Spore formation

How Spore Formation Occurs:

 The parent organism develops thread-like hyphae.

 Sporangia (spore-producing structures) appear as tiny blob-on-a-
stick structures.
 Numerous spores form within the sporangia.
 Mature sporangia burst, releasing spores into the surroundings.
 Under favourable conditions (moisture, warmth), each spore
germinates into a new individual, exemplified by Rhizopus
reproducing on moist bread.

Advantages of Spore Formation:

 Survival in Harsh Conditions: Spores are resistant to extreme heat,
cold, and drought, aiding survival.
 Wide Dispersal: Spores are lightweight and easily spread by wind,
water, or animals, facilitating colonization of new areas.
 Rapid Population Growth: The production of large numbers of spores
ensures species survival and rapid population increase.

Vegetative propagation
 Vegetative propagation is a method of plant reproduction that uses
parts of a plant other than seeds, such as roots, stems, or leaves, to
produce new plants.
  This is a form of asexual reproduction, meaning the new plants are
genetically identical to the parent plant.

Reproductive part-

This part of the plant (flower) which is involved in the process of sexual
reproduction

Vegetative part-

These parts of the plant (stem, leaf, root) are not involved in the process
of sexual reproduction.

Natural vegetation:
 Refers to plants that grow without human intervention.
Develop from the leaves, roots, or stems of the parent plant.

 By Underground Stem: Tubers: Swollen, fleshy underground

stems with buds (eyes). Example: Potato (Buds grow into new
plants).

 By Root: Tuberous roots: Fleshy roots with buds that detach

and grow into new plants. Examples: Sweet Potato, Dahlia,
Tulip.
  By Leaves: Leaf buds: Adventitious buds grow on leaf margins,
fall off, and develop into plantlets. Examples: Bryophyllum,

Kalancho

Artificial vegetative propagation

is a method of asexual reproduction in which new plants are grown
artificially from the stems, roots, or leaves of a parent plant with
human intervention.

Methods of Artificial vegetative propagation:

1.Cutting: A cut portion of stem, root, or leaf is planted in soil, where

it develops roots and grows into a new plant. Example: Rose,
Hibiscus, Sugarcane.

2.Layering: A lower branch of a plant is bent and covered with soil

while still attached to the parent plant. After rooting, it is cut off and
grows independently.

Example: Jasmine, Strawberry.

 3.Grafting A part of one plant (scion) is joined to the root system of
another plant (stock)to combine desired traits. Example: Mango,
Apple, Rose.

Tissue Culture: A few plant cells are grown in a nutrient medium

under controlled conditions to develop into a complete plant.
Example: Orchid, Banana. Used for disease-free plant production
(e.g., ornamental plants).

📌📌📌📌📌Advantages of Artificial Vegetative Propagation:

 Faster Growth: Plants grow faster than from seeds.

 Genetic Similarity: Offspring are identical to the parent

plant.

 Desirable Traits: Maintains good quality plants (e.g.,

disease resistance, better higher yield ).

Q.A feature of reproduction that is common to Amoeba, Yeast and

Spirogyra is that----------
(a) They reproduce asexually
(b)They are all unicellular
(c) They reproduce only sexually
(d)They are all multicellular

Q. A Planaria worm is cut horizontally in the middle into two halves P and
Q such that the part P contains the whole head of the worm. Another
Planaria worm is cut vertically into two halves R and S in such a way that
both the cut pieces R and S contain half head each. Which of the cut
pieces of the two Planaria worms could regenerate to form the complete
respective worms?

(a) Only P
(b)Only R and S
(c) P, Rand S
(d)P, Q, R and S

Ans----The cut pieces of the Planaria worm that can regenerate to

form a complete worm are P, R, and S. Planaria have the remarkable
ability to regenerate from any part of their body, as long as it
 contains some neoblasts, which are stem cells capable of
differentiating into any cell type needed for regeneration.

Q. The ability of a cell to divide into several cells during reproduction

in Plasmodium is called........
(a) budding
(b) multiple fission
(c) binary fission
(d) reduction division

Qns----Identify the mode of asexual reproduction in the following

organisms:

(a) Fragmentation
(b) Multiple Fission
(c)Budding
(d) Binary Fission

Qns-Name and explain the process taking place in the given diagram.
Qns Q. (a) Identify the modes of asexual reproduction in each of the
following organisms:

(i) Hydra
(ii) Planaria
(iii) Amoeba
(iv) Spirogyra
(v) Rhizopus

(b) List three advantages of vegetative propagation.

(c) Why cannot fertilisation take place in flowers if pollination does

not occur?

Q. During a biology experiment, a student observed two different

types of asexual reproduction in organisms. In the first case, a
hydra was seen developing a small bud on its side, which detached
to form a new individual. In the second case, an amoeba was
observed und where it elongated and divided into two equal parts,
resulting in two new amoebas.

Questions:

1. Identify the two types of asexual reproduction observed in

the case study.
2. Explain the process of budding in hydra and binary fission
in amoeba, highlighting the steps involved in each process.
3. Draw and label neat diagrams to illustrate both budding in
hydra and binary fission in amoeba.
4. Discuss the advantages of asexual reproduction in
organisms.

Sexual Reproduction
It is a mode of reproduction that depends on the
involvement of two individuals before a new generation can
be created.

Steps in sexual reproduction

 Formation of gametes in the sex organs.

 Transfer of male gamete to female gamete.
  Fusion of gametes, either inside or outside the female
parent's body.
 Development of the zygote to embryo and then
complete individual.

Advantages of sexual reproduction

 Variations are produced among the progeny.

 Such populations are able to adapt well to changing
environment and thus evolves faster.

Parts of a flower
  Gamete formation
 Gametes transfer
 Fertilization
 Formation of zygote
 Development of zygote into embryo
 Growth and development of embryo into a whole new
individual

Pollen pistil interaction

In plants pistil / female reproductive part , stamen / male

reproductive part.

Pollen-pistil interaction is the series of events that occur after

pollen lands on the stigma of a flower, leading to either
fertilization or pollen rejection. This interaction is crucial for
successful sexual reproduction in flowering plants.

It involves pollen recognition, promotion or inhibition of pollen,

and pollen tube growth.

Here’s a more detailed explanation:

1. Pollen Deposition and Recognition:

• Pollen grains, released from the anther, are transferred
to the stigma, the receptive part of the pistil.
• The pistil then recognizes whether the pollen is
compatible or not.
•
 2. Compatibility and Germination:
• If the pollen is compatible, the pistil promotes its
germination, leading to the formation of a pollen tube.
• Incompatible pollen is rejected, preventing germination
or pollen tube growth.

3. Pollen Tube Growth and Ovule Entry:

• The pollen tube grows through the style, a part of the
pistil, towards the ovary.
• Inside the ovary, the pollen tube enters the ovule
through a small opening called the micropyle.
•
4. Fertilization:
• The pollen tube releases the male gametes (sperm
cells) into the ovule, where they can fertilize the egg
cell, initiating the process of seed development.

Importance:

• Pollen-pistil interaction ensures that only compatible

pollen leads to fertilization, promoting genetic
diversity and preventing inbreeding depression.
• This process is vital for plant reproduction and
influences seed and fruit formation, affecting
agricultural productivity.

1.BISEXUAL: Both stamen and pistil are present in a same flower.

E.g., Rose, lily

2. Unisexual : either stamen or pistil is .. Papaya, Watermelon.

3.Pollination: Transfer of pollen grains from the anther of a

stamen to the stigma of a pistil. This can be agents like winds,
insects, air, other agents.

Biotic agents and abiotic agents are there.

  Fertilization – Pollen germinates, a pollen tube forms,
and male germ-cells fuse with female gametes in the
ovary to form a zygote. Pollination: Pollen grain
carrying the male gamete lands on the stigma.

 Pollen Tube Formation: The pollen grain germinates, forming

a pollen tube that grows towards the ovule.

 Male Gamete Transfer: The male gamete travels through the

pollen tube and reaches the ovule via the micro Pyle.
 Fertilization: The male gamete fuses with the female gamete
inside the ovule, forming a zygote.
Post-fertilization Changes –

 Petals, sepals, stamens, style, and stigma wither and fall.

 The ovule matures into a seed.
 The ovary develops into a fruit.
 The endosperm provides nutrients for the developing
embryo

Pollination

 Transfer of pollen grain from anther to stigma of a flower.

 Achieved by agents like wind, water, or animals.
 Leads to fertilization.
 External process.

Fertilization

 Fusion of male gamete with female gamete.

 Achieved by the growth of the pollen tube, allowing the
male gamete to reach the female germ cell.
 Leads to the formation of seeds.
 Internal process.
Seed is the final product of Sexual reproduction.

Seed develops into embryo which then develops into seedling

under favourable conditions.

Parts of Seed:

Seed coat - It is the protective layer.

Cotyledon Food storage & provides nourishment to growing

embryo.

Embryo

Plumule – Shoot system

Radicle -Root system

Questions📌📌📌📌📌📌
1.Q. Part(s) of a flower which attracts insects for pollination is
(are)

(a) Petals and Sepals

(b) Anther and Stigma
(c) Petals only
(d) Sepals only

2.Q. Length of the pollen tube depends upon the distance

between

(a) pollen grain and upper surface of stigma

(b) pollen grain on upper surface of stigma and ovule

(c) pollen grain in anther and upper surface of stigma

(d) upper surface of stigma and lower part of style

3.Q. (i) Name the part marked A in the diagram.

(ii) How does A reaches part B?

(iii) State the importance of the part C.

(iv) What happens to the part marked D after fertilisation is over?

4.The image shows the structure of a flower. Which of the
following processes will likely be disturbed or not occur if the
labelled part is removed from the flower?

a) Formation of fruit
b) Transport of pollen
c) Formation of pollen
d) Development of the pollen tube

5. Difference between
a. crosspollination & self pollination
b. Pollination& fertilization
6. Explain the post fertilization in flowering plants?

Sexual Reproduction in Human Beings

Puberty is the period during which sexual maturation occurs,

leading to reproductive capability.

Changes During Puberty:

Common in both genders: Growth of thick hair in armpits and

genital areas, oily skin, pimples, and

Increased awareness of bodily changes.

Girls: Breast development, menstruation starts, darkening of
nipple tips.

Boys: Growth of facial hair, deepening of voice, enlargement of

penis, occasional erections.

Why Does puberty occur?

The body prioritizes growth first; reproductive tissues mature

later as body growth slows down.

Sexual Maturity Indicators: Body changes (hair growth, body

structure) signal readiness for reproduction.

Role of Male & Female Organs:

Penis is specialized for sperm transfer.

Female reproductive system matures for pregnancy and

breastfeeding.

Male Reproductive Organ

1.Testes:

Location/Structure:

Located in the scrotum, outside the abdominal cavity.

Function:

Produce sperm and secrete testosterone.

2.Scrotum:

Location/Structure:

Sac-like muscular structure outside the abdominal cavity.

Function:

Maintains a lower temperature for sperm production.

3.Vas deferens:

Location/Structure:
Tube connecting the epididymis to the urethra.

Function:

Transports sperm to the urethra during ejaculation.

4. Seminal vesicle:

Location/Structure:

Located near the base of the bladder.

Function:

Secretes fluid that nourishes sperm and forms part of semen.

5. Prostate gland:

Location/Structure:

Below the bladder, around the urethra.

Function:

Secretes fluid that protects sperm from acidity.

6.Bladder:

Location/Structure:

Located in the pelvic region.

Function:

Stores urine.

7. Urethra:

Location/Structure:

Tube extending from the bladder to the outside.

Function:

Conveys sperm and urine for exit from the body

📌📌📌📌📌 key concepts

  Scrotum helps maintain a lower temperature essential for
sperm production.
 Testosterone controls male puberty and sperm production.
 Sperms are carried in semen, which aids transport and
nutrition.
 Urethra serves as a common passage for both urine and
sperms

📌📌📌📌📌📌Q. Which among the following is not the function of the

testes at puberty

(i) Formation of germ cell

(ii) Secretion of testosterone
(iii) Development of placenta
(iv) Secretion of oestrogen
a) (i) and (ii)
b) (ii) and (iii)
c) (iii) and (iv)
d) (i) and (iv)

Qns 2)
(a) What is puberty?
b) Describe in brief the functions of the following parts-
Seminal vesicle, Vas deference, Urethra
e) Why are testes located outside the abdominal cavity?
f) State how sperms move towards the female germ cell.

Q. List two roles of each of the following

(i) Seminal vesicles and prostate gland.

(ii) Testis
📌📌female Reproductive System

Functions of the Female Reproductive System:

 Produces female germ cells (eggs or ova).

 Provides a site for fertilization and supports embryo
development.
 Secretes female reproductive hormones.

Key Concepts:
Ovaries produce eggs and hormones.
Fertilization occurs in the fallopian tubes.
The uterus supports embryo development.
The placenta facilitates nutrient and waste
exchange.
Childbirth happens through uterine
contractions.
 Ovaries:
These paired organs, located on either side of the
uterus, are responsible for producing eggs (ova) and
secreting hormones like oestrogen and progesterone.

Fallopian Tubes (Oviducts):

These tubes extend from the ovaries to the uterus and
serve as a pathway for the egg. They are the site
where fertilization typically occurs.

Uterus:
This muscular organ is where a fertilized egg implants
and develops into a foetus.

Cervix:
The narrow, lower part of the uterus, connecting it to
the vagina. It acts as a passage for sperm and dilates
during childbirth.

Vagina:
A muscular canal extending from the cervix to the
outside of the body. It receives sperm during
intercourse and serves as the birth canal during
delivery.

Fertilization and Development of Embryo:,

Sperms enter the vagina during intercourse and travel to the

fallopian tube.

If sperm meets the egg, fertilization occurs, forming a zygote.

The zygote divides to form an embryo, which implants in the

uterus.
The placenta (a special tissue) provides:

Nutrition (glucose, oxygen) from mother’s blood.

Removes waste from the embryo.

Pregnancy lasts about 9 months.

Childbirth occurs through rhythmic contractions of the uterus.

Implantation: is the process where the fertilized egg (zygote)
attaches to the lining of the uterus develop into an embryo.
Nutrition to Embryo

A placenta is a special tissue connection between the embryo .

and the uterine wall.

The lining of the uterus thickens and is richly supplied with

nourish the growing embryo.

The embryo receives nutrients and oxygen from the mother's

blood through the placenta.

It is embedded in the uterine wall. It contains villi on the

embryo's of the tissue.

This provides a large surface area for nutrition and oxygen to

pass from the mother to the embryo

Waste substances produced by the embryo are removed through

the placenta into the mother's blood.

A zygote is a single-celled structure formed immediately after

fertilization, while an embryo is a multicellular structure that
develops from the zygote through cell division and
differentiation.
What Happens When the Egg is Not Fertilized?

The egg survives for about one day if fertilization does not occur.
The uterus prepares its lining every month for possible
pregnancy.

If the egg is not fertilized, the uterine lining breaks down and is
expelled through the vagina.

This process is called menstruation, which lasts for about 2 to 8

days.

The menstrual cycle repeats roughly every 28 days.

MENSTRUATION:

The ovary releases one egg each month, causing the uterus to
thicken its lining in preparation for potential fertilization.

If the egg is not fertilized, it survives for about a day, and the
uterine lining is no longer needed.

This lining breaks down and is expelled through the vagina as

blood and mucus.

This monthly process, known as menstruation, typically lasts 2 to

8 days.
Menarche 11-12 years

Menstruation: 12- 50 years

Menopause: 50+ years

📌📌📌📌📌

Q. (a) In the female reproductive system of human beings, state

the functions of:

(i) Ovary (ii) Oviduct.

(b) Mention the changes which the uterus undergoes, when

(i) it has to receive a zygote.

(ii) no fertilisation takes place.

(c) State the functions of placenta

Q. Identify the given diagram. Name the parts 1 to 5

Q. (a) List two preparations shown every month by the uterus in

anticipation of pregnancy in humans?

(b) Why is variation important in organisms?

Answer: (a) The two preparations shown every month by the

uterus in anticipation of pregnancy in human are:
(i) the wall of uterus becomes thick to receive the fertilised egg
and

(ii) the uterine wall is richly supplied with blood to nourish the
growing embryo.

(b) Variation is important in organisms because:

Adaptation to Environment: Helps organisms survive

environmental changes.

Foundation of Evolution: Drives natural selection and evolution of

species.

Prevents Extinction: Increases chances of survival during

diseases or climate changes.

Diversity in Traits: Leads to better chances of survival for the

population.

REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH

It is the overall wellbeing of an individual in all aspects related

to reproduction including physical, emotional, and social health.

It involves safe reproductive practices, awareness, and the

prevention of diseases.

Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STDs):Sexually Transmitted

diseases (STDs) are infections passed from one person to another
through sexual contact with an infected individual.

Bacterial infections 📌📌📌📌 Syphilis, Gonorrhoea

Viral infections 📌📌📌📌 HIV virus, Genital Warts

Contraception; Methods or devices used to prevent pregnancy. It

includes techniques like condoms, oral pills, intrauterine devices
(IUDs), and sterilization procedures. It should be adopted

 To prevent unwanted children.

 To maintain the distance between two children and plan the
family.
 To prevent sexually transmitted diseases.
 1. Mechanical/barrier method

Barrier methods, such as condoms (for males and females) and

diaphragms (for females), prevent the sperm and ovum from
meeting.

They also help prevent the transmission of sexually transmitted

diseases by blocking the intermixing of body fluids.

2. Chemical Methods:
Hormonal contraceptives, such as oral and vaginal pills, prevent
ovulation, alter cervical mucus, or change the uterine lining to
prevent implantation. However, these methods may have side
effects and do not protect against sexually transmitted diseases
(STDs).

3.Intrauterine Devices (IUDs):

These are small T-shaped devices that are planted in the uterus

Copper-T or Loop placed in the uterus to prevent pregnancy.

Can cause uterine irritation in some cases.

4.Surgical Methods (Permanent):

Male (Vasectomy): Blocking the vas deferens to prevent sperm

Female (Tubectomy): Blocking the fallopian tubes to prevent ego

Surgery is safe in the long run but may have risks like infection.

Which of the following is a surgical method of contraception?

(A) Use of a condom

(B) Copper-T insertion
(C) Vasectomy
(D) Oral pills

Suggest three contraceptive methods to control the size of

human population which is essential for the health and prosperity
of a country. State the principle involved mach.

Q: Name the part/organ of the human female reproductive

system.

Qns: Where contraceptive devices such as loop or copper-T are

placed to prevent pregnancy.
Qns-Which is blocked to prevent the transfer of eggs.

Qns Where formation of green cells as ova takes place.

Qns From where the embryo gets nutrition from the mother’s
blood

Q. The growing size of the human population is a cause of

concern for all people. The rate of birth and death in a given
population will determine its size. Reproduction is the process by
which organisms increase their population. The process of sexual
maturation for reproduction is gradual and takes place while
general body growth is still going on. Some degree of sexual
maturation does not necessarily mean that the mind or body is
ready for sexual acts or for having and bringing up children.
Various contraceptive devices are being used by human beings to
control the size of population.

(i) List two common signs of sexual maturation in

boys and girls
(ii) What is the result of reckless female Foeticide?
(iii) Which contraceptive method changes the
hormonal balance of the body?

(iv) Write two factors that Determine the size of a

population. (2020)