (www.alison.com/course)
5. CCNA (200-301)
6. CCNP Enterprise (300-401 ENCOR)
7. CCNP Security (300-700 SCOR +concentration exam)
8. CCIE Enterprise Infrastructure(300-401 ENCOR + Infrastructure lab v1.0)
9. CCIE Enterprise Wireless CCIE +(300-401 ENCOR +wireless lab v1.0)
10. Microsoft Networking Fundamentals (98-366) 11. Microsoft Security
Fundamentals (98-367)
Topic 1 : Introduction to Data Communication and
Computer Networks
CO1: Understand the basic concepts of Computer Network, and principle of layering
(Understand)

1.2 DATA & INFORMATION

Data refers to the raw facts that are collected while information refers to
processed data that enables us to take decisions.
Ex. When result of a particular test is declared it contains data of all students,
when you find the marks you have scored you have the information that lets
you know whether you have passed or failed.
The word data refers to any information which is presented in a form that is
agreed and accepted upon by is creators and users.

1.3 DATA COMMUNICATION

Data Communication is a process of exchanging data or information

In case of computer networks this exchange is done between two devices over a
transmission medium.
This process involves a communication system which is made up of hardware
and software. The hardware part involves the sender and receiver devices and
the intermediate devices through which the data passes. The software part
involves certain rules which specify what is to be communicated, how it is to
be communicated and when. It is also called as a Protocol.
The following sections describes the fundamental characteristics that are
important for the effective working of data communication process and is
followed by the components that make up a data communications system.

1.3.1 Characteristics of Data Communication

The effectiveness of any data communications system depends upon the

following four fundamental characteristics:

1. Delivery: The data should be delivered to the correct destination and correct
user.
2. Accuracy: The communication system should deliver the data accurately,
without introducing any errors. The data may get corrupted during transmission
affecting the accuracy of the delivered data.
3. Timeliness: Audio and Video data has to be delivered in a timely manner
without any delay; such a data delivery is called real time transmission of data.
4. Jitter: It is the variation in the packet arrival time. Uneven Jitter may affect the
timeliness of data being transmitted.
1.3.2 Components of Data Communication

A Data Communication system has five components as shown in the

diagram below:

Fig. Components of a Data Communication System

1. Message
Message is the information to be communicated by the sender to the receiver.

2. Sender
The sender is any device that is capable of sending the data (message).

3. Receiver
The receiver is a device that the sender wants to communicate the data (message).

4. Transmission Medium
It is the path by which the message travels from sender to receiver.
It can be wired or wireless and many subtypes in both.

5. Protocol
It is an agreed upon set or rules used by the sender and receiver to
communicate data.
A protocol is a set of rules that governs data communication.
A Protocol is a necessity in data communications without which
the communicating entities are like two persons trying to talk
to each other in a different language without know the other language.

1.4 DATA REPRESENTATION

Data is collection of raw facts which is processed to deduce information.

There may be different forms in which data may be represented.

Some of the forms of data used in communications are as follows:
1. Text
Text includes combination of alphabets in small case as well as upper case.
It is stored as a pattern of bits. Prevalent encoding system : ASCII, Unicode

2. Numbers
Numbers include combination of digits from 0 to 9.
It is stored as a pattern of bits. Prevalent encoding system :
ASCII, Unicode

3. Images ―An image is worth a thousand words‖ is a very famous saying.

In computers images are digitally stored.

A Pixel is the smallest element of an image. To put it in simple terms, a picture

or image is a matrix of pixel elements.

The pixels are represented in the form of bits. Depending upon the type of image
(black n white or color) each pixel would require different number of bits to
represent the value of a pixel.

The size of an image depends upon the number of pixels (also called resolution)
and the bit pattern used to indicate the value of each pixel.

Example: if an image is purely black and white (two color) each pixel can be
represented by a value either 0 or 1, so an image made up of 10 x 10 pixel
elements would require only 100 bits in memory to be stored.
On the other hand an image that includes gray may require 2 bits to represent
every pixel value (00 - black, 01 – dark gray, 10
– light gray, 11 –white). So the same 10 x 10 pixel image would now require
200 bits of memory to be stored.

Commonly used Image formats : jpg, png, bmp, etc

4. Audio
Data can also be in the form of sound which can be recorded and
broadcasted. Example: What we hear on the radio is a source of data or
information.
Audio data is continuous, not discrete.

5. Video
Video refers to broadcasting of data in form of picture or movie

1.5 DATA FLOW

 two devices communicate with each other by sending and receiving data. The data
can flow between the two devices in the following ways.
1. Simplex
2. Half Duplex
3. Full Duplex

1.5.1 Simplex

Figure: Simplex mode of communication

In Simplex, communication is unidirectional

Only one of the devices sends the data and the other one only receives the
data.
Example: in the above diagram: a cpu send data while a monitor only
receives data.

1.5.2 Half Duplex

Figure: Half Duplex Mode of Communication

In half duplex both the stations can transmit as well as receive but not at the
same time.
When one device is sending other can only receive and viceversa (as shown in
figure above.) Example: A walkie-talkie.
 1.5.3 Full Duplex

Figure: Full Duplex Mode of Communication

In Full duplex mode, both stations can transmit and receive at the same time.
Example: mobile phones

1.6 COMPUTER NETWORK

Computer Networks are used for data communications

Defina
tion:
A computer network can be defined as a collection of nodes. A node can be
any device capable of transmitting or receiving data.
The communicating nodes have to be connected by communication links.

A Compute network should ensure reliability of the data communication

process, should c security of the data
performance by achieving higher throughput and smaller
delay times

1.6.1 Categories of Network

Networks are categorized on the basis of their size. The three basic
categories of computer networks are:

A. Local Area Networks (LAN) is usually limited to a few kilometers of

area. It may be privately owned and could be a network inside an office on
one of the floor of a building or a LAN could be a network consisting of
the computers in a entire building.

B. Wide Area Network (WAN) is made of all the networks in a

(geographically) large area. The network in the entire state
of Maharashtra could be a WAN
 C. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is of size between LAN & WAN.
It is larger than LAN but smaller than WAN. It may comprise the entire
network in a city like Mumbai.

1.7 PROTOCOL

A Protocol is one of the components of a data communications system.

Without protocol communication cannot occur. The sending device cannot
just send the data and expect the receiving device to receive and further
interpret it correctly.

When the sender sends a message it may consist of text, number, images,
etc. which are converted into bits and grouped into blocks to be transmitted
and often certain additional information called control information is also
added to help the receiver interpret the data.

For successful communication to occur, the sender and receiver must agree
upon certain rules called protocol.

A Protocol is defined as a set of rules that governs data communications.

A protocol defines what is to be communicated, how it is to be

communicated and when it is to be communicated.

1.7.1 Elements of a Protocol

There are three key elements of a protocol:
A. Syntax
It means the structure or format of the data.
It is the arrangement of data in a particular order.
B. Semantics
It tells the meaning of each section of bits and indicates the
interpretation of each section.
It also tells what action/decision is to be taken based on the
interpretation.

C. Timing
It tells the sender about the readiness of the receiver to receive the data
It tells the sender at what rate the data should be sent to the receiver to
avoid overwhelming the receiver.

1.7 STANDARDS IN NETWORKING

 Standards are necessary in networking to ensure interconnectivity and
interoperability between various networking hardware and software
components.

Without standards we would have proprietary products creating isolated

islands of users which cannot interconnect.

1.7.1 Concept of Standard

Standards provide guidelines to product manufacturers and vendors to
ensure national and international interconnectivity.

Data communications standards are classified into two categories:

1. De facto Standard
o These are the standards that have been traditionally used and mean
by fact or by convention
o These standards are not approved by any organized body but are
adopted by widespread use.

2. De jure standard o It means by law or by regulation. o These

standards are legislated and approved by an body that is officially
recognized.

1.7.2 Standard Organizations in field of Networking

o Standards are created by standards creation committees, forums, and
government regulatory agencies.

o Examples of Standard Creation Committees :

1. International Organization for Standardization(ISO)
2. International Telecommunications Union –
Telecommunications Standard (ITU-T)
3. American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
4. Institute of Electrical & Electronics Engineers
(IEEE)
5. Electronic Industries Associates (EIA)

o Examples of Forums
1. ATM Forum
2. MPLS Forum
3. Frame Relay Forum

o Examples of Regulatory Agencies:

1. Federal Communications Committee (FCC)
Both guided and unguided media are used to transmit the signals or information.
Their mediums are different, but their motive is to transfer the signals. Let’s discuss
some more differences between guided and unguided media.

What is Guided Media?

Guided media is like a physical medium via which the signals are transmitted. The
guided media is used to provide a conduit from one machine to another that can
have twisted-pair, coaxial cable and fibre-optic cable. It is also known as Bounded
media.
There are four types of Guided Media which are as follows:

 Open Wire
 Twisted Pair
 Coaxial Cable
 Optical Fibre

What is Unguided Media?

Unguided transmission media are techniques that allow transmission of
electromagnetic waves through a wireless medium or we can say without using any
physical medium. It provides a mechanism for transferring electromagnetic waves
but does not direct them.
There are three types of Unguided Transmission Media which are as follows:

 Microwave Transmission
 Radio Transmission
 Infrared Transmission
Types Of Guided media:

Twisted pair:
Twisted pair is a physical media made up of a pair of cables twisted with
each other. A twisted pair cable is cheap as compared to other
transmission media. Installation of the twisted pair cable is easy, and it is
a lightweight cable. The frequency range for twisted pair cable is from 0 to
3.5KHz.

A twisted pair consists of two insulated copper wires arranged in a regular

spiral pattern.

The degree of reduction in noise interference is determined by the

number of turns per foot. Increasing the number of turns per foot
decreases noise interference.

Unshielded Twisted Pair:

An unshielded twisted pair is widely used in telecommunication. Following
are the categories of the unshielded twisted pair cable:
 o Category 1: Category 1 is used for telephone lines that have low-
speed data.
o Category 2: It can support upto 4Mbps.
o Category 3: It can support upto 16Mbps.
o Category 4: It can support upto 20Mbps. Therefore, it can be used for
long-distance communication.
o Category 5: It can support upto 200Mbps.

Advantages Of Unshielded Twisted Pair:

o It is cheap.
o Installation of the unshielded twisted pair is easy.
o It can be used for high-speed LAN.

Disadvantage:

o This cable can only be used for shorter distances because of

attenuation.

Shielded Twisted Pair

A shielded twisted pair is a cable that contains the mesh surrounding the
wire that allows the higher transmission rate.

Characteristics Of Shielded Twisted Pair:

o The cost of the shielded twisted pair cable is not very high and not very
low.
o An installation of STP is easy.
o It has higher capacity as compared to unshielded twisted pair cable.
o It has a higher attenuation.
o It is shielded that provides the higher data transmission rate.

Disadvantages

o It is more expensive as compared to UTP and coaxial cable.

o It has a higher attenuation rate.
 Coaxial Cable
o Coaxial cable is very commonly used transmission media, for example,
TV wire is usually a coaxial cable.
o The name of the cable is coaxial as it contains two conductors parallel
to each other.
o It has a higher frequency as compared to Twisted pair cable.
o The inner conductor of the coaxial cable is made up of copper, and the
outer conductor is made up of copper mesh. The middle core is made
up of non-conductive cover that separates the inner conductor from
the outer conductor.
o The middle core is responsible for the data transferring whereas the
copper mesh prevents from the EMI(Electromagnetic interference).

Coaxial cable is of two types:

1. Baseband transmission: It is defined as the process of

transmitting a single signal at high speed.
2. Broadband transmission: It is defined as the process of
transmitting multiple signals simultaneously.

Advantages Of Coaxial cable:

o The data can be transmitted at high speed.

o It has better shielding as compared to twisted pair cable.
o It provides higher bandwidth.

Disadvantages Of Coaxial cable:

o It is more expensive as compared to twisted pair cable.

o If any fault occurs in the cable causes the failure in the entire
network.
 Fibre Optic
o Fibre optic cable is a cable that uses electrical signals for
communication.
o Fibre optic is a cable that holds the optical fibres coated in plastic that
are used to send the data by pulses of light.
o The plastic coating protects the optical fibres from heat, cold,
electromagnetic interference from other types of wiring.
o Fibre optics provide faster data transmission than copper wires.

Diagrammatic representation of fibre optic cable:

Basic elements of Fibre optic cable:

o ore: The optical fibre consists of a narrow strand of glass or plastic
known as a core. A core is a light transmission area of the fibre. The
more the area of the core, the more light will be transmitted into the
fibre.
o Cladding: The concentric layer of glass is known as cladding. The
main functionality of the cladding is to provide the lower refractive
index at the core interface as to cause the reflection within the core
so that the light waves are transmitted through the fibre.
o Jacket: The protective coating consisting of plastic is known as a
jacket. The main purpose of a jacket is to preserve the fibre
strength, absorb shock and extra fibre protection.

Following are the advantages of fibre optic cable over copper:

o Greater Bandwidth: The fibre optic cable provides more

bandwidth as compared copper. Therefore, the fibre optic carries
more data as compared to copper cable.
 o Faster speed: Fibre optic cable carries the data in the form of light.
This allows the fibre optic cable to carry the signals at a higher
speed.
o Longer distances: The fibre optic cable carries the data at a
longer distance as compared to copper cable.
o Better reliability: The fibre optic cable is more reliable than the
copper cable as it is immune to any temperature changes while it
can cause obstruct in the connectivity of copper cable.
o Thinner and Sturdier: Fibre optic cable is thinner and lighter in
weight so it can withstand more pull pressure than copper cable.

UnGuided Transmission
o An unguided transmission transmits the electromagnetic waves without
using any physical medium. Therefore it is also known as wireless
transmission.
o In unguided media, air is the media through which the electromagnetic
energy can flow easily.

Unguided transmission is broadly classified into three categories:

Radio waves
o Radio waves are the electromagnetic waves that are transmitted in all
the directions of free space.
o Radio waves are omnidirectional, i.e., the signals are propagated in all
the directions.
o The range in frequencies of radio waves is from 3Khz to 1 khz.
o In the case of radio waves, the sending and receiving antenna are not
aligned, i.e., the wave sent by the sending antenna can be received by
any receiving antenna.
o An example of the radio wave is FM radio.
Applications Of Radio waves:

o A Radio wave is useful for multicasting when there is one sender

and many receivers.
o An FM radio, television, cordless phones are examples of a radio
wave.

Advantages Of Radio transmission:

o Radio transmission is mainly used for wide area networks and

mobile cellular phones.
o Radio waves cover a large area, and they can penetrate the walls.
o Radio transmission provides a higher transmission rate.

Microwaves are of two types:

 o Terrestrial microwave
o Satellite microwave communication.

Terrestrial Microwave Transmission

o Terrestrial Microwave transmission is a technology that transmits the
focused beam of a radio signal from one ground-based microwave
transmission antenna to another.
o Microwaves are the electromagnetic waves having the frequency in the
range from 1GHz to 1000 GHz.
o Microwaves are unidirectional as the sending and receiving antenna is
to be aligned, i.e., the waves sent by the sending antenna are narrowly
focussed.
o In this case, antennas are mounted on the towers to send a beam to
another antenna which is km away.
o It works on the line of sight transmission, i.e., the antennas mounted
on the towers are the direct sight of each other.

Characteristics of Microwave:

o Frequency range: The frequency range of terrestrial microwave is

from 4-6 GHz to 21-23 GHz.
o Bandwidth: It supports the bandwidth from 1 to 10 Mbps.
o Short distance: It is inexpensive for short distance.
o Long distance: It is expensive as it requires a higher tower for a
longer distance.
o Attenuation: Attenuation means loss of signal. It is affected by
environmental conditions and antenna size.

Advantages Of Microwave:

o Microwave transmission is cheaper than using cables.

o It is free from land acquisition as it does not require any land for the
installation of cables.
o Microwave transmission provides an easy communication in terrains as
the installation of cable in terrain is quite a difficult task.
 o Communication over oceans can be achieved by using microwave
transmission.

Disadvantages of Microwave transmission:

o Eavesdropping: An eavesdropping creates insecure communication.

Any malicious user can catch the signal in the air by using its own
antenna.
o Out of phase signal: A signal can be moved out of phase by using
microwave transmission.
o Susceptible to weather condition: A microwave transmission is
susceptible to weather condition. This means that any environmental
change such as rain, wind can distort the signal.
o Bandwidth limited: Allocation of bandwidth is limited in the case of
microwave transmission.

Satellite Microwave Communication

o A satellite is a physical object that revolves around the earth at a
known height.
o Satellite communication is more reliable nowadays as it offers more
flexibility than cable and fibre optic systems.
o We can communicate with any point on the globe by using satellite
communication.

How Does Satellite work?

The satellite accepts the signal that is transmitted from the earth station,
and it amplifies the signal. The amplified signal is retransmitted to another
earth station.

Advantages Of Satellite Microwave Communication:

o The coverage area of a satellite microwave is more than the terrestrial

microwave.
o The transmission cost of the satellite is independent of the distance
from the centre of the coverage area.
o Satellite communication is used in mobile and wireless communication
applications.
o It is easy to install.
 o It is used in a wide variety of applications such as weather forecasting,
radio/TV signal broadcasting, mobile communication, etc.

Disadvantages Of Satellite Microwave Communication:

o Satellite designing and development requires more time and higher

cost.
o The Satellite needs to be monitored and controlled on regular periods
so that it remains in orbit.
o The life of the satellite is about 12-15 years. Due to this reason,
another launch of the satellite has to be planned before it becomes
non-functional.

Infrared
o An infrared transmission is a wireless technology used for
communication over short ranges.
o The frequency of the infrared in the range from 300 GHz to 400 THz.
o It is used for short-range communication such as data transfer between
two cell phones, TV remote operation, data transfer between a
computer and cell phone resides in the same closed area.

Characteristics Of Infrared:

o It supports high bandwidth, and hence the data rate will be very high.
o Infrared waves cannot penetrate the walls. Therefore, the infrared
communication in one room cannot be interrupted by the nearby
rooms.
o An infrared communication provides better security with minimum
interference.
o Infrared communication is unreliable outside the building because the
sun rays will interfere with the infrared waves.
 1.2.1. Connection Oriented N/Ws Vs Connectionless N/Ws

Difference between Connection-Oriented and Connectionless Service

Data communication is a telecommunication network to send and receive

data between two or more computers over the same or different network.
There are two ways to establish a connection before sending data from
one device to another, that are Connection-
Oriented and Connectionless Service. Connection-oriented service
involves the creation and termination of the connection for sending the
data between two or more devices. In contrast, connectionless service
does not require establishing any connection and termination process for
transferring the data over a network.

Connection-Oriented Service
A connection-oriented service is a network service that was designed and
developed after the telephone system. A connection-oriented service is
used to create an end to end connection between the sender and the
receiver before transmitting the data over the same or different networks.
In connection-oriented service, packets are transmitted to the receiver in
the same order the sender has sent them. It uses a handshake method
that creates a connection between the user and sender for transmitting
the data over the network. Hence it is also known as a reliable network
service.
Suppose, a sender wants to send data to the receiver. Then, first, the
sender sends a request packet to a receiver in the form of an SYN packet.
After that, the receiver responds to the sender's request with an (SYN-
ACK) signal/packets. That represents the confirmation is received by the
receiver to start the communication between the sender and the receiver.
Now a sender can send the message or data to the receiver.

Similarly, a receiver can respond or send the data to the sender in the
form of packets. After successfully exchanging or transmitting data, a
sender can terminate the connection by sending a signal to the receiver.
In this way, we can say that it is a reliable network service.

What is a TCP?
TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) is a connection-oriented protocol that
allows communication between two or more computer devices by
establishing connections in the same or different networks. It is the most
important protocol that uses internet protocol to transfer the data from
one end to another. Hence, it is sometimes referred to as TCP/IP. It
ensures that the connection is established and maintained until the data
packet is transferring between the sender and receiver is complete.
 Connectionless Service
A connection is similar to a postal system, in which each letter takes
along different route paths from the source to the destination address.
Connectionless service is used in the network system to transfer data
from one end to another end without creating any connection. So it does
not require establishing a connection before sending the data from the
sender to the receiver. It is not a reliable network service because it does
not guarantee the transfer of data packets to the receiver, and data
packets can be received in any order to the receiver. Therefore we can
say that the data packet does not follow a defined path. In
connectionless service, the transmitted data packet is not received by the
receiver due to network congestion, and the data may be lost.

For example, a sender can directly send any data to the receiver without
establishing any connection because it is a connectionless service. Data
sent by the sender will be in the packet or data streams containing the
receiver's address. In connectionless service, the data can be travelled
and received in any order. However, it does not guarantee to transfer of
the packets to the right destination.
 What is UDP?
The UDP (User Datagram Protocol) is a connectionless protocol that allows
communication between two or more devices without establishing any
connection. In this protocol, a sender sends the data packets to the
receiver that holds the destination address. A UDP does not ensure to
deliver the data packets to the correct destination, and it does not
generate any acknowledgment about the sender's data. Similarly, it does
not acknowledge the receiver about the data. Hence, it is an unreliable
protocol.
 Connection-Oriented vs Connectionless Service

S. Comparison Connection-oriented Service Connection Less Service

N Parameter
o

1. Related It is designed and developed It is service based on the postal

System based on the telephone system. system.

2. Definition It is used to create an end to It is used to transfer the data

end connection between the packets between senders to the
senders to the receiver before receiver without creating any
transmitting the data over the connection.
same or different network.

3. Virtual path It creates a virtual path It does not create any virtual
between the sender and the connection or path between the
receiver. sender and the receiver.

4. Authenticati It requires authentication It does not require

on before transmitting the data authentication before
packets to the receiver. transferring data packets.

5. Data All data packets are received in Not all data packets are
Packets the same order as those sent received in the same order as
Path by the sender. those sent by the sender.

6. Bandwidth It requires a higher bandwidth It requires low bandwidth to

Requiremen to transfer the data packets. transfer the data packets.
t

7. Data It is a more reliable connection It is not a reliable connection

Reliability service because it guarantees service because it does not
data packets transfer from one guarantee the transfer of data
end to the other end with a packets from one end to
connection. another for establishing a
connection.

8. Congestion There is no congestion as it There may be congestion due

provides an end-to-end to not providing an end-to-end
connection between sender and connection between the source
receiver during transmission of and receiver to transmit of data
data. packets.

9. Examples Transmission Control Protocol User Datagram Protocol (UDP),

(TCP) is an example of a Internet Protocol (IP), and
connection-oriented service. Internet Control Message
Protocol (ICMP) are examples of
connectionless service.
 Ethernet- Ethernet standards ZigBee

Zigbee is a standards-based wireless technology developed to enable low-cost, low-power

wireless machine-to-machine (M2M) and internet of things (IoT) networks. Zigbee is for
low-data rate, low-power applications and is an open standard. This, theoretically, enables the
mixing of implementations from different manufacturers, but in practice, Zigbee products
have been extended and customized by vendors and, thus, plagued by interoperability issues.
In contrast to Wi-Fi networks used to connect endpoints to high-speed networks, Zigbee
supports much lower data rates and uses a mesh networking protocol to avoid hub devices
and create a self-healing architecture.

ZigBee is a Personal Area Network task group with low rate task group 4. It is a technology of
home networking. ZigBee is a technological standard created for controlling and sensing the
network. As we know that ZigBee is the Personal Area Network of task group 4 so it is based
on IEEE 802.15.4 and is created by Zigbee Alliance.

ZigBee is a standard that addresses the need for very low-cost implementation of Low power
devices with Low data rates for short-range wireless communications.
Why another short-range communication standard??

Types of ZigBee Devices:

 Zigbee Coordinator Device: It communicates with routers. This device is used

for connecting the devices.
 Zigbee Router: It is used for passing the data between devices.
 Zigbee End Device: It is the device that is going to be controlled.

General Characteristics of Zigbee Standard:

 Low Power Consumption

 Low Data Rate (20- 250 kbps)
 Short-Range (75-100 meters)
 Network Join Time (~ 30 msec)
 Support Small and Large Networks (up to 65000 devices (Theory);
240 devices (Practically))
 Low Cost of Products and Cheap Implementation (Open Source
Protocol)
 Extremely low-duty cycle.
 3 frequency bands with 27 channels.
Operating Frequency Bands (Only one channel will be selected for use in a network):
1. Channel 0: 868 MHz (Europe)
2. Channel 1-10: 915 MHz (the US and Australia)
3. Channel 11-26: 2.4 GHz (Across the World)
Advantages of Zigbee:
1. Designed for low power consumption.
2. Provides network security and application support services operating on the top of
IEEE.
3. Zigbee makes possible completely networks homes where all devices are able to
communicate and be
4. Use in smart home
5. Easy implementation
6. Adequate security features.
7. Low cost: Zigbee chips and modules are relatively inexpensive, which makes it a
cost-effective solution for IoT applications.
8. Mesh networking: Zigbee uses a mesh network topology, which allows for
devices to communicate with each other without the need for a central hub or
router. This makes it ideal for use in smart home applications where devices need
to communicate with each other and with a central control hub.
9. Reliability: Zigbee protocol is designed to be highly reliable, with robust
mechanisms in place to ensure that data is delivered reliably even in adverse
conditions.
Disadvantages of Zigbee :
1. Limited range: Zigbee has a relatively short range compared to other wireless
communications protocols, which can make it less suitable for certain types of
applications or for use in large buildings.
2. Limited data rate: Zigbee is designed for low-data-rate applications, which can
make it less suitable for applications that require high-speed data transfer.
3. Interoperability: Zigbee is not as widely adopted as other IoT protocols, which
can make it difficult to find devices that are compatible with each other.
4. Security: Zigbee’s security features are not as robust as other IoT protocols,
making it more vulnerable to hacking and other security threats.

Zigbee Network Topologies:

 Star Topology (ZigBee Smart Energy): Consists of a coordinator and several end
devices, end devices communicate only with the coordinator.
 Mesh Topology (Self Healing Process): Mesh topology consists of one
coordinator, several routers, and end devices.
 Tree Topology: In this topology, the network consists of a central node which is a
coordinator, several routers, and end devices. the function of the router is to
extend the network coverage.

Architecture of Zigbee:

Zigbee architecture is a combination of 6 layers.

1. Application Layer
2. Application Interface Layer
 3. Security Layer
4. Network Layer
5. Medium Access Control Layer
6. Physical Layer

 Physical layer: The lowest two layers i.e the physical and the MAC (Medium
Access Control) Layer are defined by the IEEE 802.15.4 specifications. The
Physical layer is closest to the hardware and directly controls and communicates
with the Zigbee radio. The physical layer translates the data packets in the over-
the-air bits for transmission and vice-versa during the reception.
 Medium Access Control layer (MAC layer): The layer is responsible for the
interface between the physical and network layer. The MAC layer is also
responsible for providing PAN ID and also network discovery through beacon
requests.
 Network layer: This layer acts as an interface between the MAC layer and the
application layer. It is responsible for mesh networking.
 Application layer: The application layer in the Zigbee stack is the highest
protocol layer and it consists of the application support sub-layer and Zigbee
device object. It contains manufacturer-defined applications.
Channel Access:
1. Contention Based Method (Carrier-Sense Multiple Access With Collision
Avoidance Mechanism)
2. Contention Free Method (Coordinator dedicates a specific time slot to each
device (Guaranteed Time Slot (GTS)))

Zigbee Applications:

1. Home Automation
2. Medical Data Collection
3. Industrial Control Systems
4. meter reading system
5. light control system
6. Commercial
7. Government Markets Worldwide
8. Home Networking
Multiple access schemes are used to allow many mobile users to share
simultaneously a finite amount of radio spectrum.

Multiple Access Techniques

In wireless communication systems, it is often desirable to allow the
subscriber to send information simultaneously from the mobile station to
the base station while receiving information from the base station to the
mobile station.
A cellular system divides any given area into cells where a mobile unit in
each cell communicates with a base station. The main aim in the cellular
system design is to be able to increase the capacity of the channel,
i.e., to handle as many calls as possible in a given bandwidth with a
sufficient level of quality of service.
There are several different ways to allow access to the channel. These
includes mainly the following −

 Frequency division multiple-access (FDMA)

 Time division multiple-access (TDMA)
 Code division multiple-access (CDMA)
 Space division multiple access (SDMA)
Depending on how the available bandwidth is allocated to the users, these
techniques can be classified as narrowband and wideband systems.

Narrowband Systems
Systems operating with channels substantially narrower than the
coherence bandwidth are called as Narrow band systems. Narrow band
TDMA allows users to use the same channel but allocates a unique time
slot to each user on the channel, thus separating a small number of users
in time on a single channel.
Narrowband Systems
Systems operating with channels substantially narrower than the
coherence bandwidth are called as Narrow band systems. Narrow band
TDMA allows users to use the same channel but allocates a unique time
slot to each user on the channel, thus separating a small number of users
in time on a single channel.

Wideband Systems
In wideband systems, the transmission bandwidth of a single channel is
much larger than the coherence bandwidth of the channel. Thus,
multipath fading doesn’t greatly affect the received signal within a
wideband channel, and frequency selective fades occur only in a small
fraction of the signal bandwidth.

Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)

FDMA is the basic technology for advanced mobile phone services. The
features of FDMA are as follows.

FDMA allots a different sub-band of frequency to each different user to

access the network.
If FDMA is not in use, the channel is left idle instead of allotting to the
other users.
FDMA is implemented in Narrowband systems and it is less complex than
TDMA.
Tight filtering is done here to reduce adjacent channel interference.
The base station BS and mobile station MS, transmit and receive
simultaneously and continuously in FDMA.
Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)
In the cases where continuous transmission is not required, there TDMA is
used instead of FDMA. The features of TDMA include the following.

TDMA shares a single carrier frequency with several users where each
users makes use of non-overlapping time slots.
Data transmission in TDMA is not continuous, but occurs in bursts. Hence
handsoff process is simpler.
TDMA uses different time slots for transmission and reception thus
duplexers are not required.
TDMA has an advantage that is possible to allocate different numbers of
time slots per frame to different users.
Bandwidth can be supplied on demand to different users by concatenating
or reassigning time slot based on priority.
Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
Code division multiple access technique is an example of multiple access
where several transmitters use a single channel to send information
simultaneously. Its features are as follows.

In CDMA every user uses the full available spectrum instead of getting
allotted by separate frequency.
CDMA is much recommended for voice and data communications.
While multiple codes occupy the same channel in CDMA, the users having
same code can communicate with each other.
CDMA offers more air-space capacity than TDMA.
The hands-off between base stations is very well handled by CDMA.
Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA)
Space division multiple access or spatial division multiple access is a
technique which is MIMO (multiple-input multiple-output) architecture and
used mostly in wireless and satellite communication. It has the following
features.
All users can communicate at the same time using the same channel.
SDMA is completely free from interference.
A single satellite can communicate with more satellites receivers of the
same frequency.
The directional spot-beam antennas are used and hence the base station
in SDMA, can track a moving user.
Controls the radiated energy for each user in space.
Spread Spectrum Multiple Access
Spread spectrum multiple access (SSMA) uses signals which have a
transmission bandwidth whose magnitude is greater than the minimum
required RF bandwidth.
There are two main types of spread spectrum multiple access techniques
−
Frequency hopped spread spectrum (FHSS)
Direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS)
Frequency Hopped Spread Spectrum (FHSS)
This is a digital multiple access system in which the carrier frequencies of
the individual users are varied in a pseudo random fashion within a
wideband channel. The digital data is broken into uniform sized bursts
which is then transmitted on different carrier frequencies.
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)
This is the most commonly used technology for CDMA. In DS-SS, the
message signal is multiplied by a Pseudo Random Noise Code. Each user
is given his own code word which is orthogonal to the codes of other users
and in order to detect the user, the receiver must know the code word
used by the transmitter.
The combinational sequences called as hybrid are also used as another
type of spread spectrum. Time hopping is also another type which is
rarely mentioned.
Since many users can share the same spread spectrum bandwidth without
interfering with one another, spread spectrum systems become bandwidth
efficient in a multiple user environment.
Computer networks that are not connected by cables are called wireless
networks. They generally use radio waves for communication between the
network nodes. They allow devices to be connected to the network while
roaming around within the network coverage.
Types of Wireless Networks
 Wireless LANs − Connects two or more network devices using
wireless distribution techniques.
 Wireless MANs − Connects two or more wireless LANs spreading
over a metropolitan area.
 Wireless WANs − Connects large areas comprising LANs, MANs
and personal networks.
Advantages of Wireless Networks
 It provides clutter-free desks due to the absence of wires and
cables.
 It increases the mobility of network devices connected to the
system since the devices need not be connected to each other.
 Accessing network devices from any location within the network
coverage or Wi-Fi hotspot becomes convenient since laying out
cables is not needed.
 Installation and setup of wireless networks are easier.
 New devices can be easily connected to the existing setup since
they needn’t be wired to the present equipment. Also, the
number of equipment that can be added or removed to the
 system can vary considerably since they are not limited by the
cable capacity. This makes wireless networks very scalable.
 Wireless networks require very limited or no wires. Thus, it
reduces the equipment and setup costs.

Examples of wireless networks

 Mobile phone networks
 Wireless sensor networks
 Satellite communication networks
 Terrestrial microwave networks

What is VoIP?
VoIP is a name for internet telephony, allowing you to use the internet to place and receive
calls. Instead of using your desk phone or your mobile phone to make calls, you can use an
application on your computer or an app on your phone to make calls. It’s a fairly well known
technology, especially when it comes to those looking to run a business, control costs, and
provide communication tools to a large team. The cost savings and rich feature set are
enticing to savvy business leaders.

VoIP and Unified Communications

If you’re a modern business, your organization likely needs more than just
a telephone. In that case, you’re likely interested in a richer feature set
including; instant messaging, video calls, media distribution (sending files
and images), conferencing and more. You will likely be very interested in a
new protocol SIP – that builds on the framework of VOIP but also provides
this additional functionality and more.
Why would you use VoIP & Unified
Communications?
When considering making a change, it’s important to understand the
value of the new solution. In order to make a solid business case to make
a change in your organization you should ensure there are strong reasons
to support the change. A few of the key reasons to adopt a VoIP or SIP-
based Unified Communications platform are as follows:
Affordability of VoIP & Unified Communications
The cost of provisioning is much lower with a VoIP or SIP-based solution.
International or long distance calls are significantly less expensive. Today,
many mobile providers block international calls by default as a courtesy,
but it can be challenging to enable long-distance on certain corporate
accounts.
Scalability of VoIP & Unified Communications
Your network administrator can provision and remove accounts quickly
and simply through an admin interface. You don’t need to call in a service
person to install lines, or reroute lines – everything is digital. Your admin
team can make changes from anywhere in the world. A cloud-based
provider also means you have powerful scalability behind your technical
infrastructure.
Reliability of VoIP & Unified Communications
You can identify the right balance of reliability and cost for your business.
There is a wide variety of providers that ensure a high Quality of Service,
and you have the control to make changes to your provider to ensure your
team gets an excellent experience.
Independent Network Access
Unlike dedicated services that fix your phone service to a specific address,
you can take your number, your configurations, and your settings to a
wide variety of partners. You have control of where your network goes
and what provider connects your team to your customers.
Redundancy and Disaster Recovery
The SIP protocol has re-routing built right in, and most providers have
highly redundant environments that can be managed from anywhere in
the world.
What are VoIP providers?
VoIP providers are companies and services that allow you to connect and
make calls. You need to download software on your phone or computer
and connect to a VoIP provider in order to place and accept calls. Rather
than sourcing software and finding a provider and exploring if the
combination is a match, CounterPath provides many ways you can quickly
and easily download and go with their tools. As a small business, you can
download Bria Teams and quickly and easily get up and running and bring
the rest of your team on the account. If you’re an enterprise or large
business, implementing the Stretto Platform by CounterPath allows you to
have a centralized admin for creating and rolling out new accounts. Your
admin team can have full control of all settings and configurations and roll
out new accounts based on roles and pre-configured settings. Your team
just has to download the software, log in, and everything auto-configures
for them according to your specifications. They just download, login and
they’re ready to go.
Topic 2 : Principle of Layering concept
1 INTRODUCTION

In the study of computer networks it is essential to study the way our

networks work. Computer networks are operated by network models; most
prominently the OSIRM and the TCP/ IP Model. This chapter gives the
understanding of the OSI reference model.

4.2 CONCEPT OF LAYERED TASK

i. The main objective of a computer network is to be able to transfer the

data from sender to receiver. This task can be done by breaking it into
small sub tasks, each of which are well defined.
ii. Each subtask will have its own process or processes to do and will take
specific inputs and give specific outputs to the subtask before or after it.
In more technical terms we can call these sub tasks as layers.

iii. In general, every task or job can be done by dividing it into sub task or
layers. Consider the example of sending a letter where the sender is in
City A and receiver is in city B.

iv. The process of sending letter is shown below:

 Fig: Concept of layer task: sending a letter

v. The above figure shows

a. Sender, Receiver & Carrier
b. Hierarchy of layers

vi. At the sender site, the activities take place in the following descending
order:
a. Higher Layer: The sender writes the letter along with the sender and
receivers address and put it in an envelope and drop it in the
mailbox.
b. Middle Layer: The letter is picked up by the post man and delivered
to the post office
c. Lower Layer: The letters at the post office are sorted and are ready
to be transported through a carrier.

vii. During transition the letter may be carried by truck, plane or ship or a
combination of transport modes before it reaches the destination post
office.

viii. At the Receiver site, the activities take place in the following ascending
order:
a. Lower Layer: The carrier delivers the letter to the destination post
office
b. Middle Layer: After sorting, the letter is delivered to the receivers
mail box
c. Higher Layer: The receiver picks up the letter, opens the envelope
and reads it.

ix. Hierarchy of layers: The activities in the entire task are organized into
three layers. Each activity at the sender or receiver side occurs in a
particular order at the hierarchy.

x. The important and complex activities are organized into the Higher
Layer and the simpler ones into middle and lower layer.

4.3 OPEN SYSTEMS INTER CONNECTION

REFERENCE MODEL (OSIRM )

4.3.1 Introduction to OSI Model & its layers

The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) Model was developed by
International Organization for
Standardization (ISO).
ISO is the organization, OSI is the model
It was developed to allow systems with different platforms to
communicate with each other. Platform could mean hardware,
software or operating system.
 It is a network model that defines the protocols for network
communications.
It is a hierarchical model that groups its processes into layers. It has 7
layers as follows: (Top to Bottom)
1. Application Layer
2. Presentation Layer
3. Session Layer
4. Transport Layer
5. Network Layer
6. Data Link Layer
7. Physical Layer
Each layer has specific duties to perform and has to cooperate with
the layers above and below it.

4.3.2 Layered Architecture of OSI Model

The OSI model has 7 layers each with its own dedicated task.

A message sent from Device A to Device B passes has to pass through

all layers at A from top to bottom then all layers at B from bottom to top
as shown in the figure below.

At Device A, the message is sent from the top layer i.e Application Layer
A then all the layers till it reaches its physical layer and then it is
transmitted through the transmission medium.

At Device B, the message received by the physical layer passes through

all its other layers and moves upwards till it reaches its Application
Layer.
Fig: Flow of Data from Device A to Device B through various layers

As the message travels from device A to device B, it may pass through

many intermediate nodes. These intermediate nodes usually involve
only the first three layers of the OSI model as shown below.

Fig: Data Transfer through Intermediate nodes

The Data Link layer determines the next node where the message is
supposed to be forwarded and the network layer determines the final
recipient.
4.3.3 Communication & Interfaces

For communication to occur, each layer in the sending device adds its
own information to the message it receives from the layer just above it
and passes the whole package to the layer just below it. Each layer in
the receiving device removes the information added at the
corresponding layer and sends the obtained data to the layer above it.

Every Layer has its own dedicated function or services and is different
from the function of the other layers.

On every sending device, each layer calls upon the service offered by the
layer below it.

On every receiving device, each layer calls upon the service offered by
the layer above it.

Between two devices, the layers at corresponding levels communicate

with each other .i.e layer 2 at receiving end can communicate and
understand data from layer 2 of sending end. This is called peer –to –
peer communication.

For this communication to be possible between every two adjacent layers

there is an interface. An interface defines the service that a layer must
provide. Every layer has an interface to the layer above and below it as
shown in the figure below
 Fig: Communication & Interfaces in the OSI model

4.3.4 Encapsulation of Data

 Fig: Encapsulation
As shown in the figure above the data at layer 7 i.e the Application layer
along with the header added at layer 7 is given to layer 6, the
Presentation layer. This layer adds Its header and passed the whole
package to the layer below.

The corresponding layers at the receiving side removes the

corresponding header added at that layer and sends the remaining data
to the above layer.

The above process is called encapsulation

4.3.5 Description of Layers in the OSI Model

4.3.5.1 Physical Layer
I. The Physical Layer provides a standardized interface to physical
transmission media, including :
a. Mechanical specification of electrical connectors and cables,
for example maximum cable length
b. Electrical specification of transmission line
c. Bit-by-bit or symbol-by-symbol delivery

II. On the sender side, the physical layer receives the data from Data Link
Layer and encodes it into signals to be transmitted onto the medium. On
the receiver side, the physical layer receives the signals from the
transmission medium decodes it back into data and sends it to the Data
Link Layer as shown in the figure below:

Fig: Transmission of data to and from Physical Layer

III. Interface
The Physical Layer defines the characteristics of interfaces between the
devices & transmission medium.
 IV. Representation of bits
The physical layer is concerned with transmission of signals from one
device to another which involves converting data (1‘s & 0‘s) into
signals and vice versa. It is not concerned with the meaning or
interpretation of bits.

V. Data rate
The physical layer defines the data transmission rate i.e. number of bits
sent per second. It is the responsibility of the physical layer to maintain
the defined data rate.

VI. Synchronization of bits

To interpret correct and accurate data the sender and receiver have to
maintain the same bit rate and also have synchronized clocks.

VII. Line configuration

The physical layer defines the nature of the connection .i.e. a point to
point link, or a multi point link.

VIII. Physical Topology

The physical layer defines the type of topology in which the device is
connected to the network. In a mesh topology it uses a multipoint
connection and other topologies it uses a point to point connection to
send data.

IX. Transmission mode

The physical layer defines the direction of data transfer between the
sender and receiver. Two devices can transfer the data in simplex, half
duplex or full duplex mode

X. Main responsibility of the physical layer Transmission of bits from

one hop to the next.

4.3.5.2 Data Link Layer

I. The Data Link layer adds reliability to the physical layer by
providing error detection and correction mechanisms.

II. On the sender side, the Data Link layer receives the data from
Network Layer and divides the stream of bits into fixed size
manageable units called as Frames and sends it to the physical
layer. On the receiver side, the data link layer receives the stream
of bits from the physical layer and regroups them into frames and
sends them to the Network layer. This process is called Framing.
It is shown in the figure below:
 Fig: Data Link Layer: The process of Framing

III. Physical Addressing (inside / outside senders network)

a. The Data link layer appends the physical address in the header
of the frame before sending it to physical layer.

b. The physical address contains the address of the sender and

receiver.

c. In case the receiver happens to be on the same physical

network as the sender; the receiver is at only one hop from the
sender and the receiver address contains the receiver‘s physical
address.
d. In case the receiver is not directly connected to the sender, the
physical address is the address of the next node where the data
is supposed to be delivered.

IV. Flow control

a. The data link layer makes sure that the sender sends the data at
a speed at which the receiver can receive it else if there is an
overflow at the receiver side the data will be lost.

b. The data link layer imposes flow control mechanism over the
sender and receiver to avoid overwhelming of the receiver.

V. Error control
a. The data link layer imposes error control mechanism to
identify lost or damaged frames, duplicate frames and then
retransmit them.
b. Error control information is present in the trailer of a frame.
VI. Access Control
a. The data link layer imposes access control mechanism to
determine which device has right to send data in an multipoint
connection scenario.
 VII. Main Responsibility
i. The main responsibility of the data link layer is hop to hop
transmission of frames.

4.3.5.3 Network Layer

I. The network layer makes sure that the data is delivered to the receiver
despite multiple intermediate devices.

II. The network layer at the sending side accepts data from the transport
layer, divides it into packets, adds addressing information in the header
and passes it to the data link layer. At the receiving end the network
layer receives the frames sent by data link layer, converts them back into
packets, verifies the physical address (verifies if the receiver address
matches with its own address) and the send the packets to the transport
layer.

Fig: Network Layer

III. The network layer is responsible for source to destination of delivery of

data. Hence it may have to route the data through multiple networks via
multiple intermediate devices. In order to achieve this the network layer
relies on two things:
a. Logical Addressing
b. Routing

IV. Logical Addressing

The network layer uses logical address commonly known as IP
address to recognize devices on the network.

An IP address is a universally unique address which enables the

network layer to identify devices outside the sender‘s network.
The header appended by the network layer contains the actual sender
and receiver IP address.

At every hop the network layer of the intermediate node check the IP
address in the header, if its own IP address does not match with the
 IP address of the receiver found in the header, the intermediate node
concludes that it is not the final node but an intermediate node and
passes the packet to the data link layer where the data is forwarded
to the next node.

V. Routing
VI. The network layer divides data into units called packets of equal
size and bears a sequence number for rearranging on the receiving
end.

Each packet is independent of the other and may travel using

different routes to reach the receiver hence may arrive out of turn at
the receiver.

Hence every intermediate node which encounters a packet tries to

compute the best possible path for the packet. The best possible path
may depend on several factors such as congestion, number of hops,
etc

This process of finding the best path is called as Routing.

It is done using routing algorithms.

VI. The Network layer does not perform any flow control or error control

VII. Main Responsibility

The main responsibility of Network Layer is transmission of packets from
source to destination

4.3.5.4 Transport Layer

I. A logical address at network layer facilitates the transmission of
data from source to destination device. But the source and the
destination both may be having multiple processes
communicating with each other. Hence it is important to deliver
the data not only from the sender to the receiver but from the
correct process on the sender to the correct process on the
receiver. The transport layer takes care of process to process
delivery of data and makes sure that it is intact and in order.

II. At the sending side, the transport layer receives data from the
session layer, divides it into units called segments and sends it to
the network layer. At the receiving side, the transport layer
receives packets from the network layer, converts and arranges
into proper sequence of segments and sends it to the session
layer.
 Fig: Transport Layer

III. To ensure process to process delivery the transport layer makes

use of port address to identify the data from the sending and
receiving process. A Port Address is the name or label given to a
process. It is a 16 bit address. Ex. TELNET uses port address 23,
HTTP uses port address 80. Port address is also
called as Service Point Address

IV. The data can be transported in a connection oriented or

connectionless manner. If the connection is connection oriented
then all segments are received in order else they are independent
of each other and are received out of order and have to be
rearranged.

V. The Transport layer is responsible for segmentation and

reassembly of the message into segments which bear sequence
numbers. This numbering enables the receiving transport layer to
rearrange the segments in proper order.

VI. Flow Control & Error control: the transport layer also carries
out flow control and error control functions; but unlike data link
layer these are end to end rather than node to node.

VII. Main Responsibility

The main responsibility of the transport layer is process to
process delivery of the entire message.
4.3.5.5 Session Layer
I. The session layer establishes a session between the
communicating devices called dialog and synchronizes their
interaction. It is the responsibility of the session layer to
establish and synchronize the dialogs. It is also called the
network dialog controller.
 II. The session layer at the sending side accepts data from the
presentation layer adds checkpoints to it called syn bits and
passes the data to the transport layer. At the receiving end the
session layer receives data from the transport layer removes the
checkpoints inserted previously and passes the data to the
presentation layer.

III. The checkpoints or synchronization points is a way of informing

the status of the data transfer. Ex. A checkpoint after first 500
bits of data will ensure that those 500 bits are not sent again in
case of retransmission at 650th bit.

IV. Main responsibility of session layer is dialog control and

synchronizatoin

4.3.5.6 Presentation Layer

I. The communicating devices may be having different platforms.
The presentation layer performs translation, encryption and
compression of data.

II. The presentation layer at sending side receives the data from the
application layer adds header which contains information related
to encryption and compression and sends it to the session layer. At
the receiving side, the presentation layer receives data from the
session layer decompresses and decrypts the data as required and
translates it back as per the encoding scheme used at the receiver.
 Fig : Presentation Layer

III. Translation
The sending and receiving devices may run on different platforms
(hardware, software and operating system). Hence it is important that
they understand the messages that are used for communicating. Hence a
translation service may be required which is provided by the
Presentation layers

IV. Compression
Compression ensures faster data transfer. The data compressed at sender has to be
decompressed at the receiving end, both performed by the Presentation layer.

V. Encryption
It is the process of transforming the original message to change its
meaning before sending it. The reverse process called decryption has to
be performed at the receiving end to recover the original message from
the encrypted message.

VI. Main responsibility

The main responsibility of the Presentation layer is translation,
compression and encryption.

4.3.5.7Application Layer
I. The application layer enables the user
to communicate its data to the receiver by providing certain
services. For ex. Email is sent using X.400 service.
 Fig : Application Layer

II. X500 is a directory service used to provide

information and access to distributed objects

III. X400 is services that provides basis for mail storage and
forwarding

IV. FTAM (File transfer, access and management) provides

access to files stored on remote computers and mechanism for
transfer and manage them locally.

V. Main Responsibility
Main Responsibility of Application layer is to provide access to
network resources.

What is the TCP/IP Model?

TCP/IP Model helps you to determine how a specific computer should be
connected to the internet and how data should be transmitted between them. It
helps you to create a virtual network when multiple computer networks are
connected together. The purpose of TCP/IP model is to allow communication
over large distances.
TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol/ Internet Protocol. TCP/IP
Stack is specifically designed as a model to offer highly reliable and end-to-end
byte stream over an unreliable internetwork.

TCP Characteristics
Here, are the essential characteristics of TCP IP protocol:

 Support for a flexible TCP/IP architecture

 Adding more system to a network is easy.
 In TCP IP protocols suite, the network remains intact until the source, and
destination machines were functioning properly.
 TCP is a connection-oriented protocol.
 TCP offers reliability and ensures that data which arrives out of sequence
should put back into order.
 TCP allows you to implement flow control, so sender never overpowers a
receiver with data.

Four Layers of TCP/IP model

In this TCP/IP tutorial, we will explain different layers and their functionalities in
TCP/IP model:
The functionality of the TCP IP model is divided into four layers, and each
includes specific protocols.

TCP/IP is a layered server architecture system in which each layer is defined

according to a specific function to perform. All these four TCP IP layers work
collaboratively to transmit the data from one layer to another.

 Application Layer
 Transport Layer
 Internet Layer
 Network Interface
 Application Layer
Application layer interacts with an application program, which is the highest
level of OSI model. The application layer is the OSI layer, which is closest to the
end-user. It means the OSI application layer allows users to interact with other
software application.

Application layer interacts with software applications to implement a

communicating component. The interpretation of data by the application
program is always outside the scope of the OSI model.

Example of the application layer is an application such as file transfer, email,

remote login, etc.

The function of the Application Layers are:

 Application-layer helps you to identify communication partners,
determining resource availability, and synchronizing communication.
 It allows users to log on to a remote host
 This layer provides various e-mail services
 This application offers distributed database sources and access for global
information about various objects and services.

Transport Layer
Transport layer builds on the network layer in order to provide data transport
from a process on a source system machine to a process on a destination
system. It is hosted using single or multiple networks, and also maintains the
quality of service functions.

It determines how much data should be sent where and at what rate. This layer
builds on the message which are received from the application layer. It helps
ensure that data units are delivered error-free and in sequence.

Transport layer helps you to control the reliability of a link through flow control,
error control, and segmentation or de-segmentation.

The transport layer also offers an acknowledgment of the successful data

transmission and sends the next data in case no errors occurred. TCP is the
best-known example of the transport layer.

Important functions of Transport Layers:

 It divides the message received from the session layer into segments and
numbers them to make a sequence.
 Transport layer makes sure that the message is delivered to the correct
process on the destination machine.
 It also makes sure that the entire message arrives without any error else it
should be retransmitted.

Internet Layer
An internet layer is a second layer of TCP/IP layes of the TCP/IP model. It is also
known as a network layer. The main work of this layer is to send the packets
from any network, and any computer still they reach the destination
irrespective of the route they take.

The Internet layer offers the functional and procedural method for transferring
variable length data sequences from one node to another with the help of
various networks.

Message delivery at the network layer does not give any guaranteed to be
reliable network layer protocol.

Layer-management protocols that belong to the network layer are:

1. Routing protocols
2. Multicast group management
3. Network-layer address assignment.
 The Network Interface Layer
Network Interface Layer is this layer of the four-layer TCP/IP model. This layer is
also called a network access layer. It helps you to defines details of how data
should be sent using the network.

It also includes how bits should optically be signaled by hardware devices which
directly interfaces with a network medium, like coaxial, optical, coaxial, fiber, or
twisted-pair cables.

A network layer is a combination of the data line and defined in the article of OSI
reference model. This layer defines how the data should be sent physically
through the network. This layer is responsible for the transmission of the data
between two devices on the same network.

Here, are some important differences between the OSI and TCP/IP model:
OSI Model TCP/IP model
It is developed by ISO (International Standard It is developed by ARPANET (Advanced
Organization) Research Project Agency Network).
TCP/IP doesn’t have any clear
OSI model provides a clear distinction
distinguishing points between services,
between interfaces, services, and protocols.
interfaces, and protocols.
TCP refers to Transmission Control
OSI refers to Open Systems Interconnection.
Protocol.
OSI uses the network layer to define routing
TCP/IP uses only the Internet layer.
standards and protocols.
OSI follows a vertical approach. TCP/IP follows a horizontal approach.
OSI model use two separate layers physical
and data link to define the functionality of the TCP/IP uses only one layer (link).
bottom layers.
OSI layers have seven layers. TCP/IP has four layers.
OSI model, the transport layer is only A layer of the TCP/IP model is both
connection-oriented. connection-oriented and connectionless.
In TCP, physical and data link are both
In the OSI model, the data link layer and
combined as a single host-to-network
physical are separate layers.
layer.
Session and presentation layers are not a part There is no session and presentation layer
of the TCP model. in TCP model.
It is defined before the advent of the
It is defined after the advent of the Internet.
internet.
The minimum size of the OSI header is 5
Minimum header size is 20 bytes.
bytes.

Most Common TCP/IP Protocols

Some widely used most common TCP/IP protocol are:

TCP:
Transmission Control Protocol is an internet protocol suite which breaks up the
message into TCP Segments and reassembling them at the receiving side.

IP:
An Internet Protocol address that is also known as an IP address is a numerical
label. It is assigned to each device that is connected to a computer network
which uses the IP for communication. Its routing function allows
internetworking and essentially establishes the Internet. Combination of IP with
a TCP allows developing a virtual connection between a destination and a
source.

HTTP:
The Hypertext Transfer Protocol is a foundation of the World Wide Web. It is
used for transferring webpages and other such resources from the HTTP server
or web server to the web client or the HTTP client. Whenever you use a web
browser like Google Chrome or Firefox, you are using a web client. It helps HTTP
to transfer web pages that you request from the remote servers.

SMTP:
SMTP stands for Simple mail transfer protocol. This protocol supports the e-
mail is known as a simple mail transfer protocol. This protocol helps you to send
the data to another e-mail address.

SNMP:
SNMP stands for Simple Network Management Protocol. It is a framework which
is used for managing the devices on the internet by using the TCP/IP protocol.

DNS:
DNS stands for Domain Name System. An IP address that is used to identify the
connection of a host to the internet uniquely. However, users prefer to use
names instead of addresses for that DNS.

TELNET:
TELNET stands for Terminal Network. It establishes the connection between the
local and remote computer. It established connection in such a manner that you
can simulate your local system at the remote system.

FTP:
FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol. It is a mostly used standard protocol for
transmitting the files from one machine to another.

Advantages of the TCP/IP model

Here, are pros/benefits of using the TCP/IP model:
  It helps you to establish/set up a connection between different types of
computers.
 It operates independently of the operating system.
 It supports many routing-protocols.
 It enables the internetworking between the organizations.
 TCP/IP model has a highly scalable client-server architecture.
 It can be operated independently.
 Supports a number of routing protocols.
 It can be used to establish a connection between two computers.

Disadvantages of the TCP/IP model

Here, are few drawbacks of using the TCP/IP model:

 TCP/IP is a complicated model to set up and manage.

 The shallow/overhead of TCP/IP is higher-than IPX (Internetwork Packet
Exchange).
 In this, model the transport layer does not guarantee delivery of packets.
 Replacing protocol in TCP/IP is not easy.
 It has no clear separation from its services, interfaces, and protocols.

 DNS stands for Domain Name System.

 TELNET stands for Terminal Network. It establishes the connection
between the local and remote computer
 FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol. It is a mostly used standard protocol
for transmitting the files from one machine to another.
 The biggest benefit of TCP/IP model is that it helps you to establish/set up
a connection between different types of computers.
 TCP/IP is a complicated model to set up and manage.
 What are the different types of TCP/IP layers?
There are four types of TCP/IP layers.
1. Application layer
2. Transport layer
3. Internet layer
4. Network interface
 Topic 3 : Link Layer Communication

Data Link Layer is second layer of OSI Layered Model. This layer is one of the most
complicated layers and has complex functionalities and liabilities. Data link layer hides the
details of underlying hardware and represents itself to upper layer as the medium to
communicate.
Data link layer works between two hosts which are directly connected in some sense. This
direct connection could be point to point or broadcast. Systems on broadcast network are
said to be on same link. The work of data link layer tends to get more complex when it is
dealing with multiple hosts on single collision domain.
Data link layer is responsible for converting data stream to signals bit by bit and to send that
over the underlying hardware. At the receiving end, Data link layer picks up data from
hardware which are in the form of electrical signals, assembles them in a recognizable frame
format, and hands over to upper layer.
Data link layer has two sub-layers:
 Logical Link Control: It deals with protocols, flow-control, and error control
 Media Access Control: It deals with actual control of media

Functionality of Data-link Layer

Data link layer does many tasks on behalf of upper layer. These are:
 Framing
Data-link layer takes packets from Network Layer and encapsulates them into
Frames.Then, it sends each frame bit-by-bit on the hardware. At receiver’ end, data
link layer picks up signals from hardware and assembles them into frames.
 Addressing
Data-link layer provides layer-2 hardware addressing mechanism. Hardware address
is assumed to be unique on the link. It is encoded into hardware at the time of
manufacturing.
 Synchronization
When data frames are sent on the link, both machines must be synchronized in order
to transfer to take place.
 Error Control
Sometimes signals may have encountered problem in transition and the bits are
flipped.These errors are detected and attempted to recover actual data bits. It also
provides error reporting mechanism to the sender.
 Flow Control
Stations on same link may have different speed or capacity. Data-link layer ensures
flow control that enables both machine to exchange data on same speed.
  Multi-Access
When host on the shared link tries to transfer the data, it has a high probability of
collision. Data-link layer provides mechanism such as CSMA/CD to equip capability
of accessing a shared media among multiple Systems.

Error detection and correction techniques

3.1.1 Types of Errors

• When bits flow from 1 point to another, they are subject to unpredictable-changes ‘.’ of
interference.
• The interference can change the shape of the signal.
• Two types of errors:Single
1) -bit error 2) Burst
-error.

1 -Bit
Only 1 bit of a given data is changed
→from 1 to 0 or
→from 0 to 1(Figure 10.1a ).
2 Burst

→from 1 to 0 or
→from 0 to 1 (Figure 10.1b).

→data-rate and
→duration of noise.

3.1.
redundan
• The central concept in detecting/correcting errors is .
• Some extra
-bits along with the data have to be sent to detect/correct errors. These extra bits are
called redundant
-bits.
• The redundant
-bits are
→added by the sender and
→removed by the receiver.
• The presence of redundant
-bits allows the receiver to detect/correct errors.
3.1.3 Error Detection vs. Error Correction
• Error-correction is more difficult than error-detection.
1) Error Detection
Here, we are checking whether any error has occurred or not.
The answer is a simple YES or NO.
We are not interested in the number of corrupted-bits.
2) Error Correction
Here, we need to know
→ exact number of corrupted-bits and
→ location of bits in the message.
Two important factors to be considered:
1) Number of errors and
2) Message-size.

3-3
3.1.4 Coding
• Redundancy is achieved through various coding-schemes.
1) Sender adds redundant-bits to the data-bits. This process creates a relationship
between → redundant-bits and
→ data-bits.
2) Receiver checks the relationship between redundant-bits & data-bits to
detect/correct errors.
• Two important factors to be considered:
1) Ratio of redundant-bits to the data-bits and 2) Robustness of the process.
• Two broad categories of coding schemes: 1) Block-coding and 2) Convolution coding.

3.2 Block Coding

• The message is divided into k-bit blocks. These blocks are called data-words.
• Here, r-redundant-bits are added to each block to make the length n=k+r.
• The resulting n-bit blocks are called code-words.
• Since n>k, the number of possible code-words is larger than the number of possible data-words.
• Block-coding process is 1-to-1; the same data-word is always encoded as the same code-word.
• Thus, we have 2n-2k code-words that are not used. These code-words are invalid or illegal.

3.2.1 Error Detection

• If the following 2 conditions are met, the receiver can detect a change in the original code-
word:
1) The receiver has a list of valid code-words.
2) The original code-word has changed to an invalid code-words.

• Here is how it works (Figure 10.2):

 1) At Sender
i) The sender creates code-words out of data-words by using a
generator. The generator applies the rules and procedures of encoding.
ii) During transmission, each code-word sent to the receiver
may change.

2) At Receiver
i) a) If the received code-word is the same as one of the valid code-
words, the code-word is accepted;
the corresponding data-word is extracted for use.
b) If the received code-word is invalid, the code-word is discarded.
ii) However, if the code-word is corrupted but the received code-
word still matches a valid
codeword, the error remains undetected.
• An error-detecting code can detect only the types of errors for which it is designed; other types
of errors may remain undetected.

In the physical layer, data transmission involves synchronised transmission of bits from the
source to the destination. The data link layer packs these bits into frames.
Data-link layer takes the packets from the Network Layer and encapsulates them into frames.
If the frame size becomes too large, then the packet may be divided into small sized frames.
Smaller sized frames makes flow control and error control more efficient.
Then, it sends each frame bit-by-bit on the hardware. At receiver’s end, data link layer picks
up signals from hardware and assembles them into frames.
 Parts of a Frame
A frame has the following parts −
 Frame Header − It contains the source and the destination addresses of the frame.
 Payload field − It contains the message to be delivered.
 Trailer − It contains the error detection and error correction bits.
 Flag − It marks the beginning and end of the frame.

Types of Framing
Framing can be of two types, fixed sized framing and variable sized framing.
Fixed-sized Framing
Here the size of the frame is fixed and so the frame length acts as delimiter of the frame.
Consequently, it does not require additional boundary bits to identify the start and end of the
frame.
Example − ATM cells.
Variable – Sized Framing
Here, the size of each frame to be transmitted may be different. So additional mechanisms are
kept to mark the end of one frame and the beginning of the next frame.
It is used in local area networks.
Two ways to define frame delimiters in variable sized framing are −
 Length Field − Here, a length field is used that determines the size of the frame. It is
used in Ethernet (IEEE 802.3).
 End Delimiter − Here, a pattern is used as a delimiter to determine the size of frame.
It is used in Token Rings. If the pattern occurs in the message, then two approaches
are used to avoid the situation −
 o Byte – Stuffing − A byte is stuffed in the message to differentiate from the
delimiter. This is also called character-oriented framing.
o Bit – Stuffing − A pattern of bits of arbitrary length is stuffed in the message
to differentiate from the delimiter. This is also called bit – oriented framing.

What is HDLC (High-level Data Link Control)?

HDLC (High-level Data Link Control) is a group of protocols or rules for
transmitting data between network points (sometimes called nodes).

In more technical terms, HDLC is a bit-oriented, synchronous data link layer protocol created
by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). The standard for HDLC
is ISO/IEC 13239:2002. ECI stands for the International Electrotechnical Commission, an
international electrical and electronic standards body that often works with the ISO.

How is HDLC used in IT networks?

HDLC is based on IBM's synchronous data link control (SDLC) protocol, which is widely
used by IBM's large customer base in mainframe computing environments. In HDLC, the
protocol that is essentially SDLC is known as Normal Response Mode.

The networking industry has used HDLC to derive several other standards used today, such
as frame relay protocols like the ISDN protocol stack known as Link Access Procedure
Balanced (LAPB). It is also the basis for the framing mechanism that utilizes Point-to-Point
Protocol (PPP) on synchronous lines used to connect multiple servers to a WAN (wide area
network) internet link, as well as Cisco HDLC framing techniques that add protocol fields to
the HDLC header.

In Normal Response Mode, a primary station -- usually at the mainframe computer -- sends
data to secondary stations that may be local or may be at remote locations on dedicated leased
lines in what is called a multidrop or multipoint network. (This is not the network we usually
think of; it's a nonpublic closed network. In this arrangement, communication is usually half-
duplex.)
Variations of HDLC are also used for the public networks that use the X.25 communications
protocol and for frame relay, a protocol used in both and WANs -- public and private.

In the X.25 version of HDLC, the data frame contains a packet. (An X.25 network is one in
which packets of data are moved to their destination along routes determined by network
conditions as perceived by routers and reassembled in the right order at the ultimate
destination.)

P2P Protocol :

What is a Peer-to-Peer Network?

It’s a network in which the computers are managed independently of one another and have
equal rights for initiating communication with each other, sharing resources, and validating
users.

Peer to Peer Network

How It Works
A peer-to-peer network has no special server for authenticating users. Each computer
manages its own security, so a separate user account might need to be created for each
computer that a user needs to access. Users usually store files on their own computers and are
responsible for ensuring that those files are appropriately backed up. In a peer-to-peer
network, each computer typically runs both client and server software and can be used to
make resources available to other users or to access shared resources on the network.

Peer-to-peer networks are simple to set up and are often ideal for small businesses that have
fewer than 10 computers and that cannot afford a server-based solution. The disadvantages of
peer-to-peer networks are poor security and lack of centralized file storage and backup
facilities.

Peer-to-Peer network architecture

A peer-to-peer network is designed around the notion of equal peer nodes simultaneously
functioning as both “clients” and “servers” to the other nodes on the network. This model of
network arrangement differs from the client–server model where communication is usually to
and from a central server. A typical example of a file transfer that uses the client-server
model is the File Transfer Protocol (FTP) service in which the client and server programs are
distinct: the clients initiate the transfer, and the servers satisfy these requests.

Peer-to-peer networks generally implement some form of virtual overlay network on top of
the physical network topology, where the nodes in the overlay form a subset of the nodes in
the physical network. Data is still exchanged directly over the underlying TCP/IP network,
but at the application layer peers are able to communicate with each other directly, via the
logical overlay links (each of which corresponds to a path through the underlying physical
network). Overlays are used for indexing and peer discovery and make the P2P system
independent from the physical network topology. Based on how the nodes are linked to each
other within the overlay network, and how resources are indexed and located, we can classify
networks as unstructured or structured (or as a hybrid between the two).

Unstructured networks
Unstructured peer-to-peer networks do not impose a particular structure on the overlay
network by design, but rather are formed by nodes that randomly form connections to each
other. (Gnutella, Gossip, and Kazaa are examples of unstructured P2P protocols).

Because there is no structure globally imposed upon them, unstructured networks are easy to
build and allow for localized optimizations to different regions of the overlay. Also, because
the role of all peers in the network is the same, unstructured networks are highly robust in the
face of high rates of “churn” – that is, when large numbers of peers are frequently joining and
leaving the network.

Unstructured Peer-to-Peer (P2P) network diagram

However, the primary limitations of unstructured networks also arise from this lack of
structure. In particular, when a peer wants to find the desired piece of data in the network, the
search query must be flooded through the network to find as many peers as possible that
share the data. Flooding causes a very high amount of signaling traffic in the network, uses
more CPU/memory (by requiring every peer to process all search queries), and does not
ensure that search queries will always be resolved. Furthermore, since there is no correlation
between a peer and the content managed by it, there is no guarantee that flooding will find a
peer that has the desired data. Popular content is likely to be available at several peers and
any peer searching for it is likely to find the same thing. But if a peer is looking for rare data
shared by only a few other peers, then it is highly unlikely that search will be successful.

Structured networks
In structured peer-to-peer networks, the overlay is organized into a specific topology, and the
protocol ensures that any node can efficiently search the network for a file/resource, even if
the resource is extremely rare.

The most common type of structured P2P networks implements a distributed hash table
(DHT), in which a variant of consistent hashing is used to assign ownership of each file to a
particular peer. This enables peers to search for resources on the network using a hash table:
that is, (key, value) pairs are stored in the DHT, and any participating node can efficiently
retrieve the value associated with a given key.