Indian Society Notes

Sample Notes
1. Salient Features of Indian Society

2. Gender in Indian Society

3. Population and Associated Issues

4. Poverty and Developmental Issues

5. Urbanization in India

6. Globalisation and Indian Society

7. Communalism

8. Regionalism

9. Secularism

10. Social Empowerment

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11. Social Movements in India

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 Salient Features of Indian Society

Indian society is distinguished for its capacity for tolerance and acceptance, as
well as its social cohesion, which makes it exceptional in its ability to preserve its
culture. The preamble of the constitution places a strong emphasis on the
importance of brotherhood, making it a responsibility that falls on every citizen.

Indian society is extensively diverse in cultural and regional aspects and it is

pertinent that it is posited in each individual the realization of ideas and objectives in the
Preamble concerning every other individual.

India from ancient times has thrived to create a nationality that is neither
governed by universalism nor by exclusivity to its interest groups. The multi-
cultural conundrum is a salient feature of Indian society that has been a boon and a
bane over the history of the country.

India’s long and sustained civilizations across the ages makes it a unique
society. The very diversity on all accounts from geography to religion to language to
caste to custom to cuisine to ethnicity etc., make it truly vibrant and vivid. Such myriad
magnitudes of diversities pose both challenges and opportunities. Nevertheless, the very
core character of Indianness such as tolerance for pluralism and multiculturalism make it
truly distinct from other civilizations.

India has been the land of immigrants and invaders from across the world which
has resulted in infusion of diverse cultures to this land which in turn made India
an integrated society. It can be seen in terms of its depiction as “salad bowl
model” unlike “melting pot” of the west society. The call of “Vasudhaiv
Kutumbkam”, “Sarva Dharma Sambhavah” and “golden mean” in all dealing make
Indian society most welcoming when there is increasing case of “clash of civilization”
across the globe.

Indian despite a glorious past has now become a “prismatic society” (sandwiched
between traditional and modern). There is simultaneous existence of poverty and
opulence, ascetic spiritualism and filthy materialism. Indian society being in transition
bears impact of external forces like globalization differentially.

Indian society comprises people living in rural, urban, tribal setting and all sections who
carry the ethos of Indianness. As India itself is a multi-colored canvas of multiple
identities, diverse custom, costume, cuisine, color, creed, caste etc., bound by
another “C” called consensus, its societal feature would be filled with
peculiarities.

Salient Features of Indian Society

It is rather difficult to make pointers on what are the features of the Indian society as the
essence of Indian society lies in harboring diverse and distinct identities, ethnicities,
languages, religions, and culinary preferences.

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Indian society is a sum total of all microcosmic societies existing in its lap which
may be as diverse as from an Islandic tribe Andaman Nicobar living in primitive
area to ultra-modern coterie of metropolitan Mumbai. People living in hill areas may
have distinctly different societal set up than patriarchal big swath of rural setting. Such
idiosyncrasies make Indian society very complex. Nevertheless, prominent features
across the societal spectrum can be highlighted as following:

• Caste System
• Religious Diversity
• Linguistic Diversity
• Ethnic and Racial Diversity
• Orthodoxy/Superstition
• Transitional Society
• Family and Kinship System
• Tribal Society
• Art and Culture
• Geography as a unit of diversity
• Philosophical/ldeological diversity
• Tolerance, love and compassion
• Interdependence
• Unity In Diversity
• The balance between spiritualism and materialism
• The balance between Individualism and collectivism
• Co-existence of traditionalism and modernity

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Caste System
Out of two main forms of social stratification in the Indian society- caste and
class – caste was the prominent agency of social mobility. It decides largely the
position that a man occupies in society. It is so entrenched in the Indian psyche that it
is one of the lead determiners of one’s sociopolitical as well as economic activity.

Ironically the term ‘Caste’ itself is not an Indian one, coming from the Portuguese
‘Casta’ meaning, ‘race’ or ‘pure stock’. Indians, themselves, have no single term for
describing the caste system as a whole but use a variety of words referring to different
aspects of it, the two main ones being Varna and Jati.

A caste is an endogamous group, or collection of endogamous groups, bearing a

common name, membership of which is hereditary; imposing on its members certain
restrictions in the matters of social intercourse; either following a common traditional
occupation or claiming a common origin and generally regarded as forming a single
homogeneous community. Although it started as natural division of occupational groups,
it eventually upon receiving the religious sanction, become solidified into the existing
caste system. It is closely bound up with the Hindu belief in rebirth; individuals who fail to
abide by the rituals and duties of their caste, it is believed, will be reborn in an inferior
position in their next incarnation.

Characteristics
This system had some characteristic elements, which are as follows:

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 • Rigidity: Its first distinguishing feature is its absolute rigidity and immobility.
People who follow the caste system believe that an individual dies in the same
caste in which he/she is born and it is the caste that determines his/her status in
life, e.g untouchable remain pre- occupied with manual scavenging
• Restrictions on Commensality: The caste system survived for millennia due to
its injunctions on commensality (eating and drinking) among people of different
castes. This restriction was upheld by religious scriptures. E.g brahmin can’t take
food from untouchables
• Endogamy: The practice of marrying within the same caste, is another important
element which helped its sustenance over the years. The practice is so
entrenched in the psyche of people in India that inter-caste marriages are still a
rarity in the present times. E.g- prevalence of matrimonial ads. The violation of
the rule of endogamy often leads to ostracism, loss of caste and honour killings.
• Hierarchical: The caste structure of the Indian society is hierarchical or system
of subordination held together by the relations of superiority and inferiority. At the
apex of which are Brahmins and at the lowest rung are the shudras.
• Untouchability: The most abominable feature of the caste system was the
practice of untouchability: people belonging to shudras/ Ati-shudras groups were
forced to maintain distance from the people of the higher castes e.g shudras
were not allowed to take water from the same well in a village

Historical Trajectory of Caste

Ancient Period:

• The four Varna classification is roughly three thousand years old. However,
the ‘caste system’ stood for different things in different time periods, so that it is
misleading to think of the same system continuing for three thousand years. In its
earliest phase, in the late Vedic period roughly between 900 — 500 BC, the
caste system was really a Varna system and consisted of only four major
divisions. These divisions were not very elaborate or very rigid, and they were not
determined by birth. Movement across the categories seems to have been not
only possible but quite common. It is only in the post Vedic period that caste
became the rigid institution that is familiar to us from well known definitions.
Colonial Times:

• The present form of caste as a social institution has been shaped very
strongly by both the colonial period as well as the rapid changes that have
come about in independent India. Initially, the British administrators began
by trying to understand the complexities of caste in an effort to learn how
to govern the country efficiently. Some of these efforts took the shape of very
methodical and intensive surveys and reports on the ‘customs and manners’ of
various tribes and castes all over the country.
• First begun in the 1860s, the census became a regular ten-yearly exercise
conducted by the British Indian government from 1881 onwards. The 1901
Census under the direction of Herbert Risley was particularly important as
it sought to collect information on the social hierarchy of caste -i.e., the

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social order of precedence in particular regions, as to the position of each caste
in the rank order. This effort had a huge impact on social perceptions of caste
and hundreds of petitions were addressed to the Census Commissioner by
representatives of different castes claiming a higher position in the social scale
and offering historical and scriptural evidence for their claims. This kind of direct
attempt to count caste and to officially record caste status changed the institution
itself. Before this kind of intervention, caste identities had been much more fluid
and less rigid; once they began to be counted and recorded, caste began to take
on a new life.

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 • Secondly, the land revenue settlements and related arrangements and laws
served to give legal recognition to the customary (caste-based) rights of
the upper castes. These castes now became land owners in the modern sense
rather than feudal classes with claims on the produce of the land, or claims to
revenue or tribute of various kinds. Large scale irrigation schemes like the ones
in the Punjab were accompanied by efforts to settle populations there, and these
also had a caste dimension
• Apart from this, for the welfare of downtrodden castes, the Government of
India Act of 1935 was passed which gave legal recognition to the lists or
‘schedules’ of castes and tribes marked out for special treatment by the
state. This is how the terms ‘Scheduled Tribes’ and the ‘Scheduled Castes’
came into being. Castes at the bottom of the hierarchy that suffered severe
discrimination, including all the so-called ‘untouchable’ castes, were included
among the Scheduled Castes.
Post Independence:

• Indian Independence in 1947 marked a big, but ultimately only partial break with
the colonial past. In pre-independence period Caste considerations had
inevitably played a role in the mass mobilisations of the nationalist
movement. Efforts to organise the “depressed classes” initiative taken from
both ends of the caste spectrum – by upper caste progressive reformers as well
as by members of the lower castes such as Mahatma Jotiba Phule and
Babasaheb Ambedkar in western India, Ayyankali, Sri Narayana Guru,
lyotheedass and Periyar (E. V . Ramaswamy Naickar) in the South.
Both Mahatma Gandhi and Babasaheb Ambedkar began organising protests
against untouchability from the 1920s onwards. Anti-untouchability
programmes became a significant part of the Congress agenda so that, by the
time Independence was on the horizon, there was a broad agreement across the
spectrum of the nationalist movement to abolish caste distinctions. The dominant
view in the nationalist movement was to treat caste as a social evil and as a
colonial ploy to divide Indians. But the nationalist leaders, above all, Mahatma
Gandhi, were able to simultaneously work for the upliftment of the lowest castes,
advocate the abolition of untouchability and other caste restrictions, and, at the
same time, reassure the landowning upper castes that their interests, too, would
be looked after.
• The post-Independence Indian state inherited and reflected these contradictions.
On the one hand, the state was committed to the abolition of caste and explicitly
wrote this into the Constitution. On the other hand, the state was both unable and
unwilling to push through radical reforms which would have undermined the
economic basis for caste inequality. At yet another level, the state assumed that if
it operated in a caste-blind manner, this would automatically lead to the
undermining of caste based privileges and the eventual abolition of the institution.
For example, appointments to government jobs took no account of caste, thus
leaving the well-educated upper castes and the ill-educated or often illiterate
lower castes to compete on “equal” terms. The only exception to this was in the
form of reservations for the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. In other
words, in the decades immediately after Independence, the state did not make

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 sufficient effort to deal with the fact that the upper castes and the lower castes
were far from equal in economic and educational terms.
• The development activity of the state and the growth of private industry also
affected caste indirectly through the speeding up and intensification of economic
change. Modern industry created all kinds of new jobs for which there were no
caste rules. Urbanisation and the conditions of collective living in the cities made
it difficult for the caste segregated patterns of social interaction to survive. At a
different level, modern educated Indians attracted to the liberal ideas of
individualism and meritocracy, began to abandon the more extreme caste
practices. On the other hand, it was remarkable how resilient caste proved to be.
Recruitment to industrial jobs, whether in the textile mills of Mumbai (then
Bombay), the jute mills of Kolkata (then Calcutta), or elsewhere, continued to be
organised along caste and kinship-based lines. Not surprisingly, it was in the
cultural and domestic spheres that caste has proved strongest. Endogamy, or the
practice of marrying within the caste, remained largely unaffected by
modernisation and change. Perhaps, the most eventful and important sphere of
change has been that of politics. From its very beginnings in independent India,
democratic politics has been deeply conditioned by caste. Since the 1980s we
have also seen the emergence of explicitly caste-based political parties. In the
early general elections, it seemed as though caste solidarities were decisive in
winning elections.

Jajmani System

• India has a remarkable tradition of inter-dependence which has kept it united for
centuries. And , this is despite the fact that ours is a caste ridden society where
there are practices of societal stratification. Such example is the Jajmani System
or functional interdependence of various castes. Jajman or Yajman is the
recipient of certain services. Jajmani system is an socio-economic and
ritual arrangement in which one caste secures the service of another caste.
This system initially developed in the villages between the food producing
families and the families which supported them with other goods and services.
• The entire gamut of social order developed with Jajmani links with multiple
types of payments and obligations. None of the caste was self sufficient and it
depended for many things on other castes. Thus, each caste worked as a
functional group and was linked with other caste via the mechanisms of Jajmani
system.
• Though Jajmani system represented the inter-linking of Hindu caste yet, in
practice this system crossed the boundary of religion and provided linkages
between different religions also. For example, Hindu’s dependence on Muslim
weaver or washer man or Muslim’s dependence on Hindu trader / tailor /
Goldsmith etc. is a manifestation of that mechanism only, though not called so.
• However, various development like westernization, Globalisation, dilution of caste
system, expansion of education and in turn employment have metamorphed
Jajmani system transcending the traditional base of interdependence.
Functions of Jajmani system

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 • Economic transaction: The system involves transaction between a service
provider ( Kamin) and the patron (Jajman). The service provider gives service for
a particular fee which can be in form of money, goods or agricultural harvest. In
this way, the system acts as a informal way of doing business.
Ex: A goldsmith making gold jewellery for the family of the patron for particular
price.
A brahmin providing ritual service to patron’s family.
• Social relationships: The Jajmani system acts as a method for establishing
relationships between different castes of a system and living in harmony. The
system developed on the basis for interdependence that worked towards creating
a social order. But it is not egalitarian.
Ex: A landlord cannot treat a potter badly as he will need service of the group to
fulfil his needs.
• Political support: A Jajman and his Kamin will act as a unified ruling group in a
particular rural society. The Jajman will need the support of his kamin to exercise
power and display legitimacy of his rule in a particular village.
Ex: Zamindari system evolved on the basis of Jajmani system.
Drawbacks of Jajmani system

• Exploitation: Jajmani system has been a tool for exploitation in some society
due to its restrictive nature. The kamin is used as a worker in landlord’s family
and they are made to perform degraded jobs. The system has given rise to
problems such as bonded labourers.
• Social boundations: The Jajmani system puts boundations on people of a
particular caste from venturing into other occupation. In addition, the descendent
of a caste is made to perform the same duty regardless of the situation. In
addition, the Kamin cannot provide services to people other than the Jajman.

Dominant Caste

• ‘Dominant caste’ is a term used to refer to those castes which had a large
population and were granted landrights by the partial land reforms effected
after Independence. The land reforms took away rights from the erstwhile
claimants, the upper castes who were ‘absentee landlords’ in the sense that they
played no part in the agricultural economy other than claiming their rent. They
frequently did not live in the village either, but were based in towns and cities.
• These land rights now came to be vested in the next layer of claimants, those
who were involved in the management of agriculture but were not themselves the
cultivators. These intermediate castes in turn depended on the labour of the
lower castes including specially the ‘untouchable’ castes for tilling and tending the
land.
• However, once they got land rights, they acquired considerable economic power.
Their large numbers also gave them political power in the era of electoral
democracy based on universal adult franchise. Thus, these intermediate castes
became the ‘dominant’ castes in the country side and played a decisive role
in regional politics and the agrarian economy. Examples of such dominant
castes include the Yadavs of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, the Vokkaligas of

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 Karnataka, the Reddys and Khammas of Andhra Pradesh, the Marathas of
Maharashtra, the Jats of Punjab, Haryana.

Contemporary Trends
The caste system in its attempts to adjust itself to the changed conditions of life,
in the present times has assumed new roles. Besides, industrialization and
urbanization, other factors such as Westernization, Sanskritisation, reorganization
of Indian states, spread of education, socio-religious reforms, spatial and
occupational mobility and growth of market economy have greatly affected the
caste system.

• Caste Consciousness: Caste-consciousness of the members of caste groups

has been increasing. Every caste wants to safeguard its interests. To achieve
this end, castes have begun organizing themselves on the model of labor
unions or caste association like jat mahasabha for demand of reservation
• Political Influence: Caste and politics have come to affect each other. Caste
has become an inseparable aspect of our politics. In fact, it is tightening its hold
on politics. Elections are fought more often on the basis of caste. Selections of
candidates, voting analysis, selection of legislative party leaders, distribution of
ministerial portfolios etc., are very much based on caste. Politics of each state in
India is virtually the politics of confrontation of its ‘dominant castes’. E.g social
engineering in election
• Constitutional Safeguards: The Constitutional safeguards to Scheduled
Castes and Other Backward Classes (OBCs) have given a new lease of life
to caste. These provisions have allowed certain sections to develop vested
interests to permanently reap the benefits of reservation. The spurt in demand for
reservation by various castes can be traced to these provisions and their
effectiveness, e.g demand for reservation in promotion within government
services.
• Sanskritisation and Westernization: Two important trends witnessed in caste
system – the process of Sanskritisation and Westernization. The former refers to
a process by which the lower castes tend to imitate the values, practices and the
life-styles of some dominant upper castes, e.g., eschewing meat-eating, drinking
liquor and animal sacrifice to their deities, in the belief that it would allow them to
claim higher caste status. While the latter denotes a process in which the upper-
caste people tend to mould their life-styles on the model of Westerners.
According to M.N. Srinivas, “Westernisation” refers to
“the changes brought about in the Indian society and culture as a result of over
150 years of British rule and the term subsumes changes occurring at different
levels – technology, institutions, ideology and values.”

Reasons for Change in Caste System

The caste system has undergone vast changes in modern times. Factors that contribute
to the changes in the caste system are briefly examined here.

• Uniform Legal System: The British government introduced a uniform legal

system, which was continued by democratic government after independence.

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 The Constitution of India assures equality to all and declares the practice of
untouchability, an intrinsic element of the caste system, unlawful. A uniform legal
system based on the rule of law has been instrumental in changing the practice
of caste system in the country. E.g article 17 talks about removal of untouchability
• Modern Education: The British introduced modern secular education in a
uniform way throughout India. After independence educational facilities were
extended to all the citizens, irrespective of their castes which has eroded the
legitimacy of the caste system. E.g our present president is a dalit lawyer
• Industrialization and Urbanization: Due to industrialization number of non-
agricultural job opportunities were created which has weakened the hold of land
holding upper castes. People of different castes, classes and religions work
together in factories, offices, workshops etc. which was unthinkable two centuries
ago. Growth of cities has drawn people of all castes together and compelled them
to stay together ignoring many of their caste restrictions., eg. Formation of DICCI
by milind kamble and the rise of dalit capitalism
• Modern Transport and Communication System: Modern means of transport
such as train, bus, ship, airplane, trucks etc, have been of great help for the
movement of men and materials. Modern means of communication, such as,
newspapers, post, telegraph, telephone, radio, television etc., have helped
people to come out of the narrow world of caste.
• Freedom Struggle and Democracy: The freedom struggle waged against the
British brought people from all the castes together to fight for a common cause.
Moreover, establishment of Democratic form of government soon after
Independence gave yet another blow to the caste by extending equal
socioeconomic opportunities to all without any discrimination. e.g article 15 talks
about equality in public employment.
• Non-Brahmin Movement: A movement against the Brahmin supremacy was
launched by leaders like Jyotirao Phule in 1873. Similarly self respect movement
by E. V . Ramasamy became popular in course of time particularly in the South. It
created awareness among the lower castes and instilled in them the feeling of
“self-respect”.

Problems of the Caste System

• Against democratic values: Of course, the caste system is a social practice. It

is ironic that even after more than seven decades of liberating the country, we
have not been able to break free from the clutches of the caste system. Even in
democratic elections, caste exists as a major factor.
• The problem for National Integration: The caste system not only increases
disharmony among us but it also works to create a huge gap in our unity. The
caste system sows the seeds of high, lowliness, inferiority in every human mind
since childhood. This eventually becomes a factor of regionalism. The weakness
of the society beset by the caste system does not establish political unity in a
wide area and it discourages a large section at the time of any external attack on
the country. Casteism has taken a more formidable form than before due to
selfish politicians, leading to increased social bitterness.

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 • Disrupts the progress of development: The tension created by caste hatred or
caste appeasement by political parties hinders the progress of the nation.
• Marriages: Most Indian marriages are arranged by parents. Several factors were
considered by them for finding the ideal spouse. Out of which, one’s caste is a
significant factor. People do not want their son or their daughter to marry a
person from another caste. Just like the word “untouchables” suggests, a
Brahmin would never marry a person from an SC or ST caste.
• Education: Public universities have caste-based reservations for students
coming from underprivileged backgrounds. A person from this background can
secure a seat in a top tier college with par or below par academic scores based
on reservation. However, impoverished Brahmans are disadvantaged with this
reservation system. For example, a Brahman has to score 100% on certain
exams to get into a top tier university. While the lower caste applicant can even
bypass the exam for getting a seat in the university.
• Jobs: A significant amount of public sector jobs are allocated based on caste
reservation. Impoverished communities from Brahman backgrounds get affected
significantly because of this reservation.

Religious Diversity
In a general sense religion is a set of beliefs, feelings, dogmas and practices that define
the relations between human being and the sacred or divinity. India, over the centuries,
has witnessed the evolution of a number of religious tenets and people of various faiths
from across the world have made it their homeland. Thus, it is a quintessential land of
religious diversity where almost all the major religions of the world are practiced by their
respective followers.

Among the major religions in India are: Hinduism, Islam Christianity, Sikhism, Buddhism
and Jainism. Zoroastrianism, Judaism and Bahaism are the religions with lesser
following. At the same time the country is home to several indigenous faiths which have
survived the influence of major religions for centuries and are holding the ground firmly.
Regional con-existence of diverse religious groups in the country makes it really unique.

The Constitution of India recognizes the religious diversity of India and thus proclaims it
to be a secular republic, guaranteeing freedom of practice and propagation of religion to
all its citizens without any distinction.

However, this religious diversity has posed constant challenges to the country in form of
communalism and communal violence. Beginning during the British period,
communalism is one of the greatest challenges to the country’s unity.

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Linguistic Diversity
India is a polyglot country. There are around 1jj00 plus reported languages in India
which are spoken as mother tongue. Many of them are tribal speeches spoken by less
than one percent of the total population. According to a report of the Census Directorate,
there are 22 scheduled languages and 100 non-scheduled languages in the country,
which are spoken by a large number of people one lakh or more.

The constitutionally recognized languages belong to two linguistic families: Indo-Aryan

and Dravidian. Malayalam, Kannada, Tamil and Telugu are the four major Dravidian
languages. The languages of Indo-Aryan family are spoken by 75 percent of India’s total
population while the languages of Dravidian family are spoken by 20 percent. This
linguistic diversity notwithstanding, we have always had link languages, though it has
varied from age to age. In ancient times it was Sanskrit, in medieval age it was Arabic or
Persian and in present times we have Hindi and English.

Language is one of the principal powerful symbols of identity in India. States in the
Indian Union are demarcated on the basis of the principal language spoken. People are
identified with certain linguistic, ethnic, religious or cultural groups through ones mother
tongue. Moreover, language has been basis for many of the ethnic movements in the
country.

This linguistic diversity , however, poses a lot of challenges which keep surfacing in the
form of demand of new sates based on language, regionalism, linguistic chauvinism and
prominently Hindi has been found to be the eye of storm since Independence.

Ethnic and Racial Diversity

Ethnicity is defined as a collectivity of people of a distinct nature in terms of race,
descent and culture. Thus, an ethnic group is a social collectivity having certain shared
historicity and common attributes, such as race, tribe, language, religion, dress, diet, etc.

Ethnicity is not a static or pre-ordained category; it is a manifestation of the common

economic, political, social and cultural interests and their protection by certain members
in a plural society. Thus, ethnicity, at times, is used as an instrument of mobilization for
realizing social, economic and political goals.

Ethnicity is a cultural phenomenon, and as such no culture is superior or inferior. Culture

belongs to a people, and they endear it like any other people.

Ethnic Conflicts

• At times, ethnic groups tend to operate as diametrically opposed groups due to

clash of their real or supposed interests. Such a clash of interests may also take
the form of communalism. Some groups may take undue advantage of their large

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 numbers or of superior social origins to corner a major share of the national
resources.
• The other communities with smaller populations may feel deprived of what they
feel are their ‘legitimate claims’. Situations of mutual distrust, disaffection and
distance may arise between various ethnic groups. One perspective is that
‘relative deprivation’ is the root cause of all ethnic strife. The lack of distributive
justice, differential accessibility to resources and cultural differences has been
considered the main reasons of ethnic problems.
• Sometimes ethnic conflict is due to the distinction made between ‘outsiders’ and
‘insiders’. ‘We’(insiders) against ‘they’ (outsiders) is an attitude found in all
societies. Immigrants are treated as ‘foreigners’. Such a problem arises when
people speaking Assamese, Bengali, Gujarati, Oriya, Hindi, Kashmiri, Punjabi,
Urdu, Marathi and Sindhi consider each other different in the national context.
• As such ethnic groups may be referred as ‘primordial collectivities’. Members
belonging to one state often consider members from other states as outsiders.
They would not like them to seek employment in their state. Sub-regions, cities,
towns and even villages are often used for drawing a line between the insiders
and the outsiders.

Racial Diversity
A race is a group of people with a set of distinctive physical features such as skin colour,
type of nose, form of hair, etc. Prominent racial types in India are :

• Negrito: Negritos are the people who belong to the black racial stock as found in
Africa. In India some of the tribes in South India, such as the Kadar, and the
Paniyan.
• Proto-Australoids: Consist of an ethnic group, which includes the Australian
aborigines and other peoples of southern Asia and Pacific Islands. Some of these
tribes are the Ho of Singhbhum, Jharkhand and the Bhil of the Vindhya ranges,
MP.
• Mongoloid: are a major racial stock native to Asia, including the peoples of
northern and eastern Asia. In India, the North Eastern regions have tribes of
Mongoloid strain.
• Nordic: belong to the physical type characterized by tall stature, long head, light
skin and hair, and blue eyes. In India, they are found in different parts of north of
the country, especially in Punjab and Rajputana.
All such racial differentials have implication in terms collective identity which is asserted
to have hand on “political pie”. This in turn does create conflict, however, race based
conflict is not so stark. Nevertheless, episode of Nido Tania, a resident of Arunachal
Pradesh beaten to death in Delhi on account of racial outrage, puts Article 15 of Indian
constitution in poor light. Bezbaruah committee constituted thereafter for assessing the
problems of North Easterns vis a vis such racial discrimination is a positive move.

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Orthodoxy/Superstition
Life in India is suffused in superstition of various kinds, from the most bizarre to the
innocuous. India being a diverse country carries multiple values which are primitive as
well as modern. Some primordial values are so entrenched that even in present times
they seem to be determine the societal norms. These values are reflected in the
superstitions which mostly negatively impact the sociocultural lives of people.

The flip side of such orthodoxy or superstition is discrimination with women, disables,
few animals, conflict in society, clash of religion and even personal harm owing to
practice of old rituals.

Women are alleged to be witch, omen in rural areas which in many cases become
reason for their ostracization from the village and even misbehavior, naked parade ,
violence against them.

Also, desire for son child, who is believed to be performing rites for his parents, also put
girl child at margin, so the practice of female infanticide, female feticide and a gamut of
discrimination, subjugation perpetuated to women which is reflected in neglect for their
education, health etc.

Transitional Society
India is called a “prismatic society” or a society in transition which is undergoing a lot of
change. Here, there is confluence of modernity as well as primordial values. It is a
developing society where modern values like secularism, value pluralism etc. as well as
traditional values based on caste, language, region, religion are coexisting.

Here, democracy based on popular election having ethos of people as sovereign as well
as institutions like “khap panchayat’’ exist together. Such heterogeneity add diversity to
Indian life. Nevertheless, India is moving fast with modern values which have regard for
human rights, respect for women, equality, socioeconomic justice etc. The Industrialized
part of the country has elements and values derived from the west, and hence
appreciation for globalization and exchange of civilzational values, whereas Agrarian
society being diffused and inward looking does not appreciate the external values.
However, there is invariable existence of both society.

Family and Kinship

Family in Indian Society
A family is the basic unit of society. It is the first and the most immediate social
environment to which a child is exposed. It is in the family a child learns language, the
behavioral Patterns and social norms in his childhood. In some way or the other the

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family is a universal group. It exists in tribal, rural and urban communities and among the
followers of all religious and cultures. It provides the most enduring relationship in one
form or other. In spite of the universal and permanent nature of the family one can also
see vast difference in its structure in different societies. In tribal and agrarian societies
people of several generations live together. These societies have large and ‘ joint
families’.

In the industrial society the family is limited to husband, wife and their children which is
referred as “nuclear family”.

Characteristics of Family
The Family has the following features:

• Universality
• Social environment which Influence the Individual’s early life.
• Affective basis, emotionality
• Limited size
• Central position in social structure
• Sense of responsibility among the members.
• Social regulation of behavior.

Diverse Forms of Family

• With regard to the rule of residence, some societies are matrilocal in their
marriage and family customs while others are patrilocal. In the first case, the
newly married couple stays with the woman’s parents, whereas in the second
case the couple lives with the man’s parents.
• With regard to the rules of inheritance, matrilineal societies pass on property from
mother to daughter while patrilineal societies do so from father to son.
• With regards to authority and dominance: A patriarchal family structure exists
where the men exercise authority and dominance, and matriarchy where the
women play a similarly dominant role. However, matriarchy – unlike patriarchy –
has been a theoretical rather than an empirical concept. There is no historical or
anthropological evidence of matriarchy – i.e., societies where women exercise
dominance. However, there do exist matrilineal societies, i.e., societies where
women inherit property from their mothers but do not exercise control over it, nor
are they the decision makers in public affairs.

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Joint Family vs Nuclear Family
Features of Joint Family

• Authoritarian structure-decision making in the hands of patriarch

• Familistic organization-individual interest are subordinated to the interests of the
family as a whole
• Status of members is determined by their age and relationship
• Filial and fraternal relationship gets preference over conjugal relationship
• Family functions on the ideal of joint responsibility-son pays father’s loan
• All members get equal attention-rich son and poor son are equally treated
• The authority in the family is determined on the principle of seniority

Features of Nuclear Family

• Democratic decision making

• Small size
• High geographical mobility
• Conjugal relationship is dominant

Factors Promoting Nuclearisation of Family

• Technological Revolution: Access to conveniences like electricity, piped water

has increased common man’s standard of living which ultimately affected its
productive function, abandonment of self-sufficiency in family economy ,
occupational and population mobility, weakening of kinship ties and so forth.
• Population Revolution: Shift from agricultural to manufacturing and service,
migration from rural to urban areas , decrease in birth and death rates, increase
in average expectation of life and availability of elderly persons in family etc.
• Democratic Revolution: Ideals of democracy at family level include demand of
rights by women, emancipation of children from patriarch’s authority, willingness
to approach decision making through decision making through democratic
process etc.
• Secular Revolution: Shift away from religious values to rational values. Change
in wife’s attitude towards husband, demand for divorce on maladjustment,
children’s reluctance to support parents in old age etc.

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Factors Reinforcing the Joint Family

• Feminisation of work: Today many couples are working in service sectors like
in banking and insurance find very little time for child care. In such cases old
parents take care of children
• Increasing Cost of Living in Urban Areas: With problem of finding
accommodation and limited space available for living in cities, similarly, rising
cost of living in urban areas especially in slums force the people to share
residence among other family members.
• Resilience in Joint Family Ideology: Families which have migrated to cities still
retain their bonds to joint family in village and town. This is evident from the
physical presence of relatives at a time of events like birth, marriage, death,
illness. Sometimes members of the families living in cities go to the village for
these events. The joint family ethic is very much evident in the performance of
certain role obligations. A family in the city has the duty to give shelter to all
immigrants from the rural family, (Young men in pursuit of education or work, or
relatives seeking medical treatment).
• Industrialization: Industrialization serves to strengthen the joint family because
an economic base has been provided to support it because more hands are
needed in a renewed family enterprise or because kin can help one another in
the striving for upward mobility. Similarly, joint families continue to be the norm
among industrial entrepreneurs.

Kinship System in India

Man does not live alone in society. From birth till death he is surrounded by a number of
people. He is bound to all these people who are related to him either on the basis of
blood or marriage. The bond of blood or marriage which binds people together in groups
is called kinship. Further, the social relationships deriving from blood ties (real and
supposed) and marriage are collectively referred to as kinship. Kinship system
represents one of the basic social institutions. Kinship is universal and in most societies
plays a significant role in the socialization of individuals and the maintenance of group
solidarity, It is supremely important in the primitive societies and extends its influence on
almost all their activities- social, economic, political, religious, etc.

South India North India

No clear cut distinction between the family of No member from ego’s family of orientation (i.e. of father,
birth (i.e family of orientation) and family of mother, brother and sister) can also become a member of his
marriage (i.e family of procreation) family of marriage; but this is possible in the south

Marriage does not symbolize women’s separation

A woman becomes a casual visitor to her parent’s family
from her father’s house

Bride giver-inferior to bride takers Bride giver is at similar level with bride taker

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Note: Ego means a person under study

Tribal Society
Among the diversified population a significant portion is comprised of the tribal people,
the original inhabitants of the land. The tribal culture of India and their traditions and
practices pervade almost all of the aspects of Indian culture and civilization. Tribal
people in India are called Adivasi. Adivasi is an umbrella term for a heterogeneous set of
ethnic and tribal groups considered the “aboriginal “population of India. Although terms
such as vanavasi (“forest dwellers”), or girijan (“hill people”) are also used for the tribes
of India, Adivasi carries the specific meaning of being the original.

Characteristics of Tribal Society

• Definite Common Topography: Tribal people live within a definite topography and
it is a common place for all the members of a particular tribe occupying that
region. In absence of a common but definite living place, the tribals will lose other
characteristics of a tribal life, like common language, way of living and community
sentiment etc.
• Sense of Unity: Sense of unity is an invariable necessity for a true tribal life. The
very depends upon the tribal’s sense of unity during the times of peace and war.
• Endogamous Group: Tribal people generally do not marry outside their tribe and
marriage within the tribe is highly appreciated and much applauded
• Common Dialect: Members of a tribe exchange their views in a common dialect.
This element further strengthens their sense of unity.
• Ties of Blood-relationship: Blood-relation is the greatest bond and most powerful
force inculcating sense of unity among the tribals.
• Protection Awareness: Tribal people always need protection from intrusion and
infiltration and for this a single political authority is established and all the powers
are vested in this authority.
• Common Culture: Common culture of a tribe springs out from the sense of unity,
common language, common religion, common political organization.
• Importance of Kinship: Kinship forms the basis of tribal social organization. Most
tribes are divided into exogamous clans and lineages. The marriage among
tribals is based on the rule of tribal endogamy. Marriage is viewed as a contract
and there are no prohibition on divorce and remarriage.
• Egalitarian Values: There are no institutionalized inequalities like the caste
system or sex based inequalities. Thus men and women enjoyed equal status
and freedom. However, some degrees of social inequality may be found in case
of tribal chiefs or tribal kings who enjoy a higher social status, exercise political
power and posses wealth.
• Rudimentary Religion: Tribes believe in certain myths and a rudimentary type of
religion

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Art and Culture
The Cultural unity in diversity of India is generally denoted with the phrase “Ganga-
Jamuni Tahjeeb” or India’s composite culture. Despite of diversity, there are numerous
cultural elements and factors that have shaped India’s composite culture and made India
culturally distinct.

Indian Music
The best example of India’s composite culture is our music , particularly the Hindustani
Classical Music . It has ancient origins, yet emergence of a highly developed and
enriched music of northern India could not have been possible without Muslim
contributions and its patronage. Emergences of Khayal from Dhrupad, Tabla from
Pakhawaj / Mridangam are some of the key examples. Indian Veena and Persian
Tambura merged to emerge as Sitar. Similarly, Ghazals and Qawwalis have played a
unifying factor among the people of Indian sub-continent.

Painting
Coming from nook and corner portraying the lives of people ranging from court to tribal
to local folklore depict the richness, diverseness and idiosyncrasies of Indian
sociocultural lives. Madhubani, Manjusha paintings of Bihar to Rajput painting of
Rajsthan to Thanjavur painting of chola empire etc. portray life style, famous act,
practices etc of the respective regions.

Similarly, Puppetry, Theatre, Nukkad- Natak, Circus etc . being performed in various part
of corner have their important role reflecting diverse way of Indian life.

Literature: Lingua Legacy

Different regions of India contributed to the promotion of literature and higher learning to
the composite culture of India. For example, Vedas were developed in NorthWest,
Yajurveda and Brahmana in Kuru-Panchal region;

Rajatarangini in Kashmir; Upanishads in Magadha; Gita Govinda in Bengal,

Charyapadas in Odisha, West Bengal and Assam; Mahakavyas and dramas of Kalidasa
in Ujjaini; Bhavbhut’s works in Vidarbha; Dasakumarcharita of Dandin in Deccan;
Sangam Literature in South and so on.

All these texts portray the diverse socioeconomic, cultural and political set up as pwer
their own geographical and historical set up.

Similarly, Taxila, Nalanda, Varanasi, Vallabhi, Amaravati, Nagarjunkonda, Kanchi,

Madurai and Odantapuri are shining examples of seats of higher learning in India. These
institutions have been bringing the intellectual churning in the society.

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Geography as a Unit of Diversity
India has diverse geography. At broadest level, the country can be divided into several
regions viz. Himalaya, northern plains, plateau of central India and Deccan, Western and
Eastern Ghats, Thar Desert etc. Each of them has different climate, temperature,
vegetation, fauna, people and so on. Such diversity in turn create a sense of functional
economic dependency because of agricultural produces every geographical location
gives.

Despite of this diversity, India has been defined as a distinct geographical unit since
ages. A sloka in Vishnu Purana defines Bharata as the land which is south of snowy
mountains and north of ocean. The country was time and again unified by different
imperialist forces taking into consideration its geographical distinctness.

Philosophical/Ideological Diversity
Indian philosophy, the systems of thought and reflection that were developed by the
civilizations of the Indian subcontinent. They include both orthodox (astika) systems,
namely, the Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Yoga, Purva-Mimamsa (or Mimamsa), and
Vedanta schools of philosophy, and unorthodox (nastika) systems, such as Buddhism
and Jainism.

Indian thought has been concerned with various philosophical problems, significant
among which are the nature of the world (cosmology), the nature of reality
(metaphysics), logic, the nature of knowledge (epistemology), ethics, and the philosophy
of religion. Such philosophical diversity has given way for tolerance, righteousness, love,
recognition of various differences, Vasudhaiv kutumbkam and sarva dharma sambhavah
like notions.

This is well reflected in our soft power diplomacy and good will at global level..
Coexistence of Indian society despite of innumerable fundamental differences can be
owed to only such ideological resilience.

Tolerance, Love and Compassion

Tolerance, the ability or willingness to tolerate the existence of opinions or behaviour
that one dislikes or disagrees with, has been one of the prime reasons for sustenance
and continuity in the Indian society over the millennia. This tolerance was coupled by
love and compassion, for both the humans and animals, as preached by some the
religions that evolved on its land, especially Buddhism and Jainism.

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Ashoka, the Mauryan King, preached tolerance towards people of all religion and
forsook war in the 3rd century BC. He was followed by other tolerant kings like
Samudragupta and Harshvardhana. During the Medieval ages the Bhakti and Sufi saints
preached tolerance, love and compassion. Akbar, the Mughal ruler of the 16th century,
also deserves mention for his tolerance for people of all religion. Thus, the present
Indian society is a result of ages of tolerance, love and compassion among the people,
who lived and made this country their homeland.

Interdependence
India has a remarkable tradition of inter-dependence which has kept it united for
centuries. And, this is despite the fact that ours is a caste ridden society where there are
practices of societal stratification. Such example is the Jajmani System or functional
interdependence of various castes. Jajman or Yajman is the recipient of certain services.
This system initially developed in the villages between the food producing families and
the families which supported them with other goods and services.

The entire gamut of social order developed with Jajmani links with multiple types of
payments and obligations. None of the caste was self sufficient and it depended for
many things on other castes. Thus, each caste worked as a functional group and was
linked with other caste via the mechanisms of Jajmani system.

Though Jajmani system represented the inter-linking of Hindu caste yet, in practice this
system crossed the boundary of religion and provided linkages between different
religions also. For example, Hindu’s dependence on Muslim weaver or washer man or
Muslim’s dependence on Hindu trader / tailor / Goldsmith etc. is a manifestation of that
mechanism only, though not called so. However, various development like
westernization, globalization, dilution of caste system, expansion of education and in
turn employment have metamorphed Jajmani system transcending the traditional base
of interdependence.

Unity in Diversity
As we have just seen in the foregoing discussion that India is a land of diversity (i.e.
variety of races, of religions, of languages, of castes and of cultures). However, despite
such variety it exhibits a sense of oneness, a sense of weness which holds the members
of the society together. This has earned it the moniker “Unity in Diversity”. The Indian
society has bonds of unity underlying all this diversity located in a certain underlying
uniformity of life as well as in certain mechanisms of integration. Around the world this
diversity gets accommodated in 3 ways. Let’s discuss some of the bonds of unity of the
Indian society.

Geographical Diversity and Unity

Geographic Diversity:

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 • India has diverse geography. At broadest level, the country can be divided into
several regions viz. Himalaya, northern plains, plateau of central India and
Deccan, Western and Eastern Ghats, Thar Desert etc. Each of them has different
climate, temperature, vegetation, fauna, people and so on. Such diversity in turn
create a sense of functional economic dependency because of agricultural
produce every geographical location gives.
Geography as Source of Unity:

• Despite this diversity, India has been defined as a distinct geographical unit since
ages. A sloka in Vishnu Purana defines Bharata as the land which is south of
snowy mountains and north of ocean. The country was time and again unified by
different imperialist forces taking into consideration its geographical distinctness.
Geography as a Source of Conflict:

• Geography in itself does not act as a divisive element. However, when combined
with the ideology of aggressive regionalism, it will act as a divisive factor. For
example, son of the soil movement in maharastra is targeted towards people of
particular region.

Ideological Diversity and Unity

Ideological Diversity:

• Indian philosophy, the systems of thought and reflection that were developed by
the civilizations of the Indian subcontinent. They include both orthodox (astika)
systems, namely, the Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Yoga, Purva-Mimamsa (or
Mimamsa), and Vedanta schools of philosophy, and unorthodox (nastika)
systems, such as Buddhism and Jainism. Indian thought has been concerned
with various philosophical problems, significant among which are the nature of
the world (cosmology), the nature of reality (metaphysics), logic, the nature of
knowledge (epistemology), ethics, and the philosophy of religion.
Ideology as a Source of Unity:

• Such philosophical diversity has given way for tolerance, righteousness, love,
recognition of various differences, Vasudhaiv kutumbkam and sarva dharma
sambhavah like notions.
• This is well reflected in our soft power diplomacy and good will at global level.
Coexistence of Indian society despite of innumerable fundamental differences
can be owed to only such ideological resilience.
Ideology as a Source of Conflict:

• Intolerance to other’s ideology is the real source of conflict .e.g religious

fundamentalism- the belief of an individual or a group of individuals in the
absolute authority of a sacred religious text or teachings of a particular religious
leader, prophet, and / or God. Today many Islamic terrorist organizations, such
as al-Qaeda, Boko Haram, and ISIS, also hold fundamentalist attitudes, and
regard Western civilization as the symbol of the secular modernization that is a
threat to the traditional Islamic values.

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Religious Diversity and Unity
Religious Diversity:

• India has no state religion, it is a secular state. It is the land where almost all the
major religions of the world are practiced by their respective followers.
Nevertheless the religious diversity has been a major source of disunity and
disharmony in the country. This is because in India religious affiliation appears to
be overemphasized and many a time people seem to forget the national unity
and express their loyalty more towards their own religion.
Religion as a Source of Unity:

• Every religion when interpreted in liberal form preaches Religious pluralism and
Tolerance, Love and Compassion. Tolerance, the ability or willingness to tolerate
the existence of opinions or behaviour that one dislikes or disagrees with, has
been one of the prime reasons for sustenance and continuity in the Indian society
over the millennia. This tolerance was coupled by love and compassion, for both
the humans and animals, as preached by some the religions that evolved on its
land, especially Buddhism and Jainism. Ashoka, the Mauryan King, preached
tolerance towards people of all religion and forsook war in the 3rd century BC.
• He was followed by other tolerant kings like Samudragupta and Harshvardhana.
During the Medieval ages the Bhaktj and Sufi saints preached tolerance, love and
compassion. Akbar, the Mughal ruler of the 16th century, also deserves mention
for his tolerance for people of all religion. Thus, the present Indian society is a
result of ages of tolerance, love and compassion among the people, who lived
and made this country their homeland.
Religion as a Source of Conflict

• However, this religious diversity has posed constant challenges to the country in
the form of communalism and communal violence. Beginning during the British
period, communalism is one of the greatest challenges to the country’s unity. This
has ultimately led to Partition of our country due to the development of the two
nation theory.

Linguistic Diversity and Unity

Linguistic Diversity:

• Language is one of the principal powerful symbols of identity in India. States in

the Indian Union are demarcated on the basis of the principal language spoken.
People are identified with certain linguistic, ethnic, religious or cultural groups
through ones mother tongue. Moreover, language has been basis for many of the
ethnic movements in the country.
Language as a Source of Unity:

• The variety of our languages was an important component of Nehru’s

characterisation of Indian culture as unity in diversity. Mahatma Gandhi also held

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