PRACTICAL OF

COMPUTER NETWORK

SUBMITTTED TO :
PROF. SHARANJIT KAUR

SUBMITTED BY :- GULSHAN KUMAR

ROLL NO :- 2300363
GROUP :- 5C13 SEMESTER :- 5TH

BABA BANDA SINGH BAHADUR ENGINEERING COLLAGE

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE
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 PRACTICAL NO. 1
OBJECTIVE :- To study the different types of Network cables and network topologies.

❖ Network cable - Network cables are essential components in computer networks, enabling devices
to communicate and share data effectively. The main types include Ethernet, coaxial, twisted-pair, and
fiber-optic cables.

➢ Types of network cable.

a) Ethernet cables :- An ethernet cable allows the user to connect their devices such as computers,
mobile phones, routers, etc, to a Local Area Network (LAN) that will allow a user to have internet
access, and able to communicate with each other through a wired connection.

b) Coaxical cables ;- This cable contains a conductor, insulator, braiding, and sheath. The sheath
covers the braiding, the braiding covers the insulation, and the insulation covers the conductor.

 Sheath :- This is the outer layer of the coaxial cable. It protects the cable from physical damage.
 Braided shield :- This shield protects signals from external interference and noise. This shield
is built from the same metal that is used to build the core.
 Insulation :- Insulation protects the core. It also keeps the core separate from the braided
shield. Since both the core and the braided shield use the same metal, without this layer, they
will touch each other and create a short-circuit in the wire.
  Conductor :- The conductor carries electromagnetic signals. Based on the conductor a
coaxial cable can be categorized into two types; single-core coaxial cable and multi-core
coaxial cable. A single-core coaxial cable uses a single central metal (usually copper)
conductor, while a multi-core coaxial cable uses multiple thin strands of metal wires. The
following image shows both types of cable.

• Coaxial cables in computer networks

 The coaxial cables were not primarily developed for the computer network. These cables were
developed for general purposes. They were in use even before computer networks came into
existence. They are still used even though their use in computer networks has been completely
discontinued.

• Specifications of coaxial cables

 Coaxial cables have been in use for the last four decades. During these years, based on several
factors such as the thickness of the sheath, the metal of the conductor, and the material used
in insulation, hundreds of specifications have been created to specify the characteristics of
coaxial cables.

● Coaxial cable uses RG rating to measure the materials used in shielding and conducting cores.
● RG stands for the Radio Guide. Coaxial cable mainly uses radio frequencies in transmission.
● Impedance is the resistance that controls the signals. It is expressed in the ohms.
● AWG stands for American Wire Gauge. It is used to measure the size of the core. The larger the
AWG size, the smaller the diameter of the core wire.

c) Twisted-pair cables :- The twisted-pair cable was primarily developed for computer networks.
This cable is also known as Ethernet cable. Almost all modern LAN computer networks use this
cable.
• This cable consists of color-coded pairs of insulated copper wires. Every two wires are twisted
around each other to form pair. Usually, there are four pairs. Each pair has one solid color and
one stripped color wire. Solid colors are blue, brown, green, and orange. In striped color, the
solid color is mixed with the white color.
• Based on how pairs are stripped in the plastic sheath, there are two types of twisted-pair cable;
UTP and STP.
• In the UTP (Unshielded twisted-pair) cable, all pairs are wrapped in a single plastic sheath.
• In the STP (Shielded twisted-pair) cable, each pair is wrapped with an additional metal shield,
then all pairs are wrapped in a single outer plastic sheath.
 • Both cables use the same RJ-45 (registered jack) modular connectors.
• The maximum segment length for both cables is 100 meters or 328 feet.
• Both cables can accommodate a maximum of 1024 nodes in each segment
❖ The following image shows both types of twisted-pair cables.

d) Fiber optic cables :- This cable consists of a core, cladding, buffer, and jacket. The core is made
from thin strands of glass or plastic that can carry data over a long distance. The core is wrapped
in the cladding; the cladding is wrapped in the buffer, and the buffer is wrapped in the jacket.

• Core carries the data signals in the form of light.

• Cladding reflects light back to the core.
• Buffer protects the light from leaking.
• The jacket protects the cable from physical damage.

 Fiber optic cable is completely immune to EMI and RFI. This cable can transmit data over a long
distance at the highest speed. It can transmit data up to 40 kilometers at the speed of 100Gbps.
 Fiber optic uses light to send data. It reflects light from one endpoint to another. Based on how
many beams of light are transmitted at a given time, there are two types of fiber optical cable; SMF
and MMF.

❖ SMF (Single-mode fiber) optical cable

 This cable carries only a single beam of light. This is more reliable and supports much higher
bandwidth and longer distances than the MMF cable. This cable uses a laser as the light source
and transmits 1300 or 1550 nano-meter wavelengths of light.
 ❖ MMF (multi-mode fiber) optical cable
 This cable carries multiple beams of light. Because of multiple beams, this cable carries much
more data than the SMF cable. This cable is used for shorter distances. This cable uses an LED
as the light source and transmits 850 or 1300 nano-meter wavelengths of light.
❖ Network topology :- the arrangement or structure of elements within a network, such as nodes
(devices) and links (connections). It defines how these components are organized and interact with
one another, influencing the network's performance, scalability, and reliability.

 There are two primary types of network topology:

• Physical Topology: Describes the actual physical layout of devices and cables in a network.
• Logical Topology: Focuses on how data flows between devices, regardless of their physical
arrangement.

❖ Common Types of Network Topologies

1. Bus Topology:- Bus Topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is
connected to a single cable. It is bi-directional. It is a multi-point connection and a non-robust
topology because if the backbone fails the topology crashes.
 MAC (Media Access Control) protocols are followed by LAN ethernet connections
like TDMA, Pure Aloha, CDMA, Slotted Aloha, etc.

❖ Advantages of Bus Topology

• If N devices are connected to each other in a bus topology, then the number of cables required to
connect them is 1, known as backbone cable, and N drop lines are required.
• Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly used in bus-based networks that support up to 10 Mbps.
• The cost of the cable is less compared to other topologies, but it is used to build small networks.
• Bus topology is familiar technology as installation and troubleshooting techniques are well known.
• CSMA is the most common method for this type of topology.

❖ Disadvantages of Bus Topology

• A bus topology is quite simpler, but still, it requires a lot of cabling.

• If the common cable fails, then the whole system will crash down.
• If the network traffic is heavy, it increases collisions in the network. To avoid this, various protocols
are used in the MAC layer known as Pure Aloha, Slotted Aloha, CSMA/CD, etc.
• Adding new devices to the network would slow down networks.
2. Star Topology:- The devices are connected to a single hub through a cable. This hub is the central
node and all other nodes are connected to the central node. The hub can be passive in nature i.e., not
an intelligent hub such as broadcasting devices, at the same time the hub can be intelligent known as
an active hub. Active hubs have repeaters in them. Coaxial cables or RJ-45 cables are used to
connect the computers. I
 many popular Ethernet LAN protocols are used as CD(Collision Detection), CSMA (Carrier Sense
Multiple Access), etc.

❖ Advantages of Star Topology

• If N devices are connected to each other in a star topology, then the number of cables required to
connect them is N. So, it is easy to set up.
• Each device requires only 1 port i.e. to connect to the hub, therefore the total number of ports
required is N.
• It is Robust. If one link fails only that link will affect and not other than that.
• Easy to fault identification and fault isolation.
• Star topology is cost-effective as it uses inexpensive coaxial cable.

❖ Disadvantages of Star Topology

• If the concentrator (hub) on which the whole topology relies fails, the whole system will crash down.
• The cost of installation is high.
• Performance is based on the single concentrator i.e. hub.

3. Ring Topology: Devices are connected in a circular manner. Data flows in one direction, reducing
collisions, but a single failure can disrupt the entire network.
 A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with a large number of nodes, because if someone
wants to send some data to the last node in the ring topology with 100 nodes, then the data will
have to pass through 99 nodes to reach the 100th node. Hence to prevent data loss repeaters are
used in the network.
❖ The most common access method of ring topology is token passing.
• Token passing: It is a network access method in which a token is passed from one node to
another node.
• Token: It is a frame that circulates around the network.

❖ Advantages of Ring Topology

• The data transmission is high-speed.
• The possibility of collision is minimum in this type of topology.
• Cheap to install and expand.
• It is less costly than a star topology.

❖ Disadvantages of Ring Topology

• The failure of a single node in the network can cause the entire network to fail.
• Troubleshooting is difficult in this topology.
• The addition of stations in between or the removal of stations can disturb the whole topology.
• Less secure.

4. Mesh Topology: Every device is connected to every other device. It offers high fault tolerance and
security but is expensive and complex to implement.
 every device is connected to another device via a particular channel. Every device is connected
to another via dedicated channels.
 The protocols used are AHCP (Ad Hoc Configuration Protocols), DHCP (Dynamic Host
Configuration Protocol), etc.
❖ Advantages of Mesh Topology
• Communication is very fast between the nodes.
• Mesh Topology is robust.
• The fault is diagnosed easily. Data is reliable because data is transferred among the devices
through dedicated channels or links.
• Provides security and privacy.
❖ Disadvantages of Mesh Topology
• Installation and configuration are difficult.
• The cost of cables is high as bulk wiring is required, hence suitable for less number of devices.
• The cost of maintenance is high.

5. Tree Topology: Combines features of bus and star topologies, with hierarchical connections. It is
scalable but relies heavily on the central hub.
 Tree topology is the variation of the Star topology. This topology has a hierarchical flow of data. In
Tree Topology, protocols like DHCP and SAC (Standard Automatic Configuration) are used.

❖ Advantages of Tree Topology

• It allows the network to get isolated and also prioritize from different computers.
• We can add new devices to the existing network.
• Error detection and error correction are very easy in a tree topology.

❖ Disadvantages of Tree Topology

• If the central hub gets fails the entire system fails.
• The cost is high because of the cabling.
• If new devices are added, it becomes difficult to reconfigure.

6. Hybrid Topology: Combines multiple topologies to meet specific needs. It is flexible and scalable
but can be costly and complex.
 Hybrid Topology is the combination of all the various types of topologies we have studied above.
Hybrid Topology is used when the nodes are free to take any form.
 It means these can be individuals such as Ring or Star topology or can be a combination of
various types of topologies seen above. Each individual topology uses the protocol that has been
discussed earlier.
❖ Advantages of Hybrid Topology
• This topology is very flexible .
• The size of the network can be easily expanded by adding new devices.
❖ Disadvantages of Hybrid Topology
• It is challenging to design the architecture of the Hybrid Network.
• Hubs used in this topology are very expensive.
• The infrastructure cost is very high as a hybrid network requires a lot of cabling and network
devices
 PRACTICAL NO. 2
Aim: Study of different types of Network cables and practically implements the cross-wired
cable and straight through cable using clamping tool.

Apparatus (Components): RJ-45 connector, Climping Tool, Twisted pair Cable

Procedure: To do these practical following steps should be done:

1. Start by stripping off about 2 inches of the plastic jacket off the end of the cable. Be very
careful at this point, as to not nick or cut into the wires, which are inside. Doing so could alter
the characteristics of your cable, or even worse render is useless. Check the wires, one
more time for nicks or cuts. If there are any, just whack the whole end off, and start over.

2. Spread the wires apart, but be sure to hold onto the base of the jacket with your other hand.
You do not want the wires to become untwisted down inside the jacket. Category 5 cable
must only have 1/2 of an inch of 'untwisted' wire at the end; otherwise it will be 'out of spec'.
At this point, you obviously have ALOT more than 1/2 of an inch of un-twisted wire.

3. You have 2 end jacks, which must be installed on your cable. If you are using a pre-made
cable, with one of the ends whacked off, you only have one end to install - the crossed over
end. Below are two diagrams, which show how you need to arrange the cables for each
type of cable end. Decide at this point which end you are making and examine the
associated picture below.

Green-White

Green

Orange-White

Blue

Blue-White

Orange

Brown-White

Brown
 Green-White

Green

Orange-White

Blue

Blue-White

Orange
Brown-White
Brown

 Ethernet cable tips.

• A straight-thru cable has identical ends.

• A crossover cable has different ends.
• A straight-thru is used as a patch cord in Ethernet connections.
• A crossover is used to connect two Ethernet devices without a hub or for connecting two hubs.
• A crossover has one end with the Orange set of wires switched with the Green set.
• Odd numbered pins are always striped; even numbered pins are always solid coloured.
• Looking at the RJ-45 with the clip facing away from you, Brown is always on the right, and pin 1 is
on the left.
• No more than 1/2" of the Ethernet cable should be untwisted otherwise it will be susceptible
to crosstalk.
• Do not deform, do not bend, do not stretch, do not staple, do not run parallel with power cables,
and do not run Ethernet cables near noise inducing components.
 PRACTICAL NO. 3
Task :- study & familization with various N/W devices.
1. Repeater
 A repeater is a network device that regenerates weakened or corrupted signals to restore them to
their original form before retransmission. It operates at the physical layer (Layer 1) of the OSI model.
Unlike an amplifier, which increases both signal and noise, a repeater reconstructs the original clean
signal and forwards it, ensuring reliable data delivery over longer distances.

 Repeaters are widely used in both wired networks (Ethernet, telephone lines, optical fiber) and
wireless networks (Wi-Fi, radio, cellular communication).
❖ Features of Repeaters
 Regenerates signals without altering the original data.
 Works with both analog and digital signals (depending on the type).
 Extends the range of a network beyond distance limitations.
❖ Working of Repeaters
 Initially the source system transmits the signals. This source systems can be a mobile phone,
laptop or radio.
 This transmitted signal from the source system travels in air if it's wireless network or through the
cable if it is wired network. As the signal goes away from the source it's strength gets weak.

2. Hub
 A hub has many ports in it. A computer which intends to be connected to the network is plugged
in to one of these ports. When a data frame arrives at a port, it is broadcast to every other port,
without considering whether it is destined for a particular destination device or not.
❖ Features of Hubs
• A hub operates in the physical layer of the OSI model.
• A hub cannot filter data. It is a non-intelligent network device that sends message to all ports.
• It primarily broadcasts messages. So, the collision domain of all nodes connected through the hub
stays one.
• Transmission mode is half duplex.

❖ Working of hubs
• A hub is a multiport device, which has multiple ports in a device and shares the data to multiple
ports altogether.
• A hub acts as a dumb switch that does not know, which data needs to be forwarded where so it
broadcasts or sends the data to each port.

3. Bridges
 A bridge in a computer network is a device used to connect multiple LANs together with a larger
Local Area Network (LAN). The mechanism of network aggregation is known as bridging. The
bridge is a physical or hardware device but operates at the OSI model's data link layer and is also
known as a layer of two switches.

❖ Features of Bridges
• Segmentation: Bridges divide a network into smaller segments, reducing collision domains and
improving overall network performance.
• Filtering: Bridges analyze incoming data packets and filter them based on MAC addresses,
forwarding packets only to the appropriate segments.
• Address Learning: Bridges maintain a table of MAC addresses associated with each network
segment, allowing them to learn and store addresses dynamically as devices communicate.
• Forwarding Decisions: Based on address tables, bridges make intelligent decisions about
whether to forward data packets to another segment or discard them, reducing unnecessary
network traffic.
• Broadcast Control: Bridges filter and control broadcast packets, preventing them from
inundating every segment and conserving network bandwidth.
❖ Working of Bridges
• Receiving Data: The bridge gets data packets (or frames) from both network segments A and B.
• Building a Table: It creates a table of MAC addresses by looking at where the data is coming from
to know which device is on which segment.
• Filtering Data: If the data from network A is meant for a device also on network A, the bridge
stops it from going further.
• Forwarding Data: If the data from network A is meant for a device on network B, the bridge sends
it to the correct place on network B.
• Repeating for Both Sides: The bridge does the same thing for data coming from network B.

4. Switch
 A switch has many ports, to which computers are plugged in. When a data frame arrives at any
port of a network switch, it examines the destination address, performs necessary checks and
sends the frame to the corresponding device(s). It supports unicast, multicast as well as
broadcast communications.

❖ Features of switch
• It operates in the Data Link Layer in the OSI Model.
• It performs error checking before forwarding data.
• It transfers the data only to the device that has been addressed.
• It operates in full duplex mode.
• It allocates each LAN segment to a limited bandwidth.
• It uses Unicast (one-to-one), multicast (one-to-many), and broadcast (one-to-all) transmission
modes.

❖ Working of switch
• Network switches help provide automatic link connections that remove time-consuming settings
and provide easy access to network devices.
• Switches provide a better, more secure, reliable network having more control over data.
• Generally, switches work in full duplex mode, which helps in continuous data transmission and
that improves better connectivity.
• As MAC Address is used for the devices connected to it, that helps in the delivery of messages to
only the required destination, not everywhere.
5. Router
 A Router is a networking device that forwards data packets between computer networks. One or
more packet-switched networks or subnetworks can be connected using a router. By sending data
packets to their intended IP addresses, it manages traffic between different networks and permits
several devices to share an Internet connection.

❖ Features of a Router
• Packet Forwarding – Transfers data packets between different networks.
• Routing Table – Maintains a routing table with network paths to decide the best route.
• IP Addressing – Works with logical addressing (IPv4 & IPv6).
• (NAT) – Converts private IP addresses into public IPs for internet access.
• Firewall & Security – Filters traffic, blocks unauthorized access, and supports VPNs.

❖ Work / Functions of a Router

• Receives Data Packet – The router receives a packet from a device or another router.
• Checks Destination IP Address – It examines the destination IP in the packet header.
• Consults Routing Table – The router looks up the best available path for that IP.
• Forwards Packet – Sends the packet to the next hop (another router or destination device).
• Performs NAT – If the packet is going to the Internet, it replaces the private IP with the router’s
public IP.

6. Gateway
 A Gateway is a network device (or sometimes software) that acts as a "translator" between two
different networks that use different protocols, architectures, or data formats.
It works at multiple layers of the OSI model, but primarily at the Network Layer and above.
❖ Features of a Gateway
• Protocol Conversion – Converts data between different communication protocols.
• Connectivity – Connects networks that otherwise couldn’t communicate.
• Data Translation – Translates packet formats, addresses, and even data structures.
• Application Support – Can work at higher levels (e.g., Email Gateway, VoIP Gateway).
• Security – Provides firewalling, filtering, and authentication.
❖ Functions / Work of a Gateway
• Receives Data from one network.
• Converts Protocols so the destination network can understand it.
• Checks Security Rules before forwarding.
• Routes Data towards the correct destination (similar to a router, but with translation).
• Delivers Data in the format the receiving network understands.

7. NIC
 A NIC (Network Interface Card) is a hardware component (either built-in or installed separately)
that allows a computer or device to connect to a network.
 It provides the physical interface (wired or wireless) for communication between a device and
the network.
 It works at the Data Link Layer (Layer 2) and partly at the Physical Layer (Layer 1) of the OSI
model.

❖ Features of NIC
• Unique MAC Address – Each NIC has a unique (MAC) address burned into its firmware.
• Connectivity – Provides wired (Ethernet) or wireless (Wi-Fi) connection.
• Speed – Supports various speeds (10 Mbps, 100 Mbps, 1 Gbps, 10 Gbps).

❖ Work of NIC
• Physical Connection – Provides a port (RJ-45 for Ethernet, antenna for Wi-Fi) to connect devices.
• Data Conversion – Converts data into electrical/optical/radio signals for transmission.
• Framing – Prepares data packets into frames for sending over the network.