CLASS-XII

COMPUTER SCIENCE (083)

UNIT-III DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
CHAPTER-9 DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (DBMS)
9.1 INTRODUCTION:

DBMS is a collection of interrelated data in arranged form and set of programs used
to access those data.

Advantages of DBMS:
 Control of data redundancy
 Data consistency
 Sharing of data
 Data Integrity
 Data isolation
 Privacy and Security

9.2 DATA MODELS:

Data models describe the structure of the database. There are four data models in
DBMS:
1. Relational Data Model
2. Hierarchical Data Model
3. Network Model
4. Object Oriented Data Model
1. Relational Data Model: This database consists of a collection of table. These tables
are called relations. A row in a table represents a relationship among a set of values.
  Relation: A relation is a table with columns and rows.
 Tuple: A row of a relation OR a row of a table.

 Domain: A set of values for the columns.

 Attribute: Column name of a relation.

 Degree: Number of attributes in a table.

 Cardinality: Number of tuples OR Number of rows in a table.

 View: A virtual table that does not exists but it is derived from other table.

2. Hierarchical Data Model: In this model the data are represented by collection and
relationship between data are represented by links. In this model the collection of
data are organized as tree.
 3. Network Data Model: This is same as the hierarchical model but in this model the
collection of data is organized as arbitrary graphs.

4. Object Oriented Data Model: In this model the data and its operations are
represented by objects.

NOTE: Some Definitions:-

Record: A record in a database is a collection of information that is organized in a

table. A record can have one or more values. Records are often called rows. E.g
Collection of attributes
File: A database file is a data file that stores data in an organized and structured
format. Database files are also known as tables e.g Collection of records

9.3 KEYS:

A key allows us to identify a set of attributes that distinguish entities from each
other.
 There are four keys:

1. Primary Key
2. Candidate Key
3. Alternate Key
4. Foreign Key

1. Primary Key: A primary key is a set of one or more attributes that can uniquely
identify tuples within the relation. This key does not have duplicate values in the
relation. There must be any value for this key, it cannot be NULL.

Primary Key

Roll_no. Name F_Name Stream DOB

Table: STUDENT

2. Candidate Key: All attributes combination inside a relation that can serve as a
primary key, is called candidate key.

{Name, F_Name} Candidate Key

{Name, DOB}

3. Alternate Key: A candidate key that is not the primary key is called an alternate
key.

4. Foreign Key: A non-key attribute whose values are derived from the primary key
of some other table, is known as foreign key in its current table.

Primary Key TABLE: CUSTOMER (Parent Table)

 Cust_ID First_Name Last_Name

Primary Key TABLE: ORDERS (Child Table) Foreign Key

Order_No. Order_Date Cust_ID Amount

Primary key of parent table becomes the foreign key for the child table.
9.4 INTRODUCTION TO MySQL:

9.4.1 Introduction:
 MySQL stands for My Structured Query Language.
 MySQL is freely available, Open source Relational Database Management
System (RDBMS).

9.4.2 Features of MySQL:

a. Cost: Freely available

b. Performance: MySQL is fast.
c. Simplicity: MySQL is easy to install.
d. High Performance
e. Data Security: In has powerful mechanism for ensuring only authorized users have
access the data.
f. Flexibility

9.4.3 STARTING MySQL:

First you have to install MySQL on your system. Then click on

Start All Programs MySQL MySQL Command Line Client

9.5 SQL:-

 SQL stands for Structured Query Language.

 This is non-procedural Language.
 This is the common language for relational database. Means this language is
used in MySQL.

Difference between SQL and MySQL:

SQL MySQL
This is the language that used in
This is the open source database.
database.

This language is used in MySQL to This is the database. It uses the SQL to
write the commands in queries. write the queries.
9.6 SQL Elements:

There are four basic elements of SQL:

1. Literal
2. Data Types
3. Nulls
4. Comments

1. Literal: A literal is a fixed data value. This fix value may be numeric or character.

Integer Literal (75,+23, -765,34)

Numeric Literal Decimal Literal (75, 23.45, 0.375, -36)

Float, Real, double Literal

(-2300, -23E2, 0.1256)

Character Literal: All character literals are enclosed in single quotation mark or double
quotation marks.

For example :- ‘a’ , “yogesh” , ‘5’, “xyz5”

2. Data Types:- Data types are rules that define what data may be stored in a column
and how that data is actually stored. Data types used in MySQL categorized into
four categories:
(i) Numeric
(ii) String
(iii) Date and Time
(iv) Binary
(i) Numeric: This data type stores numbers.
Int Normal size integer that can be signed or unsigned. Width
upto 11 digits.
TinyInt A very small integer that can be signed or unsigned. Width
upto 4 digits.
SmallInt A small integer that can be signed or unsigned. Width upto
5 digits.
MediumInt A medium size integer that can be signed or unsigned.
Width upto 9 digits.
BigInt A large integer that can be signed or unsigned.
Float(M,D) A floating point number.
M :- Length of total number
D :- Number of decimals
Ex.- Float(10,2)
10 is the total number of digits and 2 is the number of
decimals.
DOUBLE(M,D) A double precision floating point number.
Decimal(M,D) Floating point values with varying levels of precision.

(ii) String:
Char(M) A fix length string between 1 to 255 characters.
M :- Length
Varchar(M) A variable length string between 1 to 255 characters.
Enum Accepts one of a predefined set of strings.
Text Variable length text with a maximum size of 64 K.
TinyTEXT Same as text, but with a maximum size of 255 bytes.
MediumTEXT Same as text, but with a maximum size of 16K.
LongTEXT Same as text, but with maximum size of 4GB.

(iii) DATE and TIME:

DATE YYYY-MM-DD format. Example: 1998-08-12
DATETIME YYYY-MM-DD HH:MM:SS format. Example: 1998-08-
12 23:37:15
TIMESTAMP This is same as DATETIME data type, only without
hyphens between numbers. YYYYMMDDHHMMSS
format.
Example: 19980812233715
TIME Stores the time in HH:MM:SS format.
YEAR(M) Stores a year in a 2 digits or 4-digits.
M :- Length
Example: YEAR(2) means 98
YEAR(4) means 1998
 (iv) Binary Data Type: Stores the data in binary objects, such as graphics, images,
multimedia etc.
BLOB Stands for Binary Large Objects.
Maximum Length=64K
TINYBLOB Maximum length=255 bytes.
MEDIUMBLOB Maximum Length= 16MB
LONGBLOB Maximum length= 4GB
3. NULL values: If a column in a row has no value, then column is said to be null.
NULLs can appear in a column if the column is not restricted by NOT NULL or
Primary Key. You should use a null value when the actual value is not known.
Null and Zero is not equivalent. Any arithmetic expression containing a null
always evaluates to null.
Example: 7 + null = null
7+0=7 Difference between null and zero.

4. Comments: Comment is a text that is not executed. There are two types of
comments that we use in MySQL.
(i) Single line Comment: Beginning with two hyphens (--) OR beginning
with # symbol.
(ii) Multi Line Comment: /*………………………………………..
…………………………………….*/

Difference between char and varchar:

Char Varchar
1. Fixed length character string. Variable length character string.
2. When a column is given data type
Each value that is stored in this
as char(N). If a value is shorter
column stores exactly as you specify
than this length N then blanks are
it. No blanks are added, if the length
added, but the size of value
is shorter than maximum length N.
remains N byte.
3. Faster to access. Takes less disk space.
9.7 Classification of SQL commands:

SQL commands are categorized into four sub languages:

(i) Data Definition Language (DDL)

(ii)Data Manipulation Language (DML)
(iii) Transaction Control Language (TCL)
(iv) Data Control Language (DCL)

(i) Data Definition Language (DDL): It consist the commands to create objects such
as tables, views, indexes etc. in the database.
COMMANDS: CREATE, ALTER, DROP, RENAME, TRUNCATE

(ii)Data Manipulation Language (DML): It is used for queries. It allows you to

perform data manipulation e.g. retrieval, insertion, deletion, modification of
data stored in database.
COMMANDS: SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE

(iii) Transaction Control Language (TCL): This language allows you to manage
and control the transaction.
COMMANDS: COMMIT, ROLLBACK
NOTE:- Savepoint is also used in TCL.

(iv) Data Control Language (DCL): This language is used to control data and access
to the databases. It is used for protecting the data from unauthorized access.
COMMANDS: GRANT, REVOKE

9.8 SQL QUERIES:

In MySQL, to create new tables or query, the user must specify the database. This
database is called current database.

To check the available database in MySQL:-

SHOW databases;

To access the database:-

Syntax:- USE database-name;

Example: USE school;

 A database has tables. Tables have rows and columns.

To show the available tables in the database:-

SHOW tables;

CREATING DATABASE: In MySQL we can create the databases using CREATE

DATABASE statement.

Syntax: CREATE DATABASE <database-name>;

Example: CREATE DATABASE Bank;

OPENING DATABASE:

Syntax: USE <database-name>;

Example: USE Bank;

DROPPING DATABASES: To remove the entire database we use the DROP

DATABASE statement.

Syntax: DROP DATABASE <database-name>;

Example: DROP DATABASE Bank;

Creating Tables in MySQL:

Tables are created using CTREATE TABLE command.

A table has rows and columns. The column name must be specified along the data type.
Each table must have at least one column.

Syntax:

CREATE TABLE <table-name>(<column-name> <data-type> (size), <column-name>

<data-type> (size), <column-name> <data-type> (size) );

Example:

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CREATE TABLE EMPLOYEE(Ecode int(6), Ename varchar(30), Dept varchar(30), city
varchar(25), sex char(1), DOB Date, salary float(12,2) );

Ecode Ename Dept City Sex Dob Salary

Fig. : EMPLOYEE
Viewing a table structure:

DESC <table-name>;

Example: DESC EMPLOYEE;

Or we can write

DESCRIBE EMPLOYEE;

Inserting data into table:

The rows(tuples) are added to relations(tables) using INSERT command.

Syntax:

INSERT INTO <table-name>[<column-name>] VALUES (<value1>, <value2>,

……….);

Example: INSERT INTO EMPLOYEE VALUES(1001, ’Amit’, ’production’,

’Ahemedabad’, ’M’, ’1988-08-22’, 20000.00);

The into clause specifies the target table and the value clause specifies the data to
be added to the new row of the table.

While inserting data into tables, following points should be taken care of:
 Character data should be enclosed within single quotes.
 NULL values are given as NULL, without any quotes.

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  If no data is available for all the columns then the column list must be included,
following the table name. Example: INSERT INTO EMPLOYEE(Ecode, Ename,
salary) VALUES(1001, ‘Amit’, 20000.00);

After inserting the data , we created the following table:

Ecode Ename Dept City Sex DOB Salary

1001 Amit Production Ahemedabad M 1988-08-22 38000.00
1002 Sanjeev Marketing New Delhi M 1990-09-05 32000.00
1003 Imran RND Surat M 1989-01-01 40000.00
1004 Harish RND Jaipur M 1988-01-20 40050.00
1005 Neha Marketing Guwahati F 1985-04-15 35000.00
1006 Dheeraj Production Mumbai M 1984-03-02 39000.00
1007 Vikram Marketing Shimla M 1990-10-10 31000.00
1008 Ashok Marketing Patna M 1980-09-11 40000.00
1009 Priyanka RND Gurgaon F 1990-07-23 40000.00
1010 Seema Production New Delhi F 1989-05-16 37000.00
1011 Manish Marketing Guwahati M 1980-02-07 39050.00
Table: EMPLOYEE

9.9 CONSTRAINTS:

A constraint is a condition on a field or on set of fields. There are six types of constraints
that we use in MySQL:-

(i) NOT NULL

(ii)DEFAULT
(iii) UNIQUE
(iv) CHECK
(v) PRIMARY KEY
(vi) FOREIGN KEY

(i) NOT NULL Constraint: This constraint ensures that a column cannot have
NULL value. By default, a column can hold NULL. If you add a NOT NULL
constraint on a column it cannot hold a NULL.

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How to apply NOT NULL constraint:-

(a) When we are creating a table:-

Example:-

CREATE TABLE EMPLOYEE (Ecode int(6) NOT NULL, Ename

varchar(30) NOT NULL, Dept varchar(25));

Now Ecode and Ename columns cannot include NULL.

(b) Add NOT NULL constraint in a existing table column:

Example:-

ALTER TABLE EMPLOYEE

MODIFY Ecode int(6) NOT NULL;

(ii) DEFAULT Constraint:- The DEFAULT constraint provides a default value to a

column. When a user does not enter the value for a column, automatically the
defined default value is inserted into the field.

How to apply default constraint:-

(a) While we are creating a table:-

Example:-

CREATE TABLE EMPLOYEE (Ecode int(6), Ename varchar(30),

Salary float(12,2)
DEFAULT 25000.00);

(b) Add DEFAULT constraint in an existing table column:-

Example:-

ALTER TABLE EMPLOYEE

MODIFY Salary float(12,2) DEFAULT 25000.00;

(iii) UNIQUE Constraint:- It ensures that all values in a column are different.

How to apply unique constraints:-

(a) While we are creating a table:-

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 Example:-

CREATE TABLE EMPLOYEE (Ecode int(6) UNIQUE, Ename

varchar(30), Dept varchar(25));

(b) Add unique constraint in an existing table column:

Example:-
ALTER TABLE EMPLOYEE
MODIFY Ecode int(6) UNIQUE;

(iv) CHECK constraint: - It make sure that all the values in a column satisfy
certain criteria.

How to apply check constraint:-

(a) While we are creating a table:-

Example:-

CREATE TABLE EMPLOYEE (Ecode int(11) CHECK(Ecode>0), Ename

varchar(30));

(b) Add check constraint on an existing table column:-

Example:-

ALTER TABLE EMPLOYEE

ADD CHECK(Ecode>0);

(v) Primary Key Constraint: - This is used to uniquely identify a row in a table.

How to apply primary key constraint:-

(a) While creating a table:-

Example:-
CREATE TABLE EMPLOYEE (Ecode int(6) PRIMARY KEY,
Ename varchar(30), city varchar(30));
(b) Add primary key constraint on an existing table column:-
Example:-
ALTER TABLE EMPLOYEE
ADD PRIMARY KEY (Ecode);

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 (vi) Foreign Key Constraint:- Whenever two tables are related by a common
column, then the related column in the parent table should be either declared a
PRIMARY KEY or UNIQUE KEY and the related column in the child table
should have FOREIGN KEY constraint.

Syntax:-
Foreign key(<column-to-be-designated-as-foreign-key>) references parent-table
(<primary-key-of parent table>);

Primary Key TABLE: CUSTOMER (Parent Table)

Cust_ID First_Name Last_Name

Primary Key TABLE: ORDERS (Child Table) Foreign Key

Order_No. Order_Date Cust_ID Amount

Primary key of parent table becomes the foreign key for the child table.

(a) While creating a table:-

Example:-
CREATE TABLE ORDERS (Order_no int PRIMARY KEY, Order_Date Date,
Cust_ID integer, Amount double, foreign key(cust_ID) references
CUSTOMER(cust_ID));

(b) Add foreign key constraint through ALTER table:-

Example:-
ALTER TABLE ORDERS
ADD foreign key (cust_ID) references CUSTOMER(cust_ID);

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 Dropping a constraint:-

The syntax is:-

ALTER TABLE table-name

DROP constraint<constraint-name>;

Example:

To remove primary key constraint:-

ALTER TABLE EMPLOYEE

DROP PRIMARY KEY;

To remove foreign key constraint:-

ALTER TABLE table1

DROP FOREIGN KEY fk1;

In this query table name is table1 and foreign key constraint is fk1.

9.10 ADDING NEW COLUMN IN A TABLE:-

Syntax:-

ALTER TABLE table-name

ADD col-name data-type(size);

Example: Add a new column address in employee table.

ALTER TABLE EMPLOYEE

ADD address varchar(50);

9.11 MODIFYING A TABLE COLUMN:

(i) To change the data-type and size of the column, we use the MODIFY
command.
(ii) To change the name of the column, we use the CHANGE command.

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 (i) To change the data-type and size of the column, we use the
MODIFY command:-
The syntax is:-

ALTER TABLE table-name

MODIFY(Col_name newdatatype(newsize));

Example:

ALTER TABLE EMPLOYEE

MODIFY city char(30);

(ii) To change the name of the column, we use the CHANGE

command:-ALTER TABLE <table-name>

CHANGE oldcolumnname newcolumnname col-definition;

Example:

ALTER TABLE EMPLOYEE

CHANGE Dept Department varchar(30);

9.12 DROPPING A TABLE:

To remove the entire structure of the table completely, we use the DROP
TABLE command.

Syntax:

DROP TABLE <table-name>;

Example:

DROP TABLE EMPLOYEE;

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 9.13 MANIPULATING DATA OF A TABLE:-

(i) Retrieving data : SELECT command

(ii) Inserting data : INSERT command
(iii) Deleting data : DELETE command
(iv) Modification : UPDATE command

(i) SELECT Command:- A SELECT command retrieves information from the database.

(ii) INSERT Command:- This command is used to insert the data in table.
NOTE:- We have already discussed about this command.

(iii) DELETE Command:- It means delete the information from the table. This command
is used to remove the rows from the table.
 Specific rows are deleted when you specify the WHERE clause.
 All rows in the table are deleted if you omit the WHERE clause.

The syntax is:

DELETE FROM <table-name>

WHERE <condition> ;

Example:- Delete those rows whose department is production.

Solution: DELETE FROM EMPLOYEE

WHERE dept=’production’;

Example:- Delete all the records of EMPLOYEE table having salary less than 35000.

Solution: DELETE FROM EMPLOYEE

WHERE Salary<35000;

(iv) UPDATE command:- Values of a single column or group of columns can be

updated.
The syntax is:- UPDATE table-name
SET column_name=value
WHERE condition;

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Example:- Change the salary of Vikram to 36000.

Solution: UPDATE EMPLOYEE

SET salary=36000

WHERE Ename=’Vikram’;

Example:- Increase every employee salary by 10%.

Solution: UPDATE EMPLOYEE

SET salary=salary+(salary*0.1);

9.14 MAKING SIMPLE QUERIES:-

In SQL queries, we use three clauses mostly:-

(i) SELECT:- What to select

(ii) FROM:- Which Table
(iii) WHERE:-Condition to satisfy

(i) SELECT:-
A SELECT command is used to retrieve information from a table.
 If you want to select the all columns from a table, then we use the
asterisk(*) in SELECT clause.
Example: - SELECT * FROM EMPLOYEE;
 To display specific columns of the table by specifying the column names,
separated by commas.
Example: - SELECT Ecode, Ename, salary
FROM EMPLOYEE;
(ii) FROM:-
A FROM clause, specifies the table name that contains the columns.

(iii) WHERE:-
A WHERE clause, specifies the condition.

Syntax:- SELECT column_name

FROM table_name
WHERE condition;

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SOME IMPORTANAT POINTS:-
 SQL statements are not case sensitive.
 To end the SQL command, we write the semicolon(;) at the end of a line followed
by <ENTER>.

Selecting All Columns:- To select all the columns, we use asterisk (*) in SELECT
statement.
Example:- SELECT *
FROM EMPLOYEE;

Selecting Specific Columns:- To display the specific columns of the table, write
columns name, separated by commas.
Example:- SELECT Ecode, Ename, salary
FROM EMPLOYEE;

Eliminating redundant data:- The DISTINCT keyword eliminates duplicate

rows from the results. DISTINCT is used in SELECT statement.
Example:- SELECTDISTINCT(Dept)
FROMEMPLOYEE;

ALL keyword:-

SQL allows us to use the keyword ALL to specify explicitly that duplicates are
not removed.

Example: SELECT ALL Dept

FROM EMPLOYEE;

Arithmetic Operations:-

The SELECT clause may also contain arithmetic expressions involving the operators +,
- , * and / operating on constants or attributes.

Example:- Find the new salary of every employee increased by 25%.

SELECT Ename,salary,salary*0.25

FROM EMPLOYEE;
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COLUMN ALIAS:- You can change a column heading by using a column alias.

Example:- SELECT Ename as Name

FROM EMPLOYEE;

Examples of Queries:-

1. List the name and department of those employees where department is production.
Solution:- SELECT Ename, Dept
FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE Dept=’production’;
2. Find the name and salary of those employees whose salary is more than 20000.
Solution:- SELECT Ename, salary
FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE salary > 20000;
3. Display the name of those employees who live in New Delhi.
Solution:- SELECT Ename, city
FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE city=’New Delhi’;
4. List the name of female employees in EMPLOYEE
table. Solution:- SELECT Ename
FROMEMPLOYEE
WHEREsex=’F’;
5. Display the name and department of those employees who work in surat and
salary is greater than 25000.
Solution:- SELECT Ename, Dept
FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE city=’surat’ and salary > 25000;

Or we can write this query in another way:

Solution:- SELECT Ename, Dept
FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE city=’surat’ && salary > 25000;

6. Display the name of those female employees who work in Mumbai.

Solution:- SELECT Ename
FROMEMPLOYEE
WHEREsex=’F’ and city=’Mumbai’;
7. Display the name of those employees whose department is marketing or RND.

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 Solution:- SELECT Ename
FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE Dept=’marketing’ OR Dept=’RND’; 8.
List the name of employees who are not males.
Solution:- SELECT Ename, Sex
FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE sex!=’M’;

9.15 The SQL COUNT(), AVG() and SUM() Functions

The COUNT() function returns the number of rows that matches a specified
criterion.
1. COUNT() Syntax
SELECT COUNT(column_name)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;
e.g
SELECT COUNT(ProductID)
FROM Products;
2. The AVG() function returns the average value of a numeric column.
AVG() Syntax
SELECT AVG(column_name)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;
e.g :
SELECT AVG(Price)
FROM Products;

3. The SUM() function returns the total sum of a numeric column.

SUM() Syntax
SELECT SUM(column_name)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;
SELECT SUM(Quantity)
FROM OrderDetails;
The SQL SELECT DISTINCT Statement
The SELECT DISTINCT statement is used to return only distinct (different)
values.
SELECT DISTINCT Country FROM Customers;

The SQL ORDER BY

The ORDER BY keyword is used to sort the result-set in ascending or descending order.

SELECT * FROM Products

ORDER BY Price;
Syntax
SELECT column1, column2, ...
FROM table_name
ORDER BY column1, column2, ... ASC|DESC;

Example
SELECT * FROM Products
ORDER BY Price DESC;

The SQL LIKE Operator

The LIKE operator is used in a WHERE clause to search for a specified pattern in a column.
There are two wildcards often used in conjunction with the LIKE operator:
The percent sign % represents zero, one, or multiple characters
The underscore sign _ represents one, single character
You will learn more about wildcards in the next chapter.
ExampleGet your own SQL Server
Select all customers that starts with the letter "a":

SELECT * FROM Customers

WHERE CustomerName LIKE 'a%';

Syntax
SELECT column1, column2, ...
FROM table_name
WHERE columnN LIKE pattern;

9.16 QUERIES FOR SPECIAL OPERATORS:-

(i) BETWEEN :- Between two values

(ii) IN :- Match a value in the list
(iii) LIKE :- Match a character pattern
(iv) IS NULL :- Value is null.

(i) BETWEEN :-

Example:- Find the name and salary of those employees whose salary is
between 35000 and 40000.
Solution:-
SELECT Ename, salary
FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE salary BETWEEN 35000 and 40000;
 Or we can write this query in another way:
SELECT Ename, salary
FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE salary>35000 and salary<40000;

(ii) IN :-
Example:- Find the name of those employees who live in guwahati, surat
or jaipur city.
Solution:-
SELECT Ename, city
FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE city IN(‘Guwahati’,’Surat’,’Jaipur’);

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(iii) LIKE :-
% :- It represents any sequence of zero or more characters.
_ :- Represents any single character.

Example:- Display the name of those employees whose name starts with ‘M’.

Solution:-
SELECT Ename
FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE Ename LIKE ‘M%’;

Example:-Display the name of those employees whose department name ends with ‘a’.

Solution:-
SELECT Ename
FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE Dept LIKE ‘%a’;

Example:- List the name of employees whose name having ‘e’ as the second character.

Solution:-
SELECT Ename
FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE Ename LIKE ‘_e%’;
(iv) IS NULL :-

Example:- List the name of employees not assigned to any department.

Solution:-
SELECT Ename
FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE Dept IS NULL;

IFNULL( ) function:-

If you want to substitute null with a value in the output, you can use IFNULL( ) function.

Syntax:-

IFNULL(<column-name>, value to be substitute)

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Example:-

SELECT Ename, IFNULL(salary, “5000”)

FROM EMPLOYEE;

9.16 ORDER BY clause:-

You can sort the result in a specific order using ORDER BY clause. The sorting
can be done either in ascending or descending order. The default order is ascending.

Example:- Display the list of employees in descending order of employee code.

Solution:-
SELECT *
FROM EMPLOYEE
ORDER BY ecode DESC;
Example:- Display the employee code, name in ascending order of salary.

Solution:-
SELECT Ecode, Ename, salary
FROM EMPLOYEE
ORDER BY salary asc;
Suppose that we wish to list the entire EMPLOYEE relation in descending order of
salary. If several employees have the same salary, we order them in ascending order by
employee code. We express this query in SQL as follows:-

SELECT *
FROM EMPLOYEE
ORDER BY salary desc, Ecode asc;

9.17 AGGREGATE FUNCTIONS:

Aggregate functions are functions that take a collection of values as input and return
a single value. SQL offers five types of aggregate functions:-

(i) Avg( ) :- To findout the average

(ii) Min( ) :- Minimum value
(iii) Max( ) :-Maximum value
(iv) Sum( ) :-To calculate the total
(v) Count( ) :- For counting

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NOTE: - The input to sum ( ) and avg( ) must be a collection of numbers, but the other
functions can operate on non-numeric data types e.g.string.

Q.1 Find the average salary of the employees in employee table.

SELECT avg(salary)
FROM EMPLOYEE;

In some circumstance, we would like to apply the aggregate function not only to a
single set of tuples, but also to a group of sets of tuples. We specify this wish in SQL
using the group by clause.
The attributes given in the group by clause are used to form groups.

Example: - Find the average salary at each department.

Solution: - SELECT Dept, avg(salary)
FROM EMPLOYEE
group by Dept;

Output for this query

Dept Avg(salary)
Production 38000.00
Marketing 35410.00
RND 40016.66

Q.2 Find the minimum salary in EMPLOYEE table.

Solution:-
SELECT min(salary)
FROM EMPLOYEE;

Q.3 Find the minimum salary of a female employee in EMPLOYEE table.

Solution:-
SELECT Ename, min(salary)
FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE sex=’F’;

Q.4 Find the maximum salary of a male employee in EMPLOYEE

table. Solution:-
SELECT Ename, max(salary)
FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE sex=’M’;

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Q.5 Find the total salary of those employees who work in Guwahati
city. Solution:-
SELECT sum(salary)
FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE city=’Guwahati’;
Q.6 Find the total salary of all employees in EMPLOYEE relation.
Solution:-
SELECT sum(salary)
FROM EMPLOYEE;

Q.7 Find the number of tuples in the EMPLOYEE relation.

Solution:-
SELECT count(*)
FROM EMPLOYEE;

Q.8 Count the number of employees who work in RND department.

Solution:-
SELECT count(*)
FROM EMPLOYEE
WHERE Dept=’RND’;
How to get the creation date of a MySQL table?

To get the creation date of a MySQL table, use create_time from

information_schema.tables. The syntax is as follows −

SELECT create_time FROM INFORMATION_SCHEMA.TABLES WHERE table_schema =

'yourDatabaseName' AND table_name = 'yourTableName';

My table name is 'skiplasttenrecords' and database is ‘test’.

Implement the above syntax for your database and table name. The query is as follows
−

mysql> SELECT create_time FROM INFORMATION_SCHEMA.TABLES WHERE

table_schema = 'test'
−> AND table_name = 'skiplasttenrecords';

9.18 JOINS:

An SQL JOIN clause is used to combine rows from two or more tables, based on
a common field between them.

Consider two tables, CUSTOMER and ORDERS:

TABLE: CUSTOMER
CUST_ID CUST_NAME GENDER CITY
 101 Rahul M DELHI
105 Sushil M GOA
206 Sunita F MUMBAI
517 Gaurav M VADODARA

TABLE: ORDERS
ORDER_ID CUST_ID ORDER_DATE AMOUNT
14578 105 10/04/2016 1850.50
25685 517 15/03/2015 8569.00
89632 222 01/01/2016 5362.20
78451 105 30/05/2015 450.00

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Types of Joins:
1. Cartesian Product
2. Equi Join
3. Natural Join

1. Cartesian product: It is known as cross join. The number of tuples in new relation
is equal to product of number of tuples of the two tables on which Cartesian
product is performed.

SELECT Name, Amount

FROM CUSTOMER, BORROWER;

**Cartesian product is formed when no join conditions exist.

2. Equi Join : Columns are compared for

equality. There are 4 types of equi join:

a. INNER JOIN
b. LEFT JOIN
c. RIGHT JOIN
d. FULL JOIN

a. INNER JOIN: Returns all rows when there is at least one match in BOTH tables.
This joining is known as simple join. You can use JOIN keyword also in the place
of INNER JOIN. Both will give same result.

Syntax:

SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table1
INNER JOIN table2
ON table1.column_name=table2.column_name;

Example: OUTPUT
SELECT CUST_NAME,
CUST_NAME ORDER_ID
ORDER_ID FROM CUSTOMER
SHUSHIL 14578
INNER JOIN ORDERS
ON SHUSHIL 78451
CUSTOMER.CUST_ID=ORDER.CUST_ID; GAURAV 25685

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 b. LEFT JOIN: Return all rows from the left table, and the matched rows from the
right table

c. RIGHT JOIN: Return all rows from the right table, and the matched rows from
the left table

d. FULL JOIN: Return all rows when there is a match in ONE of the tables

3. Natural Join: Only one of the identical columns exists.

* The equi join and Natural Join are equivalent except that duplicate columns are
eliminated in the Natural Join.

9.19 MySQL database connectivity with Python:

Install python
Install MySQL
Install MySQL Driver using following command: (In Command Prompt):
pip install mysql-connector
Note: Make sure your computer is connected with internet.

To verify, whether the connector is properly installed or not, open python shell and
type the following command:
>>>import mysql.connector
 >>>

If the command successfully runs (without any error), then the MySQL connector
is successfully installed.

Now, open MySQL and check the current user, by typing the following command
in MySQL:

SELECT current_user( );

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 Connect MySQL database with python. For this, open Python IDLE and write the
following code in python file.

CODE:

import mysql.connector
demodb=mysql.connector.connect(host="localhost",user="root", passwd="computer")
print(demodb)

If you get the following output, then the connection made successfully.

OUTPUT:

After making successful connection between python and MySQL, now create a
database in MySQL through python. For that, write the following code in python:
import mysql.connector
demodb = mysql.connector.connect(host="localhost", user="root", passwd="computer")
democursor=demodb.cursor( )
democursor.execute("CREATE DATABASE EDUCATION")

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 After successful execution of the following code, check in MySQL, whether
EDUCATION database has been created or not. for that, write the following
command in MySQL:

If you want to check the created database through python, write the following
python code to show the present databases in MySQL.
import mysql.connector
demodb = mysql.connector.connect(host="localhost", user="root", passwd="computer")
democursor=demodb.cursor()
democursor.execute("SHOW DATABASES")
for i in democursor:
print(i)
OUTPUT:

Here, we can see that EDUCATION database has been created.

9.19.1 Create a table in database:

CODE:

import mysql.connector
demodb = mysql.connector.connect(host="localhost", user="root",
passwd="computer", database="EDUCATION")
democursor=demodb.cursor( )
democursor.execute("CREATE TABLE STUDENT (admn_no int primary key,
sname varchar(30), gender char(1), DOB date, stream varchar(15), marks float(4,2))")

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 To verify the table created or not, write the following code in python:

import mysql.connector
demodb = mysql.connector.connect(host="localhost",
user="root", passwd="computer", database="EDUCATION")
democursor = demodb.cursor( )
democursor.execute ("show tables")
for i in democursor:
print(i)

OUTPUT:

9.19.2 Insert the data in the table:

import mysql.connector
demodb = mysql.connector.connect(host="localhost",
user="root", passwd="computer", database="EDUCATION")
democursor=demodb.cursor( )
democursor.execute("insert into student values (%s, %s, %s, %s, %s, %s)",
(1245, 'Arush', 'M', '2003-10-04', 'science', 67.34)) demodb.commit( )

9.19.3 Fetch the data from table:

import mysql.connector
demodb = mysql.connector.connect(host="localhost",
user="root", passwd="computer", database="EDUCATION")

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democursor=demodb.cursor( )
democursor.execute("select * from student")
for i in democursor:
print(i)

OUTPUT:

9.19.4 Update the record:

import mysql.connector
demodb = mysql.connector.connect(host="localhost",
user="root", passwd="computer", database="EDUCATION")
democursor=demodb.cursor( )
democursor.execute("update student set marks=55.68 where admn_no=1356")
demodb.commit( )

9.19.5 Delete a record:

import mysql.connector
demodb = mysql.connector.connect(host="localhost",
user="root", passwd="computer", database="EDUCATION")
democursor=demodb.cursor( )
democursor.execute("delete from student where admn_no=1356")
demodb.commit( )
 MYSQL PYTHON:

MySQL Connector
import mysql.connector

Create Connection:
Start by creating a connection to the database.Use the username and password from your
MySQL database:

import mysql.connector

mydb = mysql.connector.connect(
host="localhost",
user="yourusername",
password="yourpassword"
)

print(mydb)

Create Database :
create a database named "mydatabase":

import mysql.connector
mydb = mysql.connector.connect(
host="localhost",
user="yourusername",
password="yourpassword"
)
mycursor = mydb.cursor()
mycursor.execute("CREATE DATABASE mydatabase")

Check if Database Exists

You can check if a database exists by listing all databases in your system by using the
"SHOW DATABASES" statement:
import mysql.connector

mydb = mysql.connector.connect(
host="localhost",
user="yourusername",
password="yourpassword"
)

mycursor = mydb.cursor()

mycursor.execute("SHOW DATABASES")

for x in mycursor:
print(x)

Connecting to the database "mydatabase":

import mysql.connector

mydb = mysql.connector.connect(
host="localhost",
user="yourusername",
password="yourpassword",
database="mydatabase"
)

Creating a Table
To create a table in MySQL, use the "CREATE TABLE" statement.Make sure you define
the name of the database when you create the connection.

Create a table named "customers":

import mysql.connector

mydb = mysql.connector.connect(

host="localhost",

user="yourusername",

password="yourpassword",

database="mydatabase"

)
mycursor = mydb.cursor()

mycursor.execute("CREATE TABLE customers (name VARCHAR(255), address

VARCHAR(255))")

Check if Table Exists

You can check if a table exist by listing all tables in your database with the "SHOW
TABLES" statement:
import mysql.connector

mydb = mysql.connector.connect(
host="localhost",
user="yourusername",
password="yourpassword",
database="mydatabase"
)

mycursor = mydb.cursor()

mycursor.execute("SHOW TABLES")

for x in mycursor:
print(x)

Create primary key when creating the table:

import mysql.connector

mydb = mysql.connector.connect(
host="localhost",
user="yourusername",
password="yourpassword",
database="mydatabase"
)

mycursor = mydb.cursor()

mycursor.execute("CREATE TABLE customers (id INT AUTO_INCREMENT

PRIMARY KEY, name VARCHAR(255), address VARCHAR(255))")

If the table already exists, use the ALTER TABLE keyword

Create primary key on an existing table:

import mysql.connector
mydb = mysql.connector.connect(
 host="localhost",
user="yourusername",
password="yourpassword",
database="mydatabase"
)

mycursor = mydb.cursor()

mycursor.execute("ALTER TABLE customers ADD COLUMN id INT

AUTO_INCREMENT PRIMARY KEY")

Insert Into Table:

INSERT Query from Python is used to add a new row into the MySQL table.
Notice the statement: mydb.commit(). It is required to make the
changes, otherwise no changes are made to the table.
import mysql.connector

mydb = mysql.connector.connect(
host="localhost",
user="yourusername",
password="yourpassword",
database="mydatabase"
)

mycursor = mydb.cursor()

sql = "INSERT INTO customers (name, address) VALUES (%s, %s)"

val = ("John", "Highway 21")
mycursor.execute(sql, val)

mydb.commit()

print(mycursor.rowcount, "record inserted.")

Insert Multiple Rows :

To insert multiple rows into a table, use the executemany() method. The second parameter of the
executemany() method is a list of tuples, containing the data you want to insert:
Fill the "customers" table with data:

import mysql.connector

mydb = mysql.connector.connect(
host="localhost",
user="yourusername",
password="yourpassword",
database="mydatabase"
)

mycursor = mydb.cursor()
sql = "INSERT INTO customers (name, address) VALUES (%s, %s)"
val = [
('Peter', 'Lowstreet 4'),
('Amy', 'Apple st 652'),
('Hannah', 'Mountain 21'),
('Michael', 'Valley 345'),
('Sandy', 'Ocean blvd 2'),
('Betty', 'Green Grass 1'),
('Richard', 'Sky st 331'),
('Susan', 'One way 98'),
('Vicky', 'Yellow Garden 2'),
('Ben', 'Park Lane 38'),
('William', 'Central st 954'),
('Chuck', 'Main Road 989'),
('Viola', 'Sideway 1633')
]
mycursor.executemany(sql, val)
mydb.commit()
print(mycursor.rowcount, "was inserted.")

Select From a Table

To select from a table in MySQL, use the "SELECT" statement:
Select all records from the "customers" table, and display the result:

import mysql.connector
mydb = mysql.connector.connect(
host="localhost",
user="yourusername",
password="yourpassword",
database="mydatabase"
)
mycursor = mydb.cursor()
mycursor.execute("SELECT * FROM customers")
myresult = mycursor.fetchall()
for x in myresult:
print(x)
Note: We use the fetchall() method, which fetches all rows from the last executed statement.

Select only the name and address columns:

import mysql.connector
mydb = mysql.connector.connect(
host="localhost",
user="yourusername",
password="yourpassword",
database="mydatabase"
)
mycursor = mydb.cursor()
mycursor.execute("SELECT name, address FROM customers")
myresult = mycursor.fetchall()
for x in myresult:
print(x)

Fetch only one row:

import mysql.connector
mydb = mysql.connector.connect(
host="localhost",
user="yourusername",
password="yourpassword",
database="mydatabase"
)
mycursor = mydb.cursor()
mycursor.execute("SELECT * FROM customers")
myresult = mycursor.fetchone()
print(myresult)