Introduction

Introduction&toProgramming with
Computer and Its
Architecture
ESP8266

P. Rajakumar
Assistant Professor
Department of CSE
Parul Institute of Technology
Content

1. Characteristics……………………………..……………. 1
2. Computer Architecture………………...…………… 2
3. Generations…………….…………….……..…………….3
4. Classifications….………………………….…………….. 4
5. Applications……….……………….………………..…… 6
6. Central Processing Unit ………..……….............. 8
7. Memory…………………………………………………….. 9
8. Multiprocessor System……………………………….10
9. Motherboard Demonstration……………………..11

INDEX
10.Processor Speed…………………………………………12
11.Peripheral Bus…………………………………………….13
Characteristics of Computer

• Speed
• Accuracy
• Automation
• Diligence
• Storage
• Versatility
• Multitasking
• Communication
Speed
The computer can process data very fast, at the rate of millions of
instructions per second (MHz or GHz) .

Some calculations that would have taken hours and days to complete
otherwise, can be completed in a few seconds using the computer.

For example, calculation and generation of salary slips of thousands

of employees of an organization.

weather forecasting that requires analysis of a large amount of data

related to temperature, pressure and humidity of various places,
etc.
Accuracy
Computer provides a high degree of accuracy.

For example, the computer can accurately give the result of division
of any two numbers up to 10 decimal places.
Automation
Once programmed, a computer can work automatically without
human intervention.
Diligence
When used for a longer period of time, the computer does not get
tired or fatigued. It can perform long and complex calculations with
the same speed and accuracy from the start till the end.
Storage
Large volumes of data and information can be stored in the computer
and also retrieved whenever required.

A limited amount of data can be stored, temporarily, in the primary

memory. Secondary storage devices like floppy disk, compact disk,
Hard Disk, SSD can store a large amount of data permanently.
Versatility
Computer is versatile in nature. It can perform different types of tasks
with the same ease.

At one moment you can use the computer to prepare a letter document
and in the next moment you may play music or print a document.
Computers have several limitations too. Computer can only perform
tasks that it has been programmed to do.
Communication
Computers can connect and communicate with other systems through
networks (Internet, LAN, WIFI,….).

Multitasking
Computers can run multiple tasks simultaneously using multi-core
processors and operating systems.

Computer System Architecture

Computer architecture refers to the definition of basic attributes of

hardware components and their interconnections, basically defines
the logical structure of a computer system.
Computer Architecture
Various components

• Central Processing Unit

• Input Unit
• Output Unit
• Memory Unit

Central Processing Unit

➢ The CPU, which is popularly referred to as the “brain” of the

computer, is responsible for processing the data inside the computer
system.
➢ It is also responsible for controlling all other components of the
system.
The main operations of the CPU include four phases:

• Fetching instructions from the memory.

• Decoding the instructions to decide what operations to be preformed.
• Executing the instructions.
• Storing the results back in the memory.

This four-phase process is known as the CPU cycle.

The central processing unit consists of the following subsystems:

• Arithmetic Unit (AU)

• Logic Unit (LU)
• Control Unit (CU)
The CPU makes use of the following memory subsystems.
• Main Memory Unit
• Cache Memory
• Registers

Arithmetic Logic Unit

Arithmetic Unit (AU) is a part of the CPU that performs arithmetic

operations on the data. The arithmetic operations can be addition,
subtraction, multiplication or division.

The multiplication and division operations are usually implemented by

the AU as the repetitive process of addition and subtraction
operations respectively.
➢ The output of AU contains the result of the operation.
➢ The output is stored in a storage register by the AU.
➢ Register is a small storage area inside the CPU from where data is
retrieved faster than any other storage area.

Logic Unit
Logic Unit (LU) is a part of the CPU that performs logical operations on
the data. It performs 16 different types of logical operations.

The various logical operations include greater than (>), less than (<),
equal to (=), not equal to (≠), shift left, shift right, etc.

LU makes use of various logic gates, such as AND, OR, NOR, etc for
performing the logical operations on the data.
Control Unit
➢ Control Unit (CU) is an important component of CPU that controls
the flow of data and information.
➢ It maintains the sequence of operations being performed by the CPU.
➢ It fetches an instruction from the storage area, decodes the instruction
and transmits the corresponding signals to the AU or LU.
➢ CU uses a program counter register for retrieving the next instruction
that is to be executed.

Main Memory Unit.

➢ The main memory is referred to as the internal memory or primary
memory of the computer.
➢ It is also known as Random Access Memory (RAM). It is a
temporary storage medium that holds the data only for a short
period of time.
➢ Once the computer is switched off, the data stored in the RAM gets
erased.
➢ The memory space of RAM is limited and therefore all the files and
instructions cannot be stored in it.

Input Unit

The input unit of a computer system is the part responsible for

accepting data and instructions from the user.
Input Devices

➢ Keyboard
➢ Mouse
➢ Scanner
➢ Microphone
➢ Webcam
➢ Touchscreen

Output Units

The output unit is the part of a computer system that converts

processed data (information) from the computer into a
human-readable form and presents it to the user.
Output Devices

➢ Monitor
➢ Pritnter
➢ Speaker
➢ Headphones
➢ Projector
 GENERATIONS OF COMPUTERS
➢ Over the years, various computing devices were invented that
enabled the people to solve different types of problems.
➢ All these computing devices can be classified into several
generations.
➢ These generations refer to the phases of improvement made to
different computing devices.
➢ The different phases of improvement made to computing devices
resulted in a small, cheap, fast, reliable and productive
computer.
The history of computer development is often discussed in terms of
different generation of computers, as listed below.

▪ First generation computers

▪ Second generation computers
▪ Third generation computers
▪ Fourth generation computers
▪ Fifth generation computers

First generation computers

➢ The first generation computers were employed during the period
1940–1956.
➢ These computers used the vacuum tubes technology for calculation
as well as for storage and control purposes.
Vacuum Tubes
Technology Used: Vacuum tubes
Speed & Size: Very slow and huge in size
Programming Language: Machine language (binary)
Example: ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer), UNIVAC(UNIVersal
Automatic Computer)
Limitations: Expensive, generated a lot of heat, low reliability.

Advantages.
➢ These computers were the fastest computing devices of their time.
➢ These computers were able to execute complex mathematical
problems in an efficient manner.
Disadvantages

➢ The vacuum tube technology computers are very large and bulky.
➢ Not easily transferable from one place to another.
➢ They were single tasking because they could execute only one
program at a time.
➢ They generated huge amount of heat and hence were prone to
hardware faults.
Second Generation
➢ The second generation computers were employed during the
period 1956–1963.
➢ The main characteristic of these computers was the use of
transistors.
➢ The use of transistor technology helped in improving the
performance of computers.
➢ Transistor was a superior technology over vacuum tubes.
➢ Transistors used in second generation computers were smaller,
faster, cheaper and generated less heat.
➢ Transistors were also light weight electronic devices that required
very less power during their operation.
➢ Printers, secondary storage and operating system technology
were also invented during this era.
➢ Another major technological development made to these computers
was the replacement of the machine language with the assembly
language.
➢ Assembly language is a low-level language that allows the
programmer to use simple English words—called mnemonics—to
represent different instructions in a program.

Technology: Transistors
Programming Language: Assembly language
Memory: Magnetic core memory
Input/Output: Punched cards and magnetic tape
Examples: IBM 1401, IBM 7094
Advantages: Smaller, faster, more reliable, energy-efficient
Advantages
Fast computing at their time.
Able to transfer one place to another.
Consume less power.
Less maintenance.

Disadvantages.
Input and output media is not improved.
Placed in air-conditional places.
High cost.
Third Generation
➢ The third generation computers were employed during the period
1964–1975.
➢ The major characteristic feature of third generation computer
systems was the use of Integrated Circuits (ICs).
➢ The IC technology was also known as microelectronics technology.
➢ ICs are the circuits that combine various electronic components, such
as transistors, resistors, capacitors, etc. onto a single small silicon
chip.
Technology: Integrated Circuits
Programming Language: High-level languages (e.g., COBOL,
FORTRAN)
Input/Output: Keyboard and monitor
Examples: IBM 360, PDP-8
Features: Multiprogramming, better performance, lower cost
Fourth Generation
➢ The fourth generation computers were employed during 1975–1989.
➢ The invention of Large Scale Integration (LSI) technology and
Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) technology used.
➢ The LSI technology allowed thousands of transistors to be fitted
onto one small silicon chip.
➢ VLSI technology allowed hundreds of thousands of transistors to
be fitted onto a single chip.
➢ The progress in LSI and VLSI technologies led to the development
of microprocessor
Technology: Microprocessors (VLSI – Very Large Scale Integration)
Memory: Semiconductor memory
Programming Language: High-level languagesInput/Output: GUI,
mouse, keyboard
Input/Output: GUI, mouse, keyboard
Examples: Intel 4004, IBM PC, Apple Macintosh

Fifth Generation
➢ The different types of modern digital computers come under the
categories of fifth generation computers.
➢ The fifth generation computers are based on the Ultra Large Scale
Integration (ULSI) technology that allows
➢ almost ten million electronic components to be fabricated on one
small chip.
➢ The ULSI technology helps in increasing the power and speed of the
microprocessor chips and the capacity of primary and secondary
storage devices.

Advantages.
➢ They are the fastest and powerful computers till date.
➢ They are able to execute a large number of applications at the same
time
➢ The use of ULSI technology helps in decreasing the size of these
computers to a large.
➢ They are versatile for communications and resource sharing.
Technology: AI, Machine Learning, Quantum computing, ULSI (Ultra-
Large Scale Integration)
Examples: Robotics, Expert systems, Natural Language Processing.
Goal: Create machines that can think, learn, and reason like humans.
Classifications of Computers
The main function of each of computer is to process the data and
provide some output to the users. However, the methods or techniques
used by these computers to process and handle the data may be
different.

We can classify the computers according to the following three

criteria:
1. Based on operating principles
2. Based on applications
3. Based on size and capability
Based on Operating Principles
On the basis of operations performed and methods used to store and
process the data and information , computers can be classified into the
following categories:
1. Analog computers
2. Digital computers
3. Hybrid computers
Analog computers
➢ The analog computers represent data in the form of continuous
electrical signals.
➢ These computers are very fast in their operation.
➢ However, the results produced by these computers are not very
accurate.
➢ Therefore, the analog computers are widely used in applications in
which the accuracy of results is not a major concern.
➢ They are powerful tools to solve differential equations.
➢ The electronic circuit employed in modern analog computers is
generally an Operational Amplifier (Op-Amp).
➢ It is made up of semiconductor integrated circuits.
Digital computers
➢ The digital computer, also known as the digital information
processing system, it stores and processes data in the digital form.
➢ Therefore, each type of data is stored in 0s and 1s.
➢ The output produced by these computers is also in the digital form.
➢ The digital computers are also capable of processing the analog data.
➢ However, the analog data should be first converted to the digital
form.
➢ Digital computers are generally faster and more reliable.
➢ Provide more accurate results.
➢ The computer used by individual, colleges, small and medium sized
businesses.
Hybrid Computer
➢ The hybrid computer is a combination of analog computer and
digital computer.
➢ Therefore, the hardware components of hybrid computers are usually
the mixture of analog and digital components.
➢ These features make the hybrid computers very fast, efficient and
reliable.
➢ In this system data is generally processed in the form of electrical
signals and is stored with the help of digital components.
➢ The hybrid computers are also less expensive than the digital
computers.
➢ This computer used in hospitals to measure the heartbeat of the
patient, used in scientific applications and used in various
engineering fields for controlling business process.
Based on Applications
Based on applications computers can be classified into the following
categories:
➢ General purpose computers
➢ Special purpose computers

General Purpose Computers

➢ A general-purpose computer is designed to process and run various
applications, depending on the software installed.
➢ general purpose computers are not efficient and consume a large
amount of time in generating the result.
Examples.
• PC
• Smartphones
• Workstations
• Servers
Special purpose Computers
Special-Purpose Computers are designed and optimized to
perform a specific task or a limited set of tasks efficiently.

Examples.
• ATM.
• Washing Machine Controllers.
• Traffic Light Controllers.
• Flight Control Systems.
• Medical Equipment’s.
Based on Size and Capability
Based on size and capability, computers can be classified into the
following categories.
➢ Micro Computers.
➢ Mini computers.
➢ Mainframe computers.
➢ Super computers.
Microcomputers
➢ A microcomputer is a small and cheap digital computer that is
designed to be used by individuals.
➢ It is built around a microprocessor, a storage unit and an I/O channel.
➢ Other components includes power supply, connecting cables,
keyboard, mouse, printer and scanner.
➢ It also include several software programs such as operating system,
system software and utility software.
➢ Micro computers are available in form of PCs, workstations and
notebook computers.
Mini Computers.
➢ A mini computer was first introduced in the year 1960 by Digital
Equipment Corporation (DEC).
➢ They can handle more data and more input and output than micro
computers.
➢ Mini computers are less powerful than mainframe computers but more
powerful than micro computers.
➢ So it is called midrange computers.
➢ Supports dozens to hundreds of users at once- Multi-user system.
➢ Multi-Tasking – Can run several programs simultaneously.
Examples.
PDP-11 by DEC
VAX Series by DEC
IBM system/32, system/36.
Honeywell level 6.
Mainframe Computers
➢ A mainframe computer is a very large computer that is employed by
large business organizations for handling major applications, such as
financial transaction processing, Enterprise Resource Planning
(ERP), industry and consumer statistics, and census.
➢ They are capable of handling almost millions of records per second.
➢ These computers are bigger and more expensive than other
computers.
➢ The different manufacturers of mainframe computers are IBM,
Amdahl, Hitachi, etc.
➢ Examples of mainframe computers are IBM 3000, VAX 8000 and
CDC 6600.
➢ The mainframe computers are also known as super servers or
database servers.
Super computers
A super computer is the fastest computer that can perform complex
operations at a very high speed.
The super computers were first presented in the year 1960 at Control
Data Corporation (CDC).
They are more expensive than the other categories of computers.
Designed to execute complex calculations.
Some of the manufacturers of super computers are IBM, Silicon
Graphics, Intel, etc.
Examples of Super Computers are CRAY 3, Cyber 205, NEC SX-3 and
PARAM from India.
Applications
• Weather forecasting
• Animated graphics
• Fluid mechanics
• Nuclear energy research
• Petroleum exploration
Applications of Computers
➢ Today, computers are used in almost every sphere of life.
➢ The use of computers has reduced the paper work,
➢ Thus, computers have become a basic need to perform various tasks
in our day-to-day life.
Some common applications are,
• Education
• Business
• Communication
• Science
• Engineering
• Entertainment
• Banking
• Health
• Government
Education
➢ Computers are used in schools and colleges to teach students.
➢ students can get more information about a specific topic using
internet.
➢ Computer-based learning and web-based learning are very popular
amongst students.
Examples:
• E-learning.
• Virtual classrooms.
• Online exams.
• Educational software’s.
Business
➢ Computers are used to store a large amount of information.
➢ Business meetings conducted through web conferencing.
Examples-Accounting, inventory management, payroll, communication,
and data analysis.
Communication
➢ Computers that are connected with each other can be used to transfer
data to and from other computers.
➢ For communication Internet is one of the most common mediums.
➢ E-mail is a popular system through which a user can send/receive text
messages.
Example-Email, video conferencing, and instant messaging.

Science
➢ Computers are used by various scientists for the purpose of research
and development.
➢ Supports for predicting natural disasters, such as earthquake and
tsunami.
Example-Data analysis, simulations, and complex calculations
Engineering
Computers are used by the engineers for the creation of complex
drawings and designs while working in different fields, like
automobiles and construction.

Entertainment
Computers are used in the entertainment industry for creating graphics
and animations.
Example-Movies, music, gaming, animation, and digital art.

Banking
Nowadays, computers are being increasingly used for online banking.
Example-Online banking, ATM services, stock trading, and fraud
detection.
Health
➢ Computers are used by doctors to diagnose various kinds of diseases.
➢ Analog and digital devices are connected with computers enabling the
doctors to monitor the condition of a patient.
➢ Hospitals use computers to maintain and manage patient records.
Example-Patient records, diagnostic tools, medical imaging, and
telemedicine.
Government- Computers play a crucial role in almost all government
departments.
➢ Revenue, industry, census, police, defense and many other
departments.
➢ The concept of ‘e-governance’ is becoming popular among various
government agencies.
Example-Record keeping, digital governance, tax processing, and public
services.
Main Memory
➢ The main memory is referred to as the internal memory or primary
memory of the computer.
➢ It is also known as Random Access Memory (RAM).
➢ It is a temporary storage medium.
➢ Once the computer is switched off, the data stored in the RAM gets
erased.
➢ The memory space of RAM is limited and therefore all the files and
instructions cannot be stored in it.
➢ These files and instructions are normally stored in a different
location known as secondary storage and are copied from there to the
RAM before execution.
➢ This technique is referred as swapping.
➢ The memory space available in RAM also affects the speed of a
computer system.
➢ The main memory is also responsible for data transfer between CPU
and the I/O devices.
Cache Memory
➢ Cache memory is a small, fast and expensive memory.
➢ Cache stores the copies of data that needs to be accessed frequently
from the main memory.
➢ The processor, checks the cache memory before reading data from or
writing data to the main memory,
➢ If it finds the data in the cache memory the processor reads the data
from or writes the data to the cache.
➢ Because its access time is much faster than the main memory.
➢ The cache memory is always placed between CPU and the main
memory of the computer system.
➢ The availability of data in the cache is known as cache hit.
There are usually two types of cache memory,
• Primary cache
• Secondary cache
Primary Cache
➢ It is also known as Level 1 (L1) cache or internal cache.
➢ The primary cache is located inside the CPU.
➢ It is smaller but faster.

Secondary Cache
➢ It is also known as Level 2 (L2) cache or external cache.
➢ The secondary cache is located outside the CPU.
➢ It is normally positioned on the motherboard of a computer.
➢ It is larger but slower.
Registers
➢ Central processing unit contains a few special purpose, a temporary
storage units known as registers.
➢ They are high-speed memory locations used for holding
instructions, data and intermediate results.
➢ A processor can have different types of registers.
• Program Counter (PC) to keep track of the next instruction to be
executed.
• Instruction Register (IR) to hold instructions to be decoded by the
control unit.
• Memory Address Register (MAR) to hold the address of the next
location in the memory to be accessed.
• Memory Buffer Register (MBR) for storing data received from or
sent to CPU.
• Memory Data Register (MDR) for storing operands and data.
• Accumulator (ACC) for storing the results produced by arithmetic
and logic units.
➢ Many computers employ additional registers.
➢ The number and sizes of registers therefore vary from processor to
processor.
Multiprocessor Systems
A multiprocessor system is a computer system that uses two or more
processors (CPUs) connected to work together, sharing the same
memory and input/output resources, to increase speed, reliability, and
processing power. Also known as parallel systems, tightly-coupled
systems
Advantages include:
1. Increased throughput
2. Economy of scale
3. Increased reliability – graceful degradation or fault tolerance
Two types:
1. Asymmetric Multiprocessing – each processor is assigned a
specific task.
2. Symmetric Multiprocessing – each processor performs all
tasks
Symmetric Multiprocessing
➢ A symmetric multiprocessor system (SMP) is a system with a pool of
homogeneous processors running under a single OS with a centralized,
shared main memory.
➢ Each processor, executing different programs and working on different
sets of data, has the ability to share common resources.
➢ Also known as tightly-coupled systems.
Asymmetric Multiprocessing
➢ Also known as loosely-coupled systems.
➢ In loosely-coupled multiprocessor systems, each processor has its own
local memory, input/output (I/O) channels, and operating system.
➢ Processors exchange data over a high-speed communication network.
Loosely-coupled multiprocessor systems are also known as distributed-
memory systems, as the processors do not share physical memory and
have individual I/O channels.
Advantages
▪ Higher throughput – More tasks completed in less time.
▪ Reliability – If one processor fails, others can continue work.
▪ Scalability – Easy to add more processors for increased performance.
▪ Parallelism – Suitable for scientific simulations, graphics, and big data
processing.
Motherboard Demonstration
Motherboard Demonstration
CPU Socket
A CPU socket is the slot on the motherboard where the processor (CPU)
is installed.
Mechanical connection- Holds the CPU
Electrical connection- transfer data, signals between CPU and
motherboard.
There are three types.
LGA (Land Grid Array)
▪ Pins are on the motherboard socket, not on the CPU
▪ CPU has flat contact pads
▪ Example: LGA 1151, LGA 1200, LGA 1700.
PGA (Pin Grid Array) – Used mainly by AMD (older Intel also)
• Pins are on the CPU, and holes are in the socket.
• Example: AM4 (1331 pins), AM5 (1718 pins).
BGA (Ball Grid Array) – Used in laptops/embedded systems
• CPU is soldered directly to the motherboard
• Not removable or replaceable easily.

SPP with passive heat sink

• SPP (System Platform Processor) also called Northbridge, the CPU
RAM GPU communication, which produced a lot of heat. To
cool it, manufacturers often used a passive heat sink.

CPU fan connector

• Supplies power to CPU fan.
• Sends RPM (speed) signal back to BIOS.
• Controls fan speed automatically depending on CPU temperature.
• Prevents overheating by warning/shutting down if fan not detected.
DDR DIMM slot 0- 3
• DIMM = Dual Inline Memory Module (the stick of RAM).
• DDR refers to the RAM type (DDR3, DDR4, DDR5, etc.).
• The slots on the motherboard are where RAM sticks are installed.

24-pin ATX Power Connector

• It is the main power connector on the motherboard.
• Comes from the power supply unit (PSU).
• Provides power to the motherboard, chipset, PCIe(Peripheral
Component Interconnect Express) slots, and RAM.

FDD Connector
• The FDD Connector (Floppy Disk Drive Connector) is the interface
on a motherboard that was used to connect a floppy disk drive
• It is a 34-pin connector
Front Panel Controller
The Front Panel Controller (Front Panel Header / F_PANEL) is a set
of pins on the motherboard used to connect the front panel switches
and LEDs of the computer case.
• Power Switch
• Reset Switch
• Power LED
• Hard Drive Activity LED (HDD LED)
• Speaker (SPK)

AUX PEX power Connector

The AUX/PEX Power Connector usually refers to the auxiliary PCI
Express (PCIe) power connector found on the motherboard or GPU. It
provides extra power to graphics cards and sometimes the motherboard
when the PCIe slot alone isn’t enough
Serial ATA (SATA) Connector
The Serial ATA (SATA) Connector is the standard bus interface on
motherboards used to connect storage devices like HDDs, SSDs, and
optical drives.

NVIDIA MCP
• MCP(Media and Communications Processor) also called
Southbridge chipset by NVIDIA.
• Manage data transfer between I/O, storage, audio, networking,
USB, and PCI buses.

Floppy Drive Controller

The Floppy Disk Controller (FDC) is the hardware component that
manages communication between the CPU and a floppy disk drive
(FDD).
Two Serial-ATA connectors
A Serial ATA (SATA) connector is used to connect storage devices like
hard drives (HDDs) and solid-state drives (SSDs) to the motherboard.
LED POST codes
When you switch on a computer, the BIOS performs a POST sequence to
check whether the CPU, RAM, GPU, and other hardware components
are functioning properly. If a problem occurs, the motherboard often
reports it using:
Beep codes (from the system speaker)
POST codes (via debug LEDs or a two-digit 7-segment display)
Motherboard Battery
The motherboard battery is usually a small, round, silver coin-cell
battery (commonly CR2032). It is also called the CMOS battery.
CMOS chip that stores BIOS settings (time, date, boot order,
voltage/frequency settings, etc.) when the computer is powered off.
Serial Connector
The Serial Connector on a motherboard (also called a COM Port or
RS-232 connector) is used for serial communication with external
devices.
LPC Connector
• The LPC Connector refers to the Low Pin Count (LPC) interface
used on motherboards, mainly for engineers, debuggers, or security
modules.
Clear CMOS
The Clear CMOS(Complementary Metal-Oxide Semiconductor)
function is used to reset the BIOS.
Fan Headers
Fan headers are pin connectors on the motherboard that allow you to
connect cooling fans.
Power on/off Switch
Used for power supply in motherboard.
Reset Switch
Used to reset the system.
On-board Speaker
It is a small speaker connected to the motherboard, mainly used for beep
codes during POST(Power on self Test).
PCI Slots
The PCI Slots (Peripheral Component Interconnect slots) are
expansion slots on the motherboard that allow additional hardware to be
installed- Sound cards, NIC(Network Interface Cards), TV Tuner,
Modems..
PCI Express x16 slots(SLI)
The PCI Express (PCIe) x16 slot is the main expansion slot on
modern motherboards, most commonly used for graphics cards
(GPUs) but also supports other high-bandwidth devices.
PCI Express Graphics Expansion
The PCI Express Graphics Expansion Slot refers to the PCI Express
x16 slot on the motherboard that is specifically designed for graphics
cards (GPUs).
PCI Express x1 Slots.
The PCI Express (PCIe) x1 slot is the smallest PCIe expansion slot on
a motherboard. It provides one data lane for add-on cards.
Backpanel Controller
• Back Panel Controller is a set of I/O ports at rear of motherboard.
• Provides connections for USB, audio, display, network.
• Controlled by chipset + Super I/O + dedicated audio/NIC chips.
8-Pin ATX Power Connector
The 8-pin ATX power connector (also called EPS 12V connector) is a
motherboard power connector that supplies additional power to the
CPU.
Processor Speed
Modern CPUs can process billions of instructions per second. The exact
speed depends on various factors, including:
• Clock speed
• Number of cores
• Architecture efficiency
• Memory speed and capacity
• Storage type (SSD vs HDD)
When selecting a CPU, consider your primary use case:
➢ For everyday computing: Look for multi core processors with
speeds around 2.5 GHz to 3.5 GHz, such as Intel Core i5 or AMD
Ryzen 5 series.
➢ For gaming: Aim for processors with high single-thread performance
and speeds of 3.5 GHz to 4.0 GHz or higher, like Intel Core i7 or
AMD Ryzen 7 series.
➢ For professional use: Consider high-end processors with speeds of
4.0 GHz and above, such as Intel Core i9 or AMD Ryzen 9 series, or
even workstation-class CPUs like Intel Xeon or AMD Threadripper.

Peripheral buses
Peripheral buses are communication pathways that connect a
computer's processor to its peripheral devices, enabling data transfer
and control signals. They facilitate interaction between the CPU and
external devices like keyboards, mouse, printers, and storage devices.
Peripheral Devices
These are external components that connect to a computer, such as
keyboards, mouse, printers, and storage devices.
BUS
A communication pathway or channel that allows data and control
signals to travel between the processor and peripherals.
Interrupts
A mechanism where a peripheral can signal the processor to request
attention, like when a key is pressed.
DMA(Direct Memory Access) Controller
Allows peripherals to transfer data directly to and from system memory
without involving the processor, increasing efficiency.
Common Types of peripheral buses
PCI (Peripheral Component Interconnect): A widely used bus for
connecting high-performance peripherals like network cards, sound
cards, and expansion cards.
USB (Universal Serial Bus): A versatile bus for connecting a wide
range of devices, known for its plug-and-play capabilities.
SATA (Serial ATA): Primarily used for connecting storage devices like
hard drives and SSDs.
PS/2: A legacy bus for connecting keyboards and mouse.
SPB (Simple Peripheral Bus):
A low-power bus for connecting simple peripherals, often used in
embedded systems.
APB (Advanced Peripheral Bus):
A bus designed for low-power, simple peripherals, often used in
conjunction with other buses like ASB(Advanced system bus).
Other Buses:
Various other buses exist for specific purposes, including those for
internal components (like the on-chip bus) and those for wireless
connections (like Bluetooth and Wi-Fi).
Peripheral Buses in Action:
➢ When a key is pressed, the keyboard sends an interrupt signal to the
processor through the peripheral bus.
➢ The processor, upon receiving the interrupt, reads the keystroke data
from the keyboard via the same bus.
➢ For large data transfers, like moving a large file from a hard drive,
DMA can be used to transfer the data directly to or from memory,
freeing up the processor for other tasks.
➢ Different peripherals can connect to the computer through various
buses, depending on their needs and the computer's architecture.