CHAPTER 2

The Chemical Foundation of Life

Atoms are the building blocks of molecules in the universe—air, soil, water, rocks . . . and also
the cells of all living organisms. In this model of an organic molecule, the atoms of carbon
(black), hydrogen (white), nitrogen (blue), oxygen (red), and sulfur (yellow) are in proportional
atomic size. The silver rods indicate chemical bonds. (credit: modification of work by Christian
Guthier)

INTRODUCTION
Elements in various combinations comprise all matter, including living things. Some of the most
abundant elements in living organisms include carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur, and
phosphorus. These form the nucleic acids, proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids that are the
fundamental components of living matter. Biologists must understand these important building
blocks and the unique structures of the atoms that comprise molecules, allowing for cells,
tissues, organ systems, and entire organisms to form.

All biological processes follow the laws of physics and chemistry, so in order to understand how
biological systems work, it is important to understand the underlying physics and chemistry. For
example, the flow of blood within the circulatory system follows the laws of physics that
regulate the modes of fluid flow. The breakdown of the large, complex molecules of food into
smaller molecules—and the conversion of these to release energy to be stored in adenosine
triphosphate (ATP)—is a series of chemical reactions that follow chemical laws. The properties
of water and the formation of hydrogen bonds are key to understanding living processes.
Recognizing the properties of acids and bases is important, for example, to our understanding of
the digestive process. Therefore, the fundamentals of physics and chemistry are important for
gaining insight into biological processes.

Chapter Outline
2.1 Atoms, Isotopes, Ions, and Molecules: The Building Blocks
2.2 Water
2.3 Carbon
2.1 Atoms, Isotopes, Ions, and Molecules: The Building Blocks
By the end of this section, you will be able to do the following:
• Define matter and elements
• Describe the interrelationship between protons, neutrons, and electrons
• Compare the ways in which electrons can be donated or shared between atoms
• Explain the ways in which naturally occurring elements combine to create molecules, cells,
tissues, organ systems, and organisms

At its most fundamental level, life is made up of matter. Matter is any substance that occupies
space and has mass. Elements are unique forms of matter with specific chemical and physical
properties that cannot break down into smaller substances by ordinary chemical reactions.
There are 118 elements, but only 98 occur naturally. The remaining elements are unstable and
require scientists to synthesize them in laboratories.

Each element is designated by its chemical symbol, which is a single capital letter or, when the
first letter is already “taken” by another element, a combination of two letters. Some elements
follow the English term for the element, such as C for carbon and Ca for calcium. Other
elements’ chemical symbols derived from their Latin names. For example, the symbol for
sodium is Na, referring to natrium, the Latin word for sodium.

The four elements common to all living organisms are oxygen (O), carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and
nitrogen (N). In the nonliving world, elements are found in different proportions, and some
elements common to living organisms are relatively rare on the earth as a whole, as Table 2.1
shows. For example, the atmosphere is rich in nitrogen and oxygen but contains little carbon
and hydrogen, while the earth’s crust, although it contains oxygen and a small amount of
hydrogen, has little nitrogen and carbon. In spite of their differences in abundance, all elements
and the chemical reactions between them obey the same chemical and physical laws regardless
of whether they are a part of the living or nonliving world.
The Structure of the Atom
To understand how elements come together, we must first discuss the element's smallest
component or building block, the atom. An atom is the smallest unit of matter that retains all of
the element's chemical properties. For example, one gold atom has all of the properties of gold
in that it is a solid metal at room temperature. A gold coin is simply a very large number of gold
atoms molded into the shape of a coin and contains small amounts of other elements known as
impurities. We cannot break down gold atoms into anything smaller while still retaining the
properties of gold.

An atom is composed of two regions:

the nucleus, which is in the atom's
center and contains protons and
neutrons. The atom's outermost region
holds its electrons in orbit around the
nucleus, as Figure 2.2 illustrates. Atoms
contain protons, electrons, and
neutrons, among other subatomic
particles. The only exception is hydrogen
(H), which is made of one proton and
one electron with no neutrons.
Figure 2.2 Elements, such as helium, depicted here, are made up of atoms. Atoms are made up
of protons and neutrons located within the nucleus, with electrons in orbitals surrounding the
nucleus.

Protons and neutrons have approximately the same mass, about 1.67 × 10-24 grams. Scientists
arbitrarily define this amount of mass as one atomic mass unit (amu) or one Dalton, as Table 2.2
shows. Although similar in mass, protons and neutrons differ in their electric charge. A proton is
positively charged; whereas, a neutron is uncharged. Therefore, the number of neutrons in an
atom contributes significantly to its mass, but not to its charge. Electrons are much smaller in
mass than protons, weighing only 9.11 × 10-28 grams, or about 1/1800 of an atomic mass unit.
Hence, they do not contribute much to an element’s overall atomic mass. Therefore, when
considering atomic mass, it is customary to ignore the mass of any electrons and calculate the
atom’s mass based on the number of protons and neutrons alone. Although not significant
contributors to mass, electrons do contribute greatly to the atom’s charge, as each electron has
a negative charge equal to the proton's positive charge. In uncharged, neutral atoms, the
number of electrons orbiting the nucleus is equal to the number of protons inside the nucleus.
In these atoms, the positive and negative charges cancel each other out, leading to an atom
with no net charge.
Accounting for the sizes of protons, neutrons, and electrons, most of the atom's
volume—greater than 99 percent—is empty space. With all this empty space, one might ask
why so-called solid objects do not just pass through one another. The reason they do not is that
the electrons that surround all atoms are negatively charged and negative charges repel each
other.

Atomic Number and Mass

Atoms of each element contain a characteristic number of protons and electrons. The number
of protons determines an element’s atomic number, which scientists use to distinguish one
element from another. The number of neutrons is variable, resulting in isotopes, which are
different forms of the same atom that vary only in the number of neutrons they possess.
Together, the number of protons and neutrons determine an element’s mass number, as Figure
2.3 illustrates. Note that we disregard the small contribution of mass from electrons in
calculating the mass number. We can use this approximation of mass to easily calculate how
many neutrons an element has by simply subtracting the number of protons from the mass
number. Since an element’s isotopes will have slightly different mass numbers, scientists also
determine the atomic mass, which is the calculated mean of the mass number for its naturally
occurring isotopes. Often, the resulting number contains a fraction. For example, the atomic
mass of chlorine (Cl) is 35.45 because chlorine is composed of several isotopes, some (the
majority) with atomic mass 35 (17 protons and 18 neutrons) and some with atomic mass 37 (17
protons and 20 neutrons).
Isotopes
Isotopes are different forms of an element that have the same number of protons but a
different number of neutrons. Some elements—such as carbon, potassium, and uranium—have
naturally occurring isotopes. Carbon-12 contains six protons, six neutrons, and six electrons;
therefore, it has a mass number of 12 (six protons and six neutrons). Carbon-14 contains six
protons, eight neutrons, and six electrons; its atomic mass is 14 (six protons and eight
neutrons). These two alternate forms of carbon are isotopes. Some isotopes may emit neutrons,
protons, and electrons, and attain a more stable atomic configuration (lower level of potential
energy); these are radioactive isotopes, or radioisotopes. Radioactive decay (carbon-14
decaying to eventually become nitrogen-14) describes the energy loss that occurs when an
unstable atom’s nucleus releases radiation.

Carbon Dating
Carbon is normally present in the atmosphere in the form of gaseous compounds like carbon
dioxide and methane. Carbon-14 (14C) is a naturally occurring radioisotope that is created in
the atmosphere from atmospheric 14N (nitrogen) by the addition of a neutron and the loss of a
proton because of cosmic rays. This is a continuous process, so more 14C is always being
created. As a living organism incorporates 14C initially as carbon dioxide fixed in the process of
photosynthesis, the relative amount of 14C in its body is equal to the concentration of 14C in
the atmosphere. When an organism dies, it is no longer ingesting 14C, so the ratio between 14C
and 12C will decline as 14C decays gradually to 14N by a process called beta decay—electrons
or positrons emission. This decay emits energy in a slow process.

After approximately 5,730 years, half of the starting concentration of 14C will convert back to
14N. We call the time it takes for half of the original concentration of an isotope to decay back
to its more stable form its half-life. Because the half-life of 14C is long, scientists use it to date
formerly living objects such as old bones or wood. Comparing the ratio of the 14C concentration
in an object to the amount of 14C in the atmosphere, scientists can determine the amount of
the isotope that has not yet decayed. On the basis of this amount, Figure 2.4 shows that we can
calculate the age of the material, such as the pygmy mammoth, with accuracy if it is not much
older than about 50,000 years. Other elements have isotopes with different half lives. For
example, 40K (potassium-40) has a half-life of 1.25 billion years, and 235U (Uranium 235) has a
half-life of about 700 million years. Through the use of radiometric dating, scientists can study
the age of fossils or other remains of extinct organisms to understand how organisms have
evolved from earlier species.
The Periodic Table
The periodic table organizes and displays different elements. Devised by Russian chemist Dmitri
Mendeleev (1834–1907) in 1869, the table groups elements that, although unique, share
certain chemical properties with other elements. The properties of elements are responsible for
their physical state at room temperature: they may be gasses, solids, or liquids. Elements also
have specific chemical reactivity, the ability to combine and to chemically bond with each other.
In the periodic table in Figure 2.5, the elements are organized and displayed according to their
atomic number and are arranged in a series of rows and columns based on shared chemical and
physical properties. In addition to providing the atomic number for each element, the periodic
table also displays the element’s atomic mass. Looking at carbon, for example, its symbol (C)
and name appear, as well as its atomic number of six (in the upper left-hand corner) and its
atomic mass of 12.01.
The periodic table groups elements according to chemical properties. Scientists base the
differences in chemical reactivity between the elements on the number and spatial distribution
of an atom’s electrons. Atoms that chemically react and bond to each other form molecules.
Molecules are simply two or more atoms chemically bonded together. Logically, when two
atoms chemically bond to form a molecule, their electrons, which form the outermost region of
each atom, come together first as the atoms form a chemical bond.

Electron Shells and the Bohr Model

Note that there is a connection between the number of protons in an element, the atomic
number that distinguishes one element from another, and the number of electrons it has. In all
electrically neutral atoms, the number of electrons is the same as the number of protons. Thus,
each element, at least when electrically neutral, has a characteristic number of electrons equal
to its atomic number.

In 1913, Danish scientist Niels Bohr (1885–1962) developed an early model of the atom. The
Bohr model shows the atom as a central nucleus containing protons and neutrons, with the
electrons in circular orbitals at specific distances from the nucleus, as Figure 2.6 illustrates.
These orbits form electron shells or energy levels, which are a way of visualizing the number of
electrons in the outermost shells. These energy levels are designated by a number and the
symbol “n.” For example, 1n represents the first energy level located closest to the nucleus.
Electrons fill orbitals in a consistent order: they first fill the orbitals closest to the nucleus, then
they continue to fill orbitals of increasing energy further from the nucleus. If there are multiple
orbitals of equal energy, they fill with one electron in each energy level before adding a second
electron. The electrons of the outermost energy level determine the atom's energetic stability
and its tendency to form chemical bonds with other atoms to form molecules.

Under standard conditions, atoms fill the inner shells first, often resulting in a variable number
of electrons in the outermost shell. The innermost shell has a maximum of two electrons but
the next two electron shells can each have a maximum of eight electrons. This is known as the
octet rule, which states, with the exception of the innermost shell, that atoms are more stable
energetically when they have eight electrons in their valence shell, the outermost electron shell.
Figure 2.7 shows examples of some neutral atoms and their electron configurations. Notice that
in Figure 2.7, helium has a complete outer electron shell, with two electrons filling its first and
only shell. Similarly, neon has a complete outer 2n shell containing eight electrons. In contrast,
chlorine and sodium have seven and one in their outer shells, respectively, but theoretically
they would be more energetically stable if they followed the octet rule and had eight.
An atom may give, take, or share electrons with another atom to achieve a full valence shell, the
most stable electron configuration. Looking at this figure, how many electrons do elements in
group 1 need to lose in order to achieve a stable electron configuration? How many electrons
do elements in groups 14 and 17 need to gain to achieve a stable configuration?

Understanding that the periodic table's organization is based on the total number of protons
(and electrons) helps us know how electrons distribute themselves among the shells. The
periodic table is arranged in columns and rows based on the number of electrons and their
location. Examine more closely some of the elements in the table’s far right column in Figure
2.5. The group 18 atoms helium (He), neon (Ne), and argon (Ar) all have filled outer electron
shells, making it unnecessary for them to share electrons with other atoms to attain stability.
They are highly stable as single atoms. Because they are non reactive, scientists coin them inert
(or noble gasses). Compare this to the group 1 elements in the left-hand column. These
elements, including hydrogen (H), lithium (Li), and sodium (Na), all have one electron in their
outermost shells. That means that they can achieve a stable configuration and a filled outer
shell by donating or sharing one electron with another atom or a molecule such as water.
Hydrogen will donate or share its electron to achieve this configuration, while lithium and
sodium will donate their electron to become stable. As a result of losing a negatively charged
electron, they become positively charged ions. Group 17 elements, including fluorine and
chlorine, have seven electrons in their outermost shells, so they tend to fill this shell with an
electron from other atoms or molecules, making them negatively charged ions. Group 14
elements, of which carbon is the most important to living systems, have four electrons in their
outer shell allowing them to make several covalent bonds (discussed below) with other atoms.
Thus, the periodic table's columns represent the potential shared state of these elements’ outer
electron shells that is responsible for their similar chemical characteristics.

Electron Orbitals
Although useful to explain the reactivity and chemical bonding of certain elements, the Bohr
model does not accurately reflect how electrons spatially distribute themselves around the
nucleus. They do not circle the nucleus like the earth orbits the sun, but we find them in
electron orbitals. These relatively complex shapes result from the fact that electrons behave not
just like particles, but also like waves. Mathematical equations from quantum mechanics, which
scientists call wave functions, can predict within a certain level of probability where an electron
might be at any given time. Scientists call the area where an electron is most likely to be found
its orbital.

Recall that the Bohr model depicts an atom’s electron shell configuration. Within each electron
shell are subshells, and each subshell has a specified number of orbitals containing electrons.
While it is impossible to calculate exactly an electron's location, scientists know that it is most
probably located within its orbital path. The letter s, p, d, and f designate the subshells. The
subshell is spherical in shape and has one orbital. Principal shell 1n has only a single s orbital,
which can hold two electrons. Principal shell 2n has one s and one p subshell, and can hold a
total of eight electrons. The p subshell has three dumbbell-shaped orbitals, as Figure 2.8
illustrates. Subshells d and f have more complex shapes and contain five and seven orbitals,
respectively. We do not show these in the illustration. Principal shell 3n has s, p, and d subshells
and can hold 18 electrons. Principal shell 4n has s, p, d and f orbitals and can hold 32 electrons.
Moving away from the nucleus, the number of electrons and orbitals in the energy levels
increases. Progressing from one atom to the next in the periodic table, we can determine the
electron structure by fitting an extra electron into the next available orbital.

The closest orbital to the nucleus, the 1s orbital, can hold up to two electrons. This orbital is
equivalent to the Bohr model's innermost electron shell. Scientists call it the 1s orbital because
it is spherical around the nucleus. The 1s orbital is the closest orbital to the nucleus, and it is
always filled first, before any other orbital fills. Hydrogen has one electron; therefore, it
occupies only one spot within the 1s orbital. We designate this as 1s1, where the superscript 1
refers to the one electron within the 1s orbital. Helium has two electrons; therefore, it can
completely fill the 1s orbital with its two electrons. We designate this as 1s2, referring to the
two electrons of helium in the 1s orbital. On the periodic table Figure 2.5, hydrogen and helium
are the only two elements in the first row (period). This is because they only have electrons in
their first shell, the 1s orbital. Hydrogen and helium are the only two elements that have the 1s
and no other electron orbitals in the electrically neutral state.

The second electron shell may contain eight electrons. This shell contains another spherical s
orbital and three “dumbbell” shaped p orbitals, each of which can hold two electrons, as Figure
2.8 shows. After the 1s orbital fills, the second electron shell fills, first filling its 2s orbital and
then its three p orbitals. When filling the p orbitals, each takes a single electron. Once each p
orbital has an electron, it may add a second. Lithium (Li) contains three electrons that occupy
the first and second shells. Two electrons fill the 1s orbital, and the third electron then fills the
2s orbital. Its electron configuration is 1s22s1. Neon (Ne), alternatively, has a total of ten
electrons: two are in its innermost 1s orbital and eight fill its second shell (two each in the 2s
and three p orbitals). Thus it is an inert gas and energetically stable as a single atom that will
rarely form a chemical bond with other atoms. Larger elements have additional orbitals,
comprising the third electron shell. While the concepts of electron shells and orbitals are closely
related, orbitals provide a more accurate depiction of an atom's electron configuration because
the orbital the model specifies the different shapes and special orientations of all the places
that electrons may occupy.

Chemical Reactions and Molecules

All elements are most stable when their outermost shell is filled with electrons according to the
octet rule. This is because it is energetically favorable for atoms to be in that configuration and it
makes them stable. However, since not all elements have enough electrons to fill their
outermost shells, atoms form chemical bonds with other atoms thereby obtaining the electrons
they need to attain a stable electron configuration. When two or more atoms chemically bond
with each other, the resultant chemical structure is a molecule. The familiar water molecule,
H2O, consists of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. These bond together to form water,
as Figure 2.9 illustrates. Atoms can form molecules by donating, accepting, or sharing electrons
to fill their outer shells.
Scientists call the substances used in the beginning of a chemical reaction reactants (usually on
the left side of a chemical equation), and we call the substances at the end of the reaction
products (usually on the right side of a chemical equation). We typically draw an arrow between
the reactants and products to indicate the chemical reaction's direction. This direction is not
always a “one-way street.” To create the water molecule above, the chemical equation would
be:

An example of a simple chemical reaction is breaking down hydrogen peroxide molecules, each
of which consists of two hydrogen atoms bonded to two oxygen atoms (H2O2). The reactant
hydrogen peroxide breaks down into water, containing one oxygen atom bound to two
hydrogen atoms (H2O), and oxygen, which consists of two bonded oxygen atoms (O2). In the
equation below, the reaction includes two hydrogen peroxide molecules and two water
molecules. This is an example of a balanced chemical equation, wherein each element's number
of atoms is the same on each side of the equation. According to the law of conservation of
matter, the number of atoms before and after a chemical reaction should be equal, such that no
atoms are, under normal circumstances, created or destroyed.

Even though all of the reactants and products of this reaction are molecules (each atom remains
bonded to at least one other atom), in this reaction only hydrogen peroxide and water are
representatives of compounds: they contain atoms of more than one type of element.
Molecular oxygen, alternatively, as Figure 2.10 shows, consists of two doubly bonded oxygen
atoms and is not classified as a compound but as a homonuclear molecule.
Some chemical reactions, such as the one above, can proceed in one direction until they expend
all the reactants. The equations that describe these reactions contain a unidirectional arrow and
are irreversible. Reversible reactions are those that can go in either direction. In reversible
reactions, reactants turn into products, but when the product's concentration goes beyond a
certain threshold (characteristic of the particular reaction), some of these products convert
back into reactants. At this point, product and reactant designations reverse. This back and forth
continues until a certain relative balance between reactants and products occurs—a state called
equilibrium. A chemical equation with a double headed arrow pointing towards both the
reactants and products often denote these reversible reaction situations.

For example, in human blood, excess hydrogen ions (H+) bind to bicarbonate ions (HCO3-)
forming an equilibrium state with carbonic acid (H2CO3). If we added carbonic acid to this
system, some of it would convert to bicarbonate and hydrogen ions.

However, biological reactions rarely obtain equilibrium because the concentrations of the
reactants or products or both are constantly changing, often with one reaction's product a
reactant for another. To return to the example of excess hydrogen ions in the blood, forming
carbonic acid will be the reaction's major direction. However, the carbonic acid can also leave
the body as carbon dioxide gas (via exhalation) instead of converting back to bicarbonate ion,
thus driving the reaction to the right by the law of mass action. These reactions are important
for maintaining homeostasis in our blood.

Ions and Ionic Bonds

Some atoms are more stable when they gain or lose an electron (or possibly two) and form ions.
This fills their outermost electron shell and makes them energetically more stable. Because the
number of electrons does not equal the number of protons, each ion has a net charge. Cations
are positive ions that form by losing electrons. Negative ions form by gaining electrons, which
we call anions. We designate anions by their elemental name and change the ending to “-ide”,
thus the anion of chlorine is chloride, and the anion of sulfur is sulfide.
Scientists refer to this movement of electrons from one element to another as electron transfer.
As Figure 2.11 illustrates, sodium (Na) only has one electron in its outer electron shell. It takes
less energy for sodium to donate that one electron than it does to accept seven more electrons
to fill the outer shell. If sodium loses an electron, it now has 11 protons, 11 neutrons, and only
10 electrons, leaving it with an overall charge of +1. We now refer to it as a sodium ion. Chlorine
(Cl) in its lowest energy state (called the ground state) has seven electrons in its outer shell.
Again, it is more energy-efficient for chlorine to gain one electron than to lose seven. Therefore,
it tends to gain an electron to create an ion with 17 protons, 17 neutrons, and 18 electrons,
giving it a net negative (–1) charge. We now refer to it as a chloride ion. In this example, sodium
will donate its one electron to empty its shell, and chlorine will accept that electron to fill its
shell. Both ions now satisfy the octet rule and have complete outermost shells. Because the
number of electrons is no longer equal to the number of protons, each is now an ion and has a
+1 (sodium cation) or –1 (chloride anion) charge. Note that these transactions can normally only
take place simultaneously: in order for a sodium atom to lose an electron, it must be in the
presence of a suitable recipient like a chlorine atom.

Ionic bonds form between ions with opposite charges. For instance, positively charged sodium
ions and negatively charged chloride ions bond together to make crystals of sodium chloride, or
table salt, creating a crystalline molecule with zero net charge.

Physiologists refer to certain salts as electrolytes (including sodium, potassium, and calcium),
ions necessary for nerve impulse conduction, muscle contractions, and water balance. Many
sports drinks and dietary supplements provide these ions to replace those lost from the body
via sweating during exercise.

Covalent Bonds and Other Bonds and Interactions

Another way to satisfy the octet rule is by sharing electrons between atoms to form covalent
bonds. These bonds are stronger and much more common than ionic bonds in the molecules of
living organisms. We commonly find covalent bonds in carbon- based organic molecules, such as
our DNA and proteins. We also find covalent bonds in inorganic molecules like H2O, CO2, and
O2. The bonds may share one, two, or three pairs of electrons, making single, double, and triple
bonds, respectively. The more covalent bonds between two atoms, the stronger their
connection. Thus, triple bonds are the strongest.

The strength of different levels of covalent bonding is one of the main reasons living organisms
have a difficult time in acquiring nitrogen for use in constructing their molecules, even though
molecular nitrogen, N2, is the most abundant gas in the atmosphere. Molecular nitrogen
consists of two nitrogen atoms triple bonded to each other and, as with all molecules, sharing
these three pairs of electrons between the two nitrogen atoms allows for filling their outer
electron shells, making the molecule more stable than the individual nitrogen atoms. This
strong triple bond makes it difficult for living systems to break apart this nitrogen in order to use
it as constituents of proteins and DNA.

Forming water molecules provides an example of covalent bonding. Covalent bonds bind the
hydrogen and oxygen atoms that combine to form water molecules as Figure 2.9 shows. The
electron from the hydrogen splits its time between the hydrogen atoms' incomplete outer shell
and the oxygen atoms' incomplete outer shell. To completely fill the oxygen's outer shell, which
has six electrons but which would be more stable with eight, two electrons (one from each
hydrogen atom) are needed: hence, the well-known formula H2O. The two elements share the
electrons to fill the outer shell of each, making both elements more stable.

Polar Covalent Bonds

There are two types of covalent bonds: polar and nonpolar. In a polar covalent bond, Figure 2.12
shows atoms unequally share the electrons and are attracted more to one nucleus than the
other. Because of the unequal electron distribution between the atoms of different elements, a
slightly positive (δ+) or slightly negative (δ–) charge develops. This partial charge is an important
property of water and accounts for many of its characteristics.

Water is a polar molecule, with the hydrogen atoms acquiring a partial positive charge and the
oxygen a partial negative charge. This occurs because the oxygen atom's nucleus is more
attractive to the hydrogen atoms' electrons than the hydrogen nucleus is to the oxygen’s
electrons. Thus, oxygen has a higher electronegativity than hydrogen and the shared electrons
spend more time near the oxygen nucleus than the hydrogen atoms' nucleus, giving the oxygen
and hydrogen atoms slightly negative and positive charges, respectively. Another way of stating
this is that the probability of finding a shared electron near an oxygen nucleus is more likely
than finding it near a hydrogen nucleus. Either way, the atom’s relative electronegativity
contributes to developing partial charges whenever one element is significantly more
electronegative than the other, and the charges that these polar bonds generate may then be
used to form hydrogen bonds based on the attraction of opposite partial charges. (Hydrogen
bonds, which we discuss in detail below, are weak bonds between slightly positively charged
hydrogen atoms to slightly negatively charged atoms in other molecules.) Since macromolecules
often have atoms within them that differ in electronegativity, polar bonds are often present in
organic molecules.

Nonpolar Covalent Bonds

Nonpolar covalent bonds form between two atoms of the same element or between different
elements that share electrons equally. For example, molecular oxygen (O2) is nonpolar because
the electrons distribute equally between the two oxygen atoms.

Figure 2.12 also shows another example of a nonpolar covalent bond—methane (CH4). Carbon
has four electrons in its outermost shell and needs four more to fill it. It obtains these four from
four hydrogen atoms, each atom providing one, making a stable outer shell of eight electrons.
Carbon and hydrogen do not have the same electronegativity but are similar; thus, nonpolar
bonds form. The hydrogen atoms each need one electron for their outermost shell, which is
filled when it contains two electrons. These elements share the electrons equally among the
carbons and the hydrogen atoms, creating a nonpolar covalent molecule.
Hydrogen Bonds and Van Der Waals Interactions
Ionic and covalent bonds between elements require energy to break. Ionic bonds are not as
strong as covalent, which determines their behavior in biological systems. However, not all
bonds are ionic or covalent bonds. Weaker bonds can also form between molecules. Two weak
bonds that occur frequently are hydrogen bonds and van der Waals interactions. Without these
two types of bonds, life as we know it would not exist. Hydrogen bonds provide many of the
critical, life-sustaining properties of water and also stabilize the structures of proteins and DNA,
the building block of cells.

When polar covalent bonds containing hydrogen form, the hydrogen in that bond has a slightly
positive charge because the hydrogen's electron is pulled more strongly toward the other
element and away from the hydrogen. Because the hydrogen is slightly positive, it will be
attracted to neighboring negative charges. When this happens, a weak interaction occurs
between the hydrogen's δ+ from one molecule and the molecule's δ– charge on another
molecule with the more electronegative atoms, usually oxygen. Scientists call this interaction a
hydrogen bond. This type of bond is common and occurs regularly between water molecules.
Individual hydrogen bonds are weak and easily broken; however, they occur in very large
numbers in water and in organic polymers, creating a major force in combination. Hydrogen
bonds are also responsible for zipping together the DNA double helix.

Like hydrogen bonds, van der Waals interactions are weak attractions or interactions between
molecules. Van der Waals interactions can occur between any two or more molecules and are
dependent on slight fluctuations of the electron densities, which are not always symmetrical
around an atom. For these attractions to happen, the molecules need to be very close to one
another. These bonds—along with ionic, covalent, and hydrogen bonds—contribute to the
proteins' three-dimensional structure in our cells that is necessary for their proper function.

Pharmaceutical Chemist
Pharmaceutical chemists are responsible for developing new drugs and trying to determine the
mode of action of both old and new drugs. They are involved in every step of the drug
development process. We can find drugs in the natural environment or we can synthesize them
in the laboratory. In many cases, chemists chemically change potential drugs from nature
chemically in the laboratory to make them safer and more effective, and sometimes synthetic
versions of drugs substitute for the version we find in nature.
After a drug's initial discovery or synthesis, the chemist then develops the drug, perhaps
chemically altering it, testing it to see if it is toxic, and then designing methods for efficient
large-scale production. Then, the process of approving the drug for human use begins. In the
United States, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) handles drug approval. This involves a
series of large- scale experiments using human subjects to ensure the drug is not harmful and
effectively treats the condition for which it is intended. This process often takes several years
and requires the participation of physicians and scientists, in addition to chemists, to complete
testing and gain approval.

An example of a drug that was originally discovered in a living organism is Paclitaxel (Taxol), an
anti-cancer drug used to treat breast cancer. This drug was discovered in the bark of the pacific
yew tree. Another example is aspirin, originally isolated from willow tree bark. Finding drugs
often means testing hundreds of samples of plants, fungi, and other forms of life to see if they
contain any biologically active compounds. Sometimes, traditional medicine can give modern
medicine clues as to where to find an active compound. For example, mankind has used willow
bark to make medicine for thousands of years, dating back to ancient Egypt. However, it was not
until the late 1800s that scientists and pharmaceutical companies purified and marketed the
aspirin molecule, acetylsalicylic acid, for human use.

Occasionally, drugs developed for one use have unforeseen effects that allow usage in other,
unrelated ways. For example, scientists originally developed the drug minoxidil (Rogaine) to
treat high blood pressure. When tested on humans, researchers noticed that individuals taking
the drug would grow new hair. Eventually the pharmaceutical company marketed the drug to
men and women with baldness to restore lost hair.

A pharmaceutical chemist's career may involve detective work, experimentation, and drug
development, all with the goal of making human beings healthier.

2.2 Water
By the end of this section, you will be able to do the following:
• Describe the properties of water that are critical to maintaining life
• Explain why water is an excellent solvent
• Provide examples of water’s cohesive and adhesive properties
• Discuss the role of acids, bases, and buffers in homeostasis
Why do scientists spend time looking for water on other planets? Why is water so important? It
is because water is essential to life as we know it. Water is one of the more abundant molecules
and the one most critical to life on Earth. Water comprises approximately 60–70 percent of the
human body. Without it, life as we know it simply would not exist.

The polarity of the water molecule and its resulting hydrogen bonding make water a unique
substance with special properties that are intimately tied to the processes of life. Life originally
evolved in a watery environment, and most of an organism’s cellular chemistry and metabolism
occur inside the watery contents of the cell’s cytoplasm. Special properties of water are its high
heat capacity and heat of vaporization, its ability to dissolve polar molecules, its cohesive and
adhesive properties, and its dissociation into ions that leads to generating pH. Understanding
these characteristics of water helps to elucidate its importance in maintaining life.

Water’s Polarity
One of water’s important properties is that it is composed of polar molecules: the hydrogen and
oxygen within water molecules (H2O) form polar covalent bonds. While there is no net charge
to a water molecule, water's polarity creates a slightly positive charge on hydrogen and a
slightly negative charge on oxygen, contributing to water’s properties of attraction. Water
generates charges because oxygen is more electronegative than hydrogen, making it more likely
that a shared electron would be near the oxygen nucleus than the hydrogen nucleus, thus
generating the partial negative charge near the oxygen.

As a result of water’s polarity, each water molecule attracts other water molecules because of
the opposite charges between water molecules, forming hydrogen bonds. Water also attracts or
is attracted to other polar molecules and ions. We call a polar substance that interacts readily
with or dissolves in water hydrophilic (hydro- = “water”; -philic = “loving”). In contrast, nonpolar
molecules such as oils and fats do not interact well with water, as Figure 2.13 shows. A good
example of this is vinegar and oil salad dressing (an acidic water solution). We call such
nonpolar compounds hydrophobic (hydro- = “water”; -phobic = “fearing”).

Water’s States: Gas, Liquid, and Solid

The formation of hydrogen bonds is an important quality of the liquid water that is crucial to life
as we know it. As water molecules make hydrogen bonds with each other, water takes on some
unique chemical characteristics compared to other liquids and, since living things have a high
water content, understanding these chemical features is key to understanding life. In liquid
water, hydrogen bonds constantly form and break as the water molecules slide past each other.
The water molecules' motion (kinetic energy) causes the bonds to break due to the heat
contained in the system. When the heat rises as water boils, the water molecules' higher kinetic
energy causes the hydrogen bonds to break completely and allows water molecules to escape
into the air as gas (steam or water vapor). Alternatively, when water temperature reduces and
water freezes, the water molecules form a crystalline structure maintained by hydrogen bonding
(there is not enough energy to break the hydrogen bonds) that makes ice less dense than liquid
water, a phenomenon that we do not see when other liquids solidify.

Water’s lower density in its solid form is due to the way hydrogen bonds orient as they freeze:
the water molecules push farther apart compared to liquid water. With most other liquids,
solidification when the temperature drops includes lowering kinetic energy between molecules,
allowing them to pack even more tightly than in liquid form and giving the solid a greater
density than the liquid.

The lower density of ice, as Figure 2.14 depicts, an anomaly causes it to float at the surface of
liquid water, such as in an iceberg or ice cubes in a glass of water. In lakes and ponds, ice will
form on the water's surface creating an insulating barrier that protects the animals and plant
life in the pond from freezing. Without this insulating ice layer, plants and animals living in the
pond would freeze in the solid block of ice and could not survive. The expansion of ice relative
to liquid water causes the detrimental effect of freezing on living organisms. The ice crystals that
form upon freezing rupture the delicate membranes essential for living cells to function,
irreversibly damaging them. Cells can only survive freezing if another liquid like glycerol
temporarily replaces the water in them.
Water’s High Heat Capacity
Water’s high heat capacity is a property that hydrogen bonding among water molecules causes.
Water has the highest specific heat capacity of any liquids. We define specific heat as the
amount of heat one gram of a substance must absorb or lose to change its temperature by one
degree Celsius. For water, this amount is one calorie. It therefore takes water a long time to
heat and a long time to cool. In fact, water's specific heat capacity is about five times more than
that of sand. This explains why the land cools faster than the sea. Due to its high heat capacity,
warm blooded animals use water to more evenly disperse heat in their bodies: it acts in a
similar manner to a car’s cooling system, transporting heat from warm places to cool places,
causing the body to maintain a more even temperature.

Water’s Heat of Vaporization

Water also has a high heat of vaporization, the amount of energy required to change one gram
of a liquid substance to a gas. A considerable amount of heat energy (586 cal) is required to
accomplish this change in water. This process occurs on the water's surface. As liquid water
heats up, hydrogen bonding makes it difficult to separate the liquid water molecules from each
other, which is required for it to enter its gaseous phase (steam). As a result, water acts as a
heat sink or heat reservoir and requires much more heat to boil than does a liquid such as
ethanol (grain alcohol), whose hydrogen bonding with other ethanol molecules is weaker than
water’s hydrogen bonding. Eventually, as water reaches its boiling point of 100° Celsius (212°
Fahrenheit), the heat is able to break the hydrogen bonds between the water molecules, and
the kinetic energy (motion) between the water molecules allows them to escape from the liquid
as a gas. Even when below its boiling point, water’s individual molecules acquire enough energy
from other water molecules such that some surface water molecules can escape and vaporize:
we call this process evaporation.

The fact that hydrogen bonds need to be broken for water to evaporate means that bonds use a
substantial amount of energy in the process. As the water evaporates, energy is taken up by the
process, cooling the environment where the evaporation is taking place. In many living
organisms, including in humans, the evaporation of sweat, which is 90 percent water, allows the
organism to cool so that it can maintain homeostasis of body temperature.

Water’s Solvent Properties

Since water is a polar molecule with slightly positive and slightly negative charges, ions and
polar molecules can readily dissolve in it. Therefore, we refer to water as a solvent, a substance
capable of dissolving other polar molecules and ionic compounds. The charges associated with
these molecules will form hydrogen bonds with water, surrounding the particle with water
molecules. We refer to this as a sphere of hydration, or a hydration shell, as Figure 2.15
illustrates and serves to keep the particles separated or dispersed in the water.

When we add ionic compounds to water, the individual ions react with the water molecules'
polar regions and their ionic bonds are disrupted in the process of dissociation. Dissociation
occurs when atoms or groups of atoms break off from molecules and form ions. Consider table
salt (NaCl, or sodium chloride): when we add NaCl crystals to water, the NaCl molecules
dissociate into Na+ and Cl– ions, and spheres of hydration form around the ions, as Figure 2.15
illustrates. The partially negative charge of the water molecule’s oxygen surrounds the positively
charged sodium ion. The hydrogen's partially positive charge on the water molecule surrounds
the negatively charged chloride ion.

Water’s Cohesive and Adhesive Properties

Have you ever filled a glass of water to the very top and then slowly added a few more drops?
Before it overflows, the water forms a dome-like shape above the rim of the glass. This water
can stay above the glass because of the property of cohesion. In cohesion, water molecules are
attracted to each other (because of hydrogen bonding), keeping the molecules together at the
liquid-gas (water-air) interface, although there is no more room in the glass.
Cohesion allows for surface tension, the capacity of a substance to withstand rupturing when
placed under tension or stress. This is also why water forms droplets when on a dry surface
rather than flattening by gravity. When we place a small scrap of paper onto a water droplet,
the paper floats on top even though paper is denser (heavier) than the water. Cohesion and
surface tension keep the water molecules' hydrogen bonds intact and support the item floating
on the top. It’s even possible to “float” a needle on top of a glass of water if you place it gently
without breaking the surface tension, as Figure 2.16 shows.
These cohesive forces are related to water’s property of adhesion, or the attraction between
water molecules and other molecules. This attraction is sometimes stronger than water’s
cohesive forces, especially when the water is exposed to charged surfaces such as those on the
inside of thin glass tubes known as capillary tubes. We observe adhesion when water “climbs”
up the tube placed in a glass of water: notice that the water appears to be higher on the tube's
sides than in the middle. This is because the water molecules are attracted to the capillary's
charged glass walls more than they are to each other and therefore adhere to it. We call this
type of adhesion capillary action, as Figure 2.17 illustrates.
Why are cohesive and adhesive forces important for life? Cohesive and adhesive forces are
important for transporting water from the roots to the leaves in plants. These forces create a
“pull” on the water column. This pull results from the tendency of water molecules evaporating
on the plant's surface to stay connected to water molecules below them, and so they are pulled
along. Plants use this natural phenomenon to help transport water from their roots to their
leaves. Without these properties of water, plants would be unable to receive the water and the
dissolved minerals they require. In another example, insects such as the water strider, as Figure
2.18 shows, use the water's surface tension to stay afloat on the water's surface layer and even
mate there.

pH, Buffers, Acids, and Bases

The pH of a solution indicates its acidity or basicity.

You may have used litmus or pH paper, filter paper treated with a natural water-soluble dye for
use as a pH indicator, and test how much acid (acidity) or base (basicity) exists in a solution. You
might have even used some to test whether the water in a swimming pool is properly treated.
In both cases, the pH test measures hydrogen ions' concentration in a given solution.

Hydrogen ions spontaneously generate in pure water by the dissociation (ionization) of a small
percentage of water molecules into equal numbers of hydrogen (H+) ions and hydroxide (OH-)
ions. While the hydroxide ions are kept in solution by their hydrogen bonding with other water
molecules, the hydrogen ions, consisting of naked protons, immediately attract to un- ionized
water molecules, forming hydronium ions (H3O+). Still, by convention, scientists refer to
hydrogen ions and their concentration as if they were free in this state in liquid water.

The concentration of hydrogen ions dissociating from pure water is 1 × 10-7 moles H+ ions per
liter of water. Moles (mol) are a way to express the amount of a substance (which can be atoms,
molecules, ions, etc.). One mole represents the atomic weight of a substance, expressed in
grams, which equals the amount of the substance containing as many units as there are atoms
in 12 grams of 12C. Mathematically, one mole is equal to 6.02 × 1023 particles of the substance.
Therefore, 1 mole of water is equal to 6.02 × 1023 water molecules. We calculate the pH as the
negative of the base 10 logarithm of this concentration. The log10 of 1 × 10-7 is -7.0, and the
negative of this number (indicated by the “p” of “pH”) yields a pH of 7.0, which is also a neutral
pH. The pH inside of human cells and blood are examples of two body areas where near-neutral
pH is maintained.

Non-neutral pH readings result from dissolving acids or bases in water. Using the negative
logarithm to generate positive integers, high concentrations of hydrogen ions yield a low pH
number; whereas, low levels of hydrogen ions result in a high pH. An acid is a substance that
increases hydrogen ions' (H+) concentration in a solution, usually by having one of its hydrogen
atoms dissociate. A base provides either hydroxide ions (OH–) or other negatively charged ions
that combine with hydrogen ions, reducing their concentration in the solution and thereby
raising the pH. In cases where the base releases hydroxide ions, these ions bind to free
hydrogen ions, generating new water molecules.

The stronger the acid, the more readily it donates H+. For example, hydrochloric acid (HCl)
completely dissociates into hydrogen and chloride ions and is highly acidic; whereas the acids in
tomato juice or vinegar do not completely dissociate and are weak acids. Conversely, strong
bases are those substances that readily donate OH– or take up hydrogen ions. Sodium
hydroxide (NaOH) and many household cleaners are highly alkaline and give up OH– rapidly
when we place them in water, thereby raising the pH. An example of a weak basic solution is
seawater, which has a pH near 8.0 This is close enough to a neutral pH that marine organisms
have adapted in order to live and thrive in a saline environment.

The pH scale is, as we previously mentioned, an inverse logarithm and ranges from 0 to 14
(Figure 2.19). Anything below 7.0 (ranging from 0.0 to 6.9) is acidic, and anything above 7.0
(from 7.1 to 14.0) is alkaline. Extremes in pH in either direction from 7.0 are usually inhospitable
to life. The pH inside cells (6.8) and the pH in the blood (7.4) are both very close to neutral.
However, the environment in the stomach is highly acidic, with a pH of 1 to 2. As a result, how
do stomach cells survive in such an acidic environment? How do they homeostatically maintain
the near neutral pH inside them? The answer is that they cannot do it and are constantly dying.
The stomach constantly produces new cells to replace dead ones, which stomach acids digest.
Scientists estimate that the human body completely replaces the stomach lining every seven to
ten days.

How can organisms whose bodies require a near-neutral pH ingest acidic and basic substances
(a human drinking orange juice, for example) and survive? Buffers are the key. Buffers readily
absorb excess H+ or OH–, keeping the body's pH carefully maintained in the narrow range
required for survival. Maintaining a constant blood pH is critical to a person’s well-being. The
buffer maintaining the pH of human blood involves carbonic acid (H2CO3), bicarbonate ion
(HCO3–), and carbon dioxide (CO2). When bicarbonate ions combine with free hydrogen ions
and become carbonic acid, it removes hydrogen ions and moderates pH changes. Similarly, as
Figure 2.20 shows, excess carbonic acid can convert to carbon dioxide gas which we exhale
through the lungs. This prevents too many free hydrogen ions from building up in the blood and
dangerously reducing the blood’s pH. Likewise, if too much OH– enters into the system, carbonic
acid will combine with it to create bicarbonate, lowering the pH. Without this buffer system, the
body’s pH would fluctuate enough to put survival in jeopardy.
Other examples of buffers are antacids that some people use to combat excess stomach acid.
Many of these over-the-counter medications work in the same way as blood buffers, usually
with at least one ion capable of absorbing hydrogen and moderating pH, bringing relief to those
who suffer “heartburn” after eating. Water's unique properties that contribute to this capacity
to balance pH—as well as water’s other characteristics—are essential to sustaining life on Earth.

2.3 Carbon
By the end of this section, you will be able to do the following:
• Explain why carbon is important for life
• Describe the role of functional groups in biological molecules

Many complex molecules called macromolecules, such as proteins, nucleic acids (RNA and
DNA), carbohydrates, and lipids comprise cells. The macromolecules are a subset of organic
molecules (any carbon-containing liquid, solid, or gas) that are especially important for life. The
fundamental component for all of these macromolecules is carbon. The carbon atom has
unique properties that allow it to form covalent bonds to as many as four different atoms,
making this versatile element ideal to serve as the basic structural component, or “backbone,”
of the macromolecules.

Individual carbon atoms have an incomplete outermost electron shell. With an atomic number
of 6 (six electrons and six protons), the first two electrons fill the inner shell, leaving four in the
second shell. Therefore, carbon atoms can form up to four covalent bonds with other atoms to
satisfy the octet rule. The methane molecule provides an example: it has the chemical formula
CH4. Each of its four hydrogen atoms forms a single covalent bond with the carbon atom by
sharing a pair of electrons. This results in a filled outermost shell.

Hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbons are organic molecules consisting entirely of carbon and hydrogen, such as
methane (CH4) described above. We often use hydrocarbons in our daily lives as fuels—like the
propane in a gas grill or the butane in a lighter. The many covalent bonds between the atoms in
hydrocarbons store a great amount of energy, which releases when these molecules burn
(oxidize). Methane, an excellent fuel, is the simplest hydrocarbon molecule, with a central
carbon atom bonded to four different hydrogen atoms, as Figure 2.21 illustrates. The shape of
its electron orbitals determines the shape of the methane molecule's geometry, where the
atoms reside in three dimensions. The carbons and the four hydrogen atoms form a
tetrahedron, with four triangular faces. For this reason, we describe methane as having
tetrahedral geometry.
As the backbone of the large molecules of living things, hydrocarbons may exist as linear carbon
chains, carbon rings, or combinations of both. Furthermore, individual carbon-to-carbon bonds
may be single, double, or triple covalent bonds, and each type of bond affects the molecule's
geometry in a specific way. This three-dimensional shape or conformation of the large
molecules of life (macromolecules) is critical to how they function.

Hydrocarbon Chains

Successive bonds between carbon atoms form hydrocarbon chains. These may be branched or
unbranched. Furthermore, a molecule's different geometries of single, double, and triple
covalent bonds alter the overall molecule's geometry as Figure 2.22 illustrates. The
hydrocarbons ethane, ethene, and ethyne serve as examples of how different carbon-to-carbon
bonds affect the molecule's geometry. The names of all three molecules start with the prefix
“eth-,” which is the prefix for two carbon hydrocarbons. The suffixes “-ane,” “-ene,” and “-yne”
refer to the presence of single, double, or triple carbon-carbon bonds, respectively. Thus,
propane, propene, and propyne follow the same pattern with three carbon molecules, butane,
butene, and butyne for four carbon molecules, and so on. Double and triple bonds change the
molecule's geometry: single bonds allow rotation along the bond's axis; whereas, double bonds
lead to a planar configuration and triple bonds to a linear one. These geometries have a
significant impact on the shape a particular molecule can assume.
Hydrocarbon Rings
So far, the hydrocarbons we have discussed have been aliphatic hydrocarbons, which consist of
linear chains of carbon atoms. Another type of hydrocarbon, aromatic hydrocarbons, consists of
closed rings of carbon atoms with alternating single and double bonds. We find ring structures
in aliphatic hydrocarbons, sometimes with the presence of double bonds, which we can see by
comparing cyclohexane's structure to benzene in Figure 2.23. Examples of biological molecules
that incorporate the benzene ring include some amino acids and cholesterol and its derivatives,
including the hormones estrogen and testosterone. We also find the benzene ring in the
herbicide 2,4-D. Benzene is a natural component of crude oil and has been classified as a
carcinogen. Some hydrocarbons have both aliphatic and aromatic portions. Beta-carotene is an
example of such a hydrocarbon.

Isomers
The three-dimensional placement of atoms and chemical bonds within organic molecules is
central to understanding their chemistry. We call molecules that share the same chemical
formula but differ in the placement (structure) of their atoms and/or chemical bonds isomers.
Structural isomers (like butane and isobutane in Figure 2.24a) differ in the placement of their
covalent bonds: both molecules have four carbons and ten hydrogens (C4H10), but the different
atom arrangement within the molecules leads to differences in their chemical properties. For
example, butane is suited for use as a fuel for cigarette lighters and torches; whereas, isobutane
is suited for use as a refrigerant and a propellant in spray cans.

Geometric isomers, alternatively have similar placements of their covalent bonds but differ in
how these bonds are made to the surrounding atoms, especially in carbon-to-carbon double
bonds. In the simple molecule butene (C4H8), the two methyl groups (CH3) can be on either
side of the double covalent bond central to the molecule, as Figure 2.24b illustrates. When the
carbons are bound on the same side of the double bond, this is the cis configuration. If they are
on opposite sides of the double bond, it is a trans configuration. In the trans configuration, the
carbons form a more or less linear structure; whereas, the carbons in the cis configuration make
a bend (change in direction) of the carbon backbone.

In triglycerides (fats and oils), long carbon chains known as fatty acids may contain double
bonds, which can be in either the cis or trans configuration, as Figure 2.25 illustrates. Fats with
at least one double bond between carbon atoms are unsaturated fats. When some of these
bonds are in the cis configuration, the resulting bend in the chain's carbon backbone means
that triglyceride molecules cannot pack tightly, so they remain liquid (oil) at room temperature.
Alternatively, triglycerides with trans double bonds (popularly called trans fats), have relatively
linear fatty acids that are able to pack tightly together at room temperature and form solid fats.
In the human diet, trans fats are linked to an increased risk of cardiovascular disease, so many
food manufacturers have reduced or eliminated their use in recent years. In contrast to
unsaturated fats, we call triglycerides without double bonds between carbon atoms saturated
fats, meaning that they contain all the hydrogen atoms available. Saturated fats are solid at
room temperature and usually of animal origin.

Enantiomers
Enantiomers are molecules that share the same chemical structure and chemical bonds but
differ in the three-dimensional placement of atoms so that they are non-superimposable mirror
images. Figure 2.26 shows an amino acid alanine example, where the two structures are
nonsuperimposable. In nature, the L-forms of amino acids are predominant in proteins. Some D
forms of amino acids are seen in the cell walls of bacteria and polypeptides in other organisms.
Similarly, the D-form of glucose is the main product of photosynthesis and we rarely see the
molecule's L-form in nature.
Functional Groups
Functional groups are groups of atoms that occur within molecules and confer specific chemical
properties to those molecules. We find them along the “carbon backbone” of macromolecules.
Chains and/or rings of carbon atoms with the occasional substitution of an element such as
nitrogen or oxygen form this carbon backbone. Molecules with other elements in their carbon
backbone are substituted hydrocarbons.

The functional groups in a macromolecule are usually attached to the carbon backbone at one
or several different places along its chain and/or ring structure. Each of the four types of
macromolecules—proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids—has its own characteristic
set of functional groups that contributes greatly to its differing chemical properties and its
function in living organisms.

A functional group can participate in specific chemical reactions. Figure 2.27 shows some of the
important functional groups in biological molecules. They include: hydroxyl, methyl, carbonyl,
carboxyl, amino, phosphate, and sulfhydryl. These groups play an important role in forming
molecules like DNA, proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids. We usually classify functional groups as
hydrophobic or hydrophilic depending on their charge or polarity characteristics. An example of
a hydrophobic group is the nonpolar methyl molecule. Among the hydrophilic functional groups
is the carboxyl group in amino acids, some amino acid side chains, and the fatty acids that form
triglycerides and phospholipids. This carboxyl group ionizes to release hydrogen ions (H+) from
the COOH group resulting in the negatively charged COO- group. This contributes to the
hydrophilic nature of whatever molecule on which it is found. Other functional groups, such as
the carbonyl group, have a partially negatively charged oxygen atom that may form hydrogen
bonds with water molecules, again making the molecule more hydrophilic.
Hydrogen bonds between functional groups (within the same molecule or between different
molecules) are important to the function of many macromolecules and help them to fold
properly into and maintain the appropriate shape for functioning. Hydrogen bonds are also
involved in various recognition processes, such as DNA complementary base pairing and the
binding of an enzyme to its substrate, as
Figure 2.28 illustrates.
 CHAPTER 3

Biological Macromolecules
INTRODUCTION Food provides the body with the nutrients it needs to survive. Many of these
critical nutrients are biological macromolecules, or large molecules, necessary for life. Different
smaller organic molecule (monomer) combinations build these macromolecules (polymers).
What specific biological macromolecules do living things require? How do these molecules
form? What functions do they serve? We explore these questions in this chapter.

Chapter Outline

3.1 Synthesis of BiologicalMacromolecules

3.2 Carbohydrates

3.3 Lipids

3.4 Proteins

3.5 Nucleic Acids

3.1 Synthesis of Biological Macromolecules

By the end of this section, you will be able to do the following:

• Understand macromolecule synthesis

• Explain dehydration (or condensation) and hydrolysis reactions

As you’ve learned, biological macromolecules are large molecules, necessary for life, that are
built from smaller organic molecules. There are four major biological macromolecule classes
(carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids). Each is an important cell component and
performs a wide array of functions. Combined, these molecules make up the majority of a cell’s
dry mass (recall that water makes up the majority of its complete mass). Biological
macromolecules are organic, meaning they contain carbon. In addition, they may contain
hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and additional minor elements.
Dehydration Synthesis

Most macromolecules are made from single subunits, or building blocks, called monomers. The
monomers combine with each other using covalent bonds to form larger molecules known as
polymers. In doing so, monomers release water molecules as byproducts. This type of reaction
is dehydration synthesis, which means “to put together while losing water.”

In a dehydration synthesis reaction (Figure 3.2), the hydrogen of one monomer combines with
the hydroxyl group of another monomer, releasing a water molecule. At the same time, the
monomers share electrons and form covalent bonds. As additional monomers join, this chain of
repeating monomers forms a polymer. Different monomer types can combine in many
configurations, giving rise to a diverse group of macromolecules. Even one kind of monomer can
combine in a variety of ways to form several different polymers. For example, glucose
monomers are the constituents of starch, glycogen, and cellulose.

Hydrolysis
Polymers break down into monomers during hydrolysis. A chemical reaction occurs when
inserting a water molecule across the bond. Breaking a covalent bond with this water molecule
in the compound achieves this (Figure 3.3). During these reactions, the polymer breaks into two
components: one part gains a hydrogen atom (H+) and the other gains a hydroxyl molecule
(OH–) from a split water molecule.
Dehydration and hydrolysis reactions are catalyzed, or “sped up,” by specific enzymes;
dehydration reactions involve the formation of new bonds, requiring energy, while hydrolysis
reactions break bonds and release energy. These reactions are similar for most macromolecules,
but each monomer and polymer reaction is specific for its class. For example, catalytic enzymes
in the digestive system hydrolyze or break down the food we ingest into smaller molecules. This
allows cells in our body to easily absorb nutrients in the intestine. A specific enzyme breaks
down each macromolecule. For instance, amylase, sucrase, lactase, or maltase break down
carbohydrates. Enzymes called proteases, such as pepsin and peptidase, and hydrochloric acid
break down proteins. Lipases break down lipids. These broken down macromolecules provide
energy for cellular activities.

3.2 Carbohydrates
By the end of this section, you will be able to do the following:
• Discuss the role of carbohydrates in cells and in the extracellular materials of animals and
plants
• Explain carbohydrate classifications
• List common monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides

Most people are familiar with carbohydrates, one type of macromolecule, especially when it
comes to what we eat. To lose weight, some individuals adhere to “low-carb” diets. Athletes, in
contrast, often “carb-load” before important competitions to ensure that they have enough
energy to compete at a high level. Carbohydrates are, in fact, an essential part of our diet.
Grains, fruits, and vegetables are all natural carbohydrate sources that provide energy to the
body, particularly through glucose, a simple sugar that is a component of starch and an
ingredient in many staple foods. Carbohydrates also have other important functions in humans,
animals, and plants.

Molecular Structures
The stoichiometric formula (CH2O)n, where n is the number of carbons in the molecule
represents carbohydrates. In other words, the ratio of carbon to hydrogen to oxygen is 1:2:1 in
carbohydrate molecules. This formula also explains the origin of the term “carbohydrate”: the
components are carbon (“carbo”) and the components of water (hence, “hydrate”). Scientists
classify carbohydrates into three subtypes: monosaccharides, disaccharides, and
polysaccharides.
Monosaccharides
Monosaccharides (mono- = “one”; sacchar- = “sweet”) are simple sugars, the most common of
which is glucose. In monosaccharides, the number of carbons usually ranges from three to
seven. Most monosaccharide names end with the suffix -ose. If the sugar has an aldehyde group
(the functional group with the structure R-CHO), it is an aldose, and if it has a ketone group (the
functional group with the structure RC(=O)R'), it is a ketose. Depending on the number of
carbons in the sugar, they can be trioses (three carbons), pentoses (five carbons), and/or
hexoses (six carbons). Figure 3.4 illustrates monosaccharides.
The chemical formula for glucose is C6H12O6. In humans, glucose is an important source of
energy. During cellular respiration, energy released from glucose, and that energy helps make
adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Plants synthesize glucose using carbon dioxide and water, and
glucose in turn provides energy requirements for the plant. Humans and other animals that
feed on plants often store excess glucose that is catabolized (cell breakdown of larger
molecules) starch.

Galactose (part of lactose, or milk sugar) and fructose (found in sucrose, in fruit) are other
common monosaccharides. Although glucose, galactose, and fructose all have the same
chemical formula (C6H12O6), they differ structurally and chemically (and are isomers) because
of the different arrangement of functional groups around the asymmetric carbon. All these
monosaccharides have more than one asymmetric carbon (Figure 3.5).

Glucose, galactose, and fructose are isomeric monosaccharides (hexoses), meaning they have
the same chemical formula but have slightly different structures. Glucose and galactose are
aldoses, and fructose is a ketose.

Monosaccharides can exist as a linear chain or as ring-shaped molecules. In aqueous solutions

they are usually in ring forms (Figure 3.6). Glucose in a ring form can have two different hydroxyl
group arrangements (OH) around the anomeric carbon (carbon 1 that becomes asymmetric in
the ring formation process). If the hydroxyl group is below carbon number 1 in the sugar, it is in
the alpha (α) position, and if it is above the plane, it is in the beta (β) position.
Disaccharides
Disaccharides (di- = “two”) form when two monosaccharides undergo a dehydration reaction
(or a condensation reaction or dehydration synthesis). During this process, one
monosaccharide's hydroxyl group combines with another monosaccharide's hydrogen, releasing
a water molecule and forming a covalent bond. A covalent bond forms between a carbohydrate
molecule and another molecule (in this case, between two monosaccharides). Scientists call this
a glycosidic bond (Figure 3.7). Glycosidic bonds (or glycosidic linkages) can be an alpha or beta
type. An alpha bond is formed when the OH group on the carbon-1 of the first glucose is below
the ring plane, and a beta bond is formed when the OH group on the carbon-1 is above the ring
plane.
Common disaccharides include lactose, maltose, and sucrose (Figure 3.8). Lactose is a
disaccharide consisting of the monomers glucose and galactose. It is naturally in milk. Maltose,
or malt sugar, is a disaccharide formed by a dehydration reaction between two glucose
molecules. The most common disaccharide is sucrose, or table sugar, which is comprised of
glucose and fructose monomers.
Polysaccharides
A long chain of monosaccharides linked by glycosidic bonds is a polysaccharide (poly- =
“many”). The chain may be branched or unbranched, and it may contain different types of
monosaccharides. The molecular weight may be 100,000 daltons or more depending on the
number of joined monomers. Starch, glycogen, cellulose, and chitin are primary examples of
polysaccharides.

Plants store starch in the form of sugars. In plants, an amylose and amylopectic mixture (both
glucose polymers) comprise these sugars. Plants are able to synthesize glucose, and they store
the excess glucose, beyond their immediate energy needs, as starch in different plant parts,
including roots and seeds. The starch in the seeds provides food for the embryo as it germinates
and can also act as a food source for humans and animals. Enzymes break down the starch that
humans consume. For example, an amylase present in saliva catalyzes, or breaks down this
starch into smaller molecules, such as maltose and glucose. The cells can then absorb the
glucose.

Glucose starch comprises monomers that are joined by α 1-4 or α 1-6 glycosidic bonds. The
numbers 1-4 and 1-6 refer to the carbon number of the two residues that have joined to form
the bond. As Figure 3.9 illustrates, unbranched glucose monomer chains (only α 1-4 linkages)
form the starch; whereas, amylopectin is a branched polysaccharide (α 1-6 linkages at the
branch points).

Glycogen is the storage form of glucose in humans and other vertebrates and is comprised of
monomers of glucose. Glycogen is the animal equivalent of starch and is a highly branched
molecule usually stored in liver and muscle cells. Whenever blood glucose levels decrease,
glycogen breaks down to release glucose in a process scientists call glycogenolysis.
Cellulose is the most abundant natural biopolymer. Cellulose mostly comprises a plant's cell
wall. This provides the cell structural support. Wood and paper are mostly cellulosic in nature.
Glucose monomers comprise cellulose that β 1-4 glycosidic bonds link (Figure 3.10).

As Figure 3.10 shows, every other glucose monomer in cellulose is flipped over, and the
monomers are packed tightly as extended long chains. This gives cellulose its rigidity and high
tensile strength—which is so important to plant cells. While human digestive enzymes cannot
break down the β 1-4 linkage, herbivores such as cows, koalas, and buffalos are able, with the
help of the specialized flora in their stomach, to digest plant material that is rich in cellulose and
use it as a food source. In some of these animals, certain species of bacteria and protists reside
in the rumen (part of the herbivore's digestive system) and secrete the enzyme cellulase. The
appendix of grazing animals also contains bacteria that digest cellulose, giving it an important
role in ruminants' digestive systems. Cellulases can break down cellulose into glucose
monomers that animals use as an energy source. Termites are also able to break down cellulose
because of the presence of other organisms in their bodies that secrete cellulases.

Carbohydrates serve various functions in different animals. Arthropods (insects, crustaceans,

and others) have an outer skeleton, the exoskeleton, which protects their internal body parts (as
we see in the bee in Figure 3.11). This exoskeleton is made of the biological macromolecule
chitin, which is a polysaccharide-containing nitrogen. It is made of repeating N-acetyl-β-d-
glucosamine units, which are a modified sugar. Chitin is also a major component of fungal cell
walls. Fungi are neither animals nor plants and form a kingdom of their own in the domain
Eukarya.
Benefits of Carbohydrates
Are carbohydrates good for you? Some people believe that carbohydrates are bad and they
should avoid them. Some diets completely forbid carbohydrate consumption, claiming that a
low-carbohydrate diet helps people to lose weight faster. However, carbohydrates have been an
important part of the human diet for thousands of years. Artifacts from ancient civilizations
show the presence of wheat, rice, and corn in our ancestors’ storage areas.

As part of a well balanced diet, we should supplement carbohydrates with proteins, vitamins,
and fats. Calorie-wise, a gram of carbohydrate provides 4.3 Kcal. For comparison, fats provide 9
Kcal/g, a less desirable ratio. Carbohydrates contain soluble and insoluble elements. The
insoluble part, fiber, is mostly cellulose. Fiber has many uses. It promotes regular bowel
movement by adding bulk, and it regulates the blood glucose consumption rate. Fiber also helps
to remove excess cholesterol from the body. Fiber binds to the cholesterol in the small intestine,
then attaches to the cholesterol and prevents the cholesterol particles from entering the
bloodstream. Cholesterol then exits the body via the feces. Fiber-rich diets also have a
protective role in reducing the occurrence of colon cancer. In addition, a meal containing whole
grains and vegetables gives a feeling of fullness. As an immediate source of energy, glucose
breaks down during the cellular respiration process, which produces ATP, the cell's energy
currency. Without consuming carbohydrates, we reduce the availability of “instant energy”.
Eliminating carbohydrates from the diet may be necessary for some people, but such a step may
not be healthy for everyone.

3.3 Lipids
By the end of this section, you will be able to do the following:
• Describe the four major types of lipids
• Explain the role of fats in storing energy
• Differentiate between saturated and unsaturated fatty acids
• Describe phospholipids and their role in cells
• Define the basic structure of a steroid and some steroid functions
• Explain how cholesterol helps maintain the plasma membrane's fluid nature
Lipids include a diverse group of compounds that are largely nonpolar in nature. This is because
they are hydrocarbons that include mostly nonpolar carbon–carbon or carbon–hydrogen bonds.
Non-polar molecules are hydrophobic (“water fearing”), or insoluble in water. Lipids perform
many different functions in a cell. Cells store energy for long-term use in the form of fats. Lipids
also provide insulation from the environment for plants and animals (Figure 3.12). For example,
they help keep aquatic birds and mammals dry when forming a protective layer over fur or
feathers because of their water-repellent hydrophobic nature. Lipids are also the building blocks
of many hormones and are an important constituent of all cellular membranes. Lipids include
fats, oils, waxes, phospholipids, and steroids.

Fats and Oils

A fat molecule consists of two main components—glycerol and fatty acids. Glycerol is an organic
compound (alcohol) with three carbons, five hydrogens, and three hydroxyl (OH) groups. Fatty
acids have a long chain of hydrocarbons to which a carboxyl group is attached, hence the name
“fatty acid.” The number of carbons in the fatty acid may range from 4 to 36. The most common
are those containing 12–18 carbons. In a fat molecule, the fatty acids attach to each of the
glycerol molecule's three carbons with an ester bond through an oxygen atom (Figure 3.13).
During this ester bond formation, three water molecules are released. The three fatty acids in
the triacylglycerol may be similar or dissimilar. We also call fats triacylglycerols or triglycerides
because of their chemical structure. Some fatty acids have common names that specify their
origin. For example, palmitic acid, a saturated fatty acid, is derived from the palm tree. Arachidic
acid is derived from Arachis hypogea, the scientific name for groundnuts or peanuts.

Fatty acids may be saturated or unsaturated. In a fatty acid chain, if there are only single bonds
between neighboring carbons in the hydrocarbon chain, the fatty acid is saturated. Saturated
fatty acids are saturated with hydrogen. In other words, the number of hydrogen atoms
attached to the carbon skeleton is maximized. Stearic acid is an example of a saturated fatty
acid (Figure 3.14).

Most unsaturated fats are liquid at room temperature. We call these oils. If there is one double
bond in the molecule, then it is monounsaturated fat (e.g., olive oil), and if there is more than
one double bond, then it is a polyunsaturated fat (e.g., canola oil).

When a fatty acid has no double bonds, it is a saturated fatty acid because it is not possible to
add more hydrogen to the chain's carbon atoms. A fat may contain similar or different fatty
acids attached to glycerol. Long straight fatty acids with single bonds generally pack tightly and
are solid at room temperature. Animal fats with stearic acid and palmitic acid (common in meat)
and the fat with butyric acid (common in butter) are examples of saturated fats. Mammals store
fats in specialized cells, or adipocytes, where fat globules occupy most of the cell’s volume.
Plants store fat or oil in many seeds and use them as a source of energy during seedling
development. Unsaturated fats or oils are usually of plant origin and contain cis unsaturated
fatty acids. Cis and trans indicate the configuration of the molecule around the double bond. If
hydrogens are present in the same plane, it is a cis fat. If the hydrogen atoms are on two
different planes, it is a trans fat. The cis double bond causes a bend or a “kink” that prevents the
fatty acids from packing tightly, keeping them liquid at room temperature (Figure 3.16). Olive
oil, corn oil, canola oil, and cod liver oil are examples of unsaturated fats. Unsaturated fats help
to lower blood cholesterol levels; whereas, saturated fats contribute to plaque formation in the
arteries.
Trans Fats
The food industry artificially hydrogenated oils to make them semi-solid and of a consistency
desirable for many processed food products. Simply speaking, hydrogen gas is bubbled through
oils to solidify them. During this hydrogenation process, double bonds of the cis- conformation
in the hydrocarbon chain may convert to double bonds in the trans- conformation.
Margarine, some types of peanut butter, and shortening are examples of artificially
hydrogenated trans fats. Recent studies have shown that an increase in trans fats in the human
diet may lead to higher levels of low-density lipoproteins (LDL), or “bad” cholesterol, which in
turn may lead to plaque deposition in the arteries, resulting in heart disease. Many fast food
restaurants have recently banned using trans fats, and food labels are required to display the
trans fat content.

Omega Fatty Acids

Essential fatty acids are those that the human body requires but does not synthesize.
Consequently, they have to be supplemented through ingestion via the diet. Omega-3 fatty
acids (like those in Figure 3.17) fall into this category and are one of only two known for humans
(the other is omega-6 fatty acid). These are polyunsaturated fatty acids and are omega-3
because a double bond connects the third carbon from the hydrocarbon chain's end to its
neighboring carbon.
The farthest carbon away from the carboxyl group is numbered as the omega (ω) carbon, and if
the double bond is between the third and fourth carbon from that end, it is an omega-3 fatty
acid. Nutritionally important because the body does not make them, omega-3 fatty acids
include alpha-linoleic acid (ALA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA),
all of which are polyunsaturated. Salmon, trout, and tuna are good sources of omega-3 fatty
acids. Research indicates that omega-3 fatty acids reduce the risk of sudden death from heart
attacks, lower triglycerides in the blood, decrease blood pressure, and prevent thrombosis by
inhibiting blood clotting. They also reduce inflammation, and may help lower the risk of some
cancers in animals.

Like carbohydrates, fats have received considerable bad publicity. It is true that eating an excess
of fried foods and other “fatty” foods leads to weight gain. However, fats do have important
functions. Many vitamins are fat soluble, and fats serve as a long- term storage form of fatty
acids: a source of energy. They also provide insulation for the body. Therefore, we should
consume “healthy” fats in moderate amounts on a regular basis.

Waxes
Wax covers some aquatic birds' feathers and some plants' leaf surfaces. Because of waxes'
hydrophobic nature, they prevent water from sticking on the surface (Figure 3.18). Long fatty
acid chains esterified to long-chain alcohols comprise waxes.
Phospholipids
Phospholipids are major plasma membrane constituents that comprise cells' outermost layer.
Like fats, they are comprised of fatty acid chains attached to a glycerol or sphingosine backbone.
However, instead of three fatty acids attached as triglycerides, there are two fatty acids forming
diacylglycerol, and a modified phosphate group occupies the glycerol backbone's third carbon
(Figure 3.19). A phosphate group alone attached to a diacylglycerol does not qualify as a
phospholipid. It is phosphatidate (diacylglycerol 3-phosphate), the precursor of phospholipids.
An alcohol modifies the phosphate group. Phosphatidylcholine and phosphatidylserine are two
important phospholipids that are in plasma membranes.

A phospholipid is an amphipathic molecule, meaning it has a hydrophobic and a hydrophilic

part. The fatty acid chains are hydrophobic and cannot interact with water; whereas, the
phosphate-containing group is hydrophilic and interacts with water (Figure 3.20).
The head is the hydrophilic part, and the tail contains the hydrophobic fatty acids. In a
membrane, a bilayer of phospholipids forms the structure's matrix, phospholipids' fatty acid
tails face inside, away from water; whereas, the phosphate group faces the outside, aqueous
side (Figure 3.20).

Phospholipids are responsible for the plasma membrane's dynamic nature. If a drop of
phospholipids is placed in water, it spontaneously forms a structure that scientists call a micelle,
where the hydrophilic phosphate heads face the outside and the fatty acids face the structure's
interior.

Steroids
Unlike the phospholipids and fats that we discussed earlier, steroids have a fused ring structure.
Although they do not resemble the other lipids, scientists group them with them because they
are also hydrophobic and insoluble in water. All steroids have four linked carbon rings and
several of them, like cholesterol, have a short tail (Figure 3.21). Many steroids also have the –OH
functional group, which puts them in the alcohol classification (sterols).
Cholesterol is the most common steroid. The liver synthesizes cholesterol and is the precursor
to many steroid hormones such as testosterone and estradiol, which gonads and endocrine
glands secrete. It is also the precursor to Vitamin D. Cholesterol is also the precursor of bile
salts, which help emulsifying fats and their subsequent absorption by cells. Although lay people
often speak negatively about cholesterol, it is necessary for the body's proper functioning.
Sterols (cholesterol in animal cells, phytosterol in plants) are components of the plasma
membrane of cells and are found within the phospholipid bilayer.

CHAPTER SUMMARY
3.1 Synthesis of Biological

Macromolecules
Proteins, carbohydrates, nucleic acids, and lipids are the four major classes of biological
macromolecules—large molecules necessary for life that are built from smaller organic
molecules. Macromolecules are single units scientists call monomers that are joined by covalent
bonds to form larger polymers. The polymer is more than the sum of its parts: it acquires new
characteristics, and leads to an osmotic pressure that is much lower than that formed by its
ingredients. This is an important advantage in maintaining cellular osmotic conditions. A
monomer joins with another monomer with water molecule release, leading to a covalent bond
forming. Scientists call these dehydration or condensation reactions. When polymers break
down into smaller units (monomers), they use a water molecule for each bond broken by these
reactions. Such reactions are hydrolysis reactions. Dehydration and hydrolysis reactions are
similar for all macromolecules, but each monomer and polymer reaction is specific to its class.
Dehydration reactions typically require an investment of energy for new bond formation, while
hydrolysis reactions typically release energy by breaking bonds.

3.2 Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are a group of macromolecules that are a vital energy source for the cell and
provide structural support to plant cells, fungi, and all of the arthropods that include lobsters,
crabs, shrimp, insects, and spiders. Scientists classify carbohydrates as monosaccharides,
disaccharides, and polysaccharides depending on the number of monomers in the molecule.
Monosaccharides are linked by glycosidic bonds that form as a result of dehydration reactions,
forming disaccharides and polysaccharides with eliminating a water molecule for each bond
formed. Glucose, galactose, and fructose are common monosaccharides; whereas, common
disaccharides include lactose, maltose, and sucrose. Starch and glycogen, examples of
polysaccharides, are the storage forms of glucose in plants and animals,respectively. The long
polysaccharide chains may be branched or unbranched. Cellulose is an example of an
unbranched polysaccharide; whereas, amylopectin, a constituent of starch, is a highly branched
molecule. Glucose storage, in the form of polymers like starch or glycogen, makes it slightly less
accessible for metabolism; however, this prevents it from leaking out of the cell or creating a
high osmotic pressure that could cause the cell to uptake excessive water.

3.3 Lipids
Lipids are a class of macromolecules that are nonpolar and hydrophobic in nature. Major types
include fats and oils, waxes, phospholipids, and steroids. Fats are a stored form of energy and
are also known as triacylglycerols or triglycerides. Fats are composed of fatty acids and either
glycerol or sphingosine. Fatty acids may be unsaturated or saturated, depending on the
presence or absence of double bonds in the hydrocarbon chain. If only single bonds are present,
they are saturated fatty acids. Unsaturated fatty acids may have one or more double bonds in
the hydrocarbon chain. Phospholipids comprise the membrane's matrix. They have a glycerol or
sphingosine backbone to which two fatty acid chains and a phosphate-containing group are
attached. Steroids are another class of lipids. Their basic structure has four fused carbon rings.
Cholesterol is a type of steroid and is an important constituent of the plasma membrane, where
it helps to maintain the membrane's fluid nature. It is also the precursor of steroid hormones
such as testosterone.