Computer system overview
Basic elements
A computer system consists of several core components.
Main components include:
● Processor
● Main Memory
● I/O Modules
● System Bus
Processor
● Function: Controls operation and performs data processing.
● Also Known As: Central Processing Unit (CPU) when there is only one
processor.
● Key Points:
○ Executes instructions
○ Manages data flow within the computer
Main Memory
● Function: Stores data and programs.
● Characteristics:
○ Volatile: Contents are lost when the computer is shut down.
○ Also known as: Real Memory or Primary Memory.
● Contrast:
○ Disk Memory: Retains data even when the computer is off.
I/O Modules
● Function: Moves data between the computer and external devices.
● External Devices Include:
○ Secondary memory devices (e.g., disks)
○ Communications equipment
○ Terminals
System Bus
● Function: Facilitates communication among:
○ Processors
○ Main Memory
○ I/O Modules
● Purpose: Ensures coordination and data exchange within the system.
Computer Components: Top-Level View
Processor Registers
● Instruction Register (IR): Stores the fetched instruction, which specifies the
action the processor must take.
● Program Counter(PC) : holds the address of the next instruction to be
executed. Under normal circumstances, the PC is incremented at the end of the
fetch stage.
● Memory Address Register (MAR): Specifies memory address for the next
read or write operation.
● Memory Buffer Register (MBR) : Holds data to be written into memory or
receives data read from memory.
● I/O Address Register (I/O AR):
○ Specifies the address of a particular I/O device.
● I/O Buffer Register (I/O BR):
○ Manages data exchange between the I/O module and the processor.
Memory Module Overview
● Structure:
○ Locations: Sequentially numbered addresses.
○ Contents: Bit patterns interpreted as instructions or data.
● Function:
○ Stores and retrieves data or instructions as needed.
Evolution of the Microprocessors
Multichip processor -
● consists of multiple separate chips working together to perform computations.
● larger and more power-consuming compared to microprocessors
● Less common in consumer devices today
Microprocessor
● Contains all the functions of a central processing unit (CPU) on a single chip.
● Initially slower than multichip processors, but now faster for most tasks due to
technological advancements.
● Modern microprocessors are not only fast but also multiprocessors
● Used in a wide range of devices, from laptops to smartphones, thanks to their
compact design and efficiency.
● There is a growing demand for numerical computation, which GPUs (Graphics
Processing Units) handle efficiently.
● DSPs(Digital Signal Processors), previously part of I/O devices, are now
becoming important computational devices in handhelds.
● Microprocessors are evolving into Systems on a Chip (SoCs), which integrate
CPUs, GPUs, DSPs, and other components on a single chip.
Instruction Execution
Basic instruction cycle
● Program Execution: Repeats the fetch and execute stages until the program
is halted.
● Halts occur if the processor is turned off, encounters an unrecoverable error,
or executes a halt instruction.
● The instruction contains bits that specify the action the processor is to take.
● The processor interprets the instruction and performs the required action.
● In general, these actions fall into four categories:
● Processor-memory: Data may be transferred from processor to memory, or
from memory to processor.
● Processor-I/O: Data may be transferred to or from a peripheral device by
transferring between the processor and an I/O module.
● Data processing: The processor may perform some arithmetic or logic
operation on data.
● Control: An instruction may specify that the sequence of execution be altered.
● Instruction format and partial list of opcodes of a hypothetical machine
● memory is organized as a sequence of 16-bit words.
● The opcode defines the operation the processor is to perform.
● 4 bits for the opcode, allowing as many as 2^4 = 16 different opcodes
● Let’s consider some partial program-
● The example program adds the contents of memory at address 940 to the
contents at address 941.The result is stored back in memory location 941.
● Requires three instructions (three fetch and three execute stages).
1. The PC contains 300, the address of the first instruction. This instruction (the
value 1940 in hexadecimal) is loaded into the IR and the PC is incremented.
2. The first 4 bits (first hexadecimal digit) in the IR indicate that the AC is to be
loaded from memory. The remaining 12 bits (three hexadecimal digits) specify
the address, which is 940.
3. The next instruction (5941) is fetched from location 301 and the PC is
incremented.
4. The old contents of the AC and the contents of location 941 are added, and
the result is stored in the AC.
5. The next instruction (2941) is fetched from location 302, and the PC is
incremented.
6. The contents of the AC are stored in location 941.
