MATRICES
What is a Matrix ?
A rectangular/square array of numbers enclosed by a pair of
brackets and subject to certain rules of operations is called a
Matrix. Such as
1 4 5
A= ;
2 6 2
8 5 1
𝐵= 2 1 2 ;
7 4 4
1 −5 𝜋 𝑒
C= 0 7 −6 −𝜋
−2 1/2 11 −1/5
1 4 5
A= ;
2 6 2
The matrix A could be considered as the coefficient
matrix of the system of homogeneous linear equations;
𝑥 + 4𝑦 + 5𝑧 = 0
2𝑥 + 6𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 0
or as the augmented matrix of the system of non-
homogeneous linear equations;
𝑥 + 4𝑦 = 5
2𝑥 + 6𝑦 = 2
8 5 1
𝐵= 2 1 2 ;
7 4 4
The matrix B could be given a similar interpretation or
we might consider its rows as simply the coordinates of
the points (8,5,1), (2,1,2) and (7,4,4) in ordinary space.
The matrix will be used later to settle such questions as
whether or not the three points lie in the same plane with
the origin or the same line through the origin.
In the matrix
𝒂𝟏𝟏 𝒂𝟏𝟐 𝒂𝟏𝟑 … … … 𝒂𝟏𝒏
𝒂𝟐𝟏 𝒂𝟐𝟐 𝒂𝟐𝟑 … … … 𝒂𝟐𝒏
𝒂𝟑𝟏 𝒂𝟑𝟐 𝒂𝟑𝟑 … … … 𝒂𝟑𝒏
… … … … … … … …… (1.1)
… … … … … … …
𝒂𝒎𝟏 𝒂𝒎𝟐 𝒂𝒎𝟑 … … … 𝒂𝒎𝒏
The number of functions 𝒂𝒊𝒋 are called the elements of matrix.
In the double subscript notation 𝒂𝒊𝒋 , the first subscript(𝑖)
indicates the row and the second subscript (𝑗) indicates the
column in which the element stands. Thus, all elements in the
second row have 2 as first subscript and all the elements in the
fifth column have 5 as second subscript.
A matrix of m rows and n columns is said to be of order
′𝒎 𝒃𝒚 𝒏’ or ′𝒎 × 𝒏′.
In indicating a matrix, pairs of parentheses [ ], ( ) and double
bars , are used.
At times the matrix (1.1) will be called
𝒂𝟏𝟏 𝒂𝟏𝟐 𝒂𝟏𝟑 … … … 𝒂𝟏𝒏
𝒂𝟐𝟏 𝒂𝟐𝟐 𝒂𝟐𝟑 … … … 𝒂𝟐𝒏
𝒂𝟑𝟏 𝒂𝟑𝟐 𝒂𝟑𝟑 … … … 𝒂𝟑𝒏
… … … … … … … …… (1.1)
… … … … … … …
𝒂𝒎𝟏 𝒂𝒎𝟐 𝒂𝒎𝟑 … … … 𝒂𝒎𝒏
𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒎 × 𝒏 𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒙 [𝒂𝒊𝒋 ] or 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒎 × 𝒏 𝒎𝒂𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒙 𝑨 = 𝒂𝒊𝒋 .
Square Matrices:
When 𝑚 = 𝑛, the matrix A in (1.1) is square, and will be called
a 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑛 or an 𝑛 − 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥.
In a square matrix the elements 𝑎11 , 𝑎22 , 𝑎33 ….. 𝑎𝑛𝑛 are called
its 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠.
The sum of the diagonal elements of a square matrix 𝐴 is called
𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐴.
𝒂𝟏𝟏 𝒂𝟏𝟐 𝒂𝟏𝟑 𝒂𝟏𝟒 𝒂𝟏𝟓
𝒂𝟐𝟏 𝒂𝟐𝟐 𝒂𝟐𝟑 𝒂𝟐𝟒 𝒂𝟐𝟓
𝑨 = 𝒂𝟑𝟏 𝒂𝟑𝟐 𝒂𝟑𝟑 𝒂𝟑𝟒 𝒂𝟑𝟓
𝒂𝟒𝟏 𝒂𝟒𝟐 𝒂𝟒𝟑 𝒂𝟒𝟒 𝒂𝟒𝟓
𝒂𝟓𝟏 𝒂𝟓𝟐 𝒂𝟓𝟑 𝒂𝟒𝟓 𝒂𝟓𝟓 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠
𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒄𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝑨 = 𝒂𝟏𝟏 + 𝒂𝟐𝟐 + 𝒂𝟑𝟑 + 𝒂𝟒𝟒 + 𝒂𝟓𝟓
The trace of a matrix has several important mathematical
properties, but these are defined and utilized specifically for square
matrices. It has several key properties,
Linearity
Linearity:
The trace is a linear function. This means that for matrices 𝐴 and 𝐵
and a scalar 𝑘:
𝑡𝑟(𝐴 + 𝐵) = 𝑡𝑟(𝐴) + 𝑡𝑟(𝐵)
𝑡𝑟(𝑘𝐴) = 𝑘 ∗ 𝑡𝑟(𝐴)
Cyclic Property
Cyclic Property:
The trace is invariant under cyclic permutations of matrix products.
𝑡𝑟(𝐴𝐵𝐶) = 𝑡𝑟(𝐵𝐶𝐴) = 𝑡𝑟(𝐶𝐴𝐵)
Connection to Eigenvalues
Connection to Eigenvalues:
The trace of a matrix is equal to the sum of its eigenvalues
(including multiplicities)
Equal Matrices:
Two matrices 𝐴 = 𝑎𝑖𝑗 and B= 𝑏𝑖𝑗 are said to be equal (𝐴 = 𝐵)
if and only if they have the same order 𝑚 × 𝑛 and each element of
one is equal to the corresponding element of the other, that is if and
only if 𝒂𝒊𝒋 = 𝒃𝒊𝒋 , (𝑖 = 1, 2, 3 … 𝑚; 𝑗 = 1,2,3 … 𝑛).Thus, two
matrices are equal if and only if one is duplicate to other.
Problem: Find the values for the variables that make the matrix
equation true
2 3 𝑥 3
a = Ans: x=2; y=2
1 𝑦 1 2𝑥 − 𝑦
𝑥 + 3 2𝑤 − 8 0 −6
b 𝑦 + 1 4𝑥 + 6 = −3 2𝑥
𝑧−3 3𝑧 2𝑧 + 4 −21
𝐴𝑛𝑠 𝑥 = −3; 𝑦 = −4; 𝑧 = −7; 𝑤 = 1
Zero Matrix:
A zero matrix, also known as a null matrix, is a matrix
where all of its elements are equal to zero.
It can be of any dimensions (rectangular or square).
It serves as the additive identity in matrix operations,
meaning adding a zero matrix to another matrix of the
same dimension results in the original matrix. For example,
if A is a matrix and 0 is a zero matrix of the same
dimensions, then A + 0 = A.
When a zero matrix is multiplied by any other matrix (of
compatible dimensions), the result is always a zero matrix.
For example, if A is a matrix and 0 is a zero matrix,
then A * 0 = 0 and 0 * A = 0
Matrix Addition:
Two matrices can be added together if and only if they have
the same dimension. Their sum is obtained by summing
each element of one matrix to the corresponding element of
the other matrix.
Let 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐵 be two 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrices. Their sum C = 𝐴 + 𝐵
is another 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrix such that (𝑖, 𝑗)𝑡ℎ element of 𝐶 is
equal to the sum of the(𝑖, 𝑗)𝑡ℎ element of 𝐴 and the(𝑖, 𝑗)𝑡ℎ
element of 𝐵,
for all 𝑖 and 𝑗 satisfying 1 ≤ 𝑖 ≤ 𝑚 and 1 ≤ 𝑗 ≤ 𝑛.
Let A and B be two 3 × 2 matrices
3 2 0 1
𝐴 = 1/3 1 ; 𝐵 = 2/3 0
0 0 0 1
Then their sum,
3+0 2+1
1 2 3 3
C=𝐴+𝐵 = + 1+0 = 1 1
3 3 0 1
0+0 0+1
And difference,
3−0 2−1 3 1
1
D = 𝐴 − 𝐵 = 3 − 2/3 1 − 0 = −1/3 1
0−0 0−1 0 −1
If two matrices A and B are of the same order, they are
said to be conformable for addition or subtraction.
Properties of matrix addition:
Assuming that the matrices A, B, C are conformable for
addition
(a) 𝑨 + 𝑩 = 𝑩 + 𝑨; (commutative law)
(b) 𝑨 + (𝑩 + 𝑪) = (𝑨 + 𝑩) + 𝑪; (associative law)
(c) 𝒌 𝑨 + 𝑩 = 𝒌𝑨 + 𝒌𝑩 = (𝑨 + 𝑩)𝒌, 𝑘 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑟
(d) There exists a matrix 𝐷 such that 𝐴 + 𝐷 = 𝐵.
Problem:
1 2 −3 −2
If A = 3 4 ; and B = 1 −5 ;
5 6 4 3
𝑝 𝑞
Find D = 𝑟 𝑠 such that 𝐴 + 𝐵 − 𝐷 = 0
𝑡 𝑢
−2 0
Answer: D = 4 −1
9 9
Problems: Show that
2 2 2
1 𝑎𝑖𝑘 𝑏𝑘𝑗 + 𝑐𝑘𝑗 = 𝑎𝑖𝑘 𝑏𝑘𝑗 + 𝑎𝑖𝑘 𝑐𝑘𝑗
𝑘=1 𝑘=1 𝑘=1
2 3 3 2
2 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 𝑎𝑖𝑗
𝑖=1 𝑗=1 𝑗=1 𝑖=1
2 3 3 2
3 𝑎𝑖𝑘 𝑏𝑘ℎ 𝑐ℎ𝑗 = 𝑎𝑖𝑘 𝑏𝑘ℎ 𝑐ℎ𝑗
𝑘=1 ℎ=1 ℎ=1 𝑘=1
2
1 𝑎𝑖𝑘 𝑏𝑘𝑗 + 𝑐𝑘𝑗
𝑘=1
= 𝑎𝑖1 𝑏1𝑗 + 𝑐1𝑗 + 𝑎𝑖2 𝑏2𝑗 + 𝑐2𝑗
= 𝑎𝑖1 𝑏1𝑗 + 𝑎𝑖1 𝑐1𝑗 + 𝑎𝑖2 𝑏2𝑗 + 𝑎𝑖2 𝑐2𝑗
= 𝑎𝑖1 𝑏1𝑗 + 𝑎𝑖2 𝑏2𝑗 + 𝑎𝑖1 𝑐1𝑗 + 𝑎𝑖2 𝑐2𝑗
2 2
= 𝑎𝑖𝑘 𝑏𝑘𝑗 + 𝑎𝑖𝑘 𝑐𝑘𝑗 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑
𝑘=1 𝑘=1
2 3 2
2 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 𝑎𝑖1 + 𝑎𝑖2 + 𝑎𝑖3
𝑖=1 𝑗=1 𝑖=1
= (𝑎11 +𝑎12 + 𝑎13 )+ 𝑎21 + 𝑎22 + 𝑎23
= (𝑎11 + 𝑎21 ) + (𝑎12 +𝑎22 )+ 𝑎13 + 𝑎23
2 2 2
= 𝑎𝑖1 + 𝑎𝑖2 + 𝑎𝑖3
𝑖=1 𝑖=1 𝑖=1
3 2
= 𝑎𝑖𝑗 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑
𝑗=1 𝑖=1
This is simply the statement that in summing all of
the elements of a matrix, one may sum first the
elements of each row or the elements of each
column.
2 3
3 𝑎𝑖𝑘 𝑏𝑘ℎ 𝑐ℎ𝑗
𝑘=1 ℎ=1
= 𝑎𝑖𝑘 𝑏𝑘1 𝑐1𝑗 + 𝑏𝑘2 𝑐2𝑗 + 𝑏𝑘3 𝑐3𝑗
𝑘=1
= 𝑎𝑖1 𝑏11 𝑐1𝑗 + 𝑏12 𝑐2𝑗 + 𝑏13 𝑐3𝑗 + 𝑎𝑖2 𝑏21 𝑐1𝑗 + 𝑏22 𝑐2𝑗 + 𝑏23 𝑐3𝑗
= (𝑎𝑖1 𝑏11 + 𝑎𝑖2 𝑏21 )𝑐1𝑗 + (𝑎𝑖1 𝑏12 + 𝑎𝑖2 𝑏22 )𝑐2𝑗 + (𝑎𝑖1 𝑏13 + 𝑎𝑖2 𝑏23 )𝑐3𝑗
2 2 2
= 𝑎𝑖𝑘 𝑏𝑘1 𝑐1𝑗 + 𝑎𝑖𝑘 𝑏𝑘2 𝑐2𝑗 + 𝑎𝑖𝑘 𝑏𝑘3 𝑐3𝑗
𝑘=1 𝑘=1 𝑘=1
3 2
= 𝑎𝑖𝑘 𝑏𝑘ℎ 𝑐ℎ𝑗 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑
ℎ=1 𝑘=1
Product of Matrices:
Matrix multiplication is a binary operation that takes two
matrices and produces a single matrix. The product of two
matrices AB is defined only when the number columns of
A is equal to the number rows of B.
The resulting matrix C will have the same number of rows
as the first matrix A and the same number of columns as
the second matrix B.
Note that the operation of multiplication is row by column;
each element of the row is multiplied into the
corresponding element of the column and then the
products are summed .
How to Multiply Matrices:
1. Check compatibility:
Ensure the number of columns in the first matrix matches the
number of rows in the second matrix.
2. Determine dimensions:
The resulting matrix will have the same number of rows as
the first matrix and the same number of columns as the
second matrix.
3. Calculate each element:
To find the element in the 𝑖 𝑡ℎ row and 𝑗𝑡ℎ column of the
resulting matrix, take the dot product of the 𝑖 𝑡ℎ row of the
first matrix and the 𝑗𝑡ℎ column of the second matrix.
a
MULTIPLICATION:
By the product AB in the order of the 1 m matrix
𝐴= [𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13 … … 𝑎1𝑚] and
𝑏11
𝑏21
𝑏31
the m 1 matrix 𝐵 = is meant the 11 matrix
…
…
𝑏𝑚1
𝐶 = [𝑎11 𝑏11 + 𝑎12 𝑏21 + ⋯ … + 𝑎1𝑚 𝑏𝑚1].
𝑏11
𝑏21
𝑏31
That is, [𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13 … … 𝑎1𝑚]
…
…
𝑏𝑚1
= [𝒂𝟏𝟏𝒃𝟏𝟏 + 𝒂𝟏𝟐𝒃𝟐𝟏 + ⋯ + 𝒂𝟏𝒎 𝒃𝒎𝟏 ]
= 𝑎1𝑘 𝑏𝑘1
𝑘=1
Note that the operation is row by column; each element
of the row is multiplied into the corresponding element
of the column and then the products are summed.
Example:
1
(a) [2 3 4] −1 =[ 2 (1) + 3 (-1) + 4 (2) ] = [7]
2
−2
(b) [3 - 1 4] 6 = [− 6 − 6 + 12] = 0
3
By the product AB in that order of the
𝑚 𝑝 matrix 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] and
the 𝑝 𝑛 matrix B = [𝑏𝑖𝑗 ] is meant
the m n matrix C = [𝑐𝑖𝑗 ] where
𝑐𝑖𝑗 = 𝑎𝑖1 𝑏1𝑗 + 𝑎𝑖2 𝑏2𝑗 + ⋯ … + 𝑎𝑖𝑝 𝑏𝑝𝑗
𝑝
= 𝑎𝑖𝑘 𝑏𝑘𝑗 … … … … . 𝑖 = 1, 2, … 𝑚 ; (𝑗 = 1, 2, … . 𝑛)
𝑘=1
Think of 𝐴 as consisting of m rows and 𝐵 consisting of n
columns. In forming C = AB each row of A is multiplied once
and only once into each column of B. The element 𝑐𝑖𝑗 of C is
then the product of the 𝑖 𝑡ℎ row of A and the 𝑗𝑡ℎ column of B.
Example:
𝑎11 𝑎12
𝑏11 𝑏12
𝐴 𝐵 = 𝑎21 𝑎22
𝑎31 𝑎22 𝑏21 𝑏22
𝑎11 𝑏11 + 𝑎12 𝑏21 𝑎11 𝑏12 + 𝑎12 𝑏22
= 𝑎21 𝑏21 + 𝑎22 𝑏21 𝑎21 𝑏12 + 𝑎22 𝑏22
𝑎31 𝑏11 + 𝑎22 𝑏21 𝑎31 𝑏12 + 𝑎32 𝑏22
The product AB is defined or A is conformable to B for
multiplication only when the number of columns of A is
equal to the number of rows of B.
If A is conformable to B for multiplication (AB is defined),
B is not necessarily conformable to A for multiplication (BA
may or may not be defined).
Assuming that 𝑨, 𝑩, 𝑪 are conformable for the indicated
sums and products, we have
𝑨(𝑩 + 𝑪) = 𝑨𝑩 + 𝑨𝑪 (first distributive law)
(𝑨 + 𝑩)𝑪 = 𝑨𝑪 + 𝑩𝑪 (second distributive law)
A(BC) = (AB)C (associative law)
However,
𝐴𝐵 ≠ 𝐵𝐴, 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦,
𝐴𝐵 = 0 𝑑𝑜𝑒𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝐴 = 0 𝑜𝑟 𝐵 = 0
𝐴𝐵 = 𝐴𝐶 𝑑𝑜𝑒𝑠 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑛𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝐵 = 𝐶.
2
Example. Given 𝐴 = [4 5 6] and 𝐵 = 3 .
−1
Compute AB and BA
2
(a) [4 5 6] 3 =[ 4 (2) + 5 (3) - 6 (1) ] = [17]
−1
4 2 4 2(5) 2(6) 8 10 12
(b) [2 3 -1] 5 = 3(4) 3(5) 3(6) = 12 15 18
6 −1(4) −1(5) −1(6) −4) −5 −6
Thus 𝐴𝐵 ≠ 𝐵𝐴
1 −1 1
Example 12. Given 𝐴 = −3 2 −1
−2 1 0
1 2 3
and 𝐵 = 2 4 6 .
1 2 3
Compute AB and BA. Show that 𝐴𝐵 ≠ 𝐵𝐴.
1 −1 1 1 2 3
𝐴𝐵 = −3 2 −1 2 4 6 =0
−2 1 0 1 2 3
1 2 3 1 −1 1 −11 6 −1
𝐵𝐴 = 2 4 6 −3 2 −1 = −22 12 −2
1 2 3 −2 1 0 −11 6 −1
Thus 𝑨𝑩 ≠ 𝑩𝑨
Example 13
1 −3 2 1 4 1 0
Given 𝐴 = 2 1 −3 ; 𝐵 = 2 1 1 1
4 −3 −1 1 −2 1 2
2 1 −1 −2
and C = 3 −2 −1 −1
2 −5 −1 0
Compute AB and AC. Show that 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐴𝐶. Thus 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐴𝐶 does
not necessarily imply 𝐵 = 𝐶.
Example 14
1 1 −1 1 3
Given 𝐴 = 2 0 3 ;𝐵= 0 2
3 −1 2 −1 4
1 2 3 −4
and C =
2 0 −2 1
Show that 𝐴𝐵 𝐶 = 𝐴(𝐵𝐶).
Prove: If 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] is of order m n and if B = [𝑏𝑖𝑗 ] and
C = [𝑐𝑖𝑗 ] are of order 𝑛 × 𝑝 then 𝑨(𝑩 + 𝑪) = 𝑨𝑩 + 𝑨𝑪
Solution: The elements of the 𝑖 𝑡ℎ row of A are 𝑎𝑖1 , 𝑎𝑖2 , … … 𝑎𝑖𝑛
and the elements of the 𝑗𝑡ℎ column of 𝑩 + 𝑪 are 𝑏1𝑗 + 𝑐1𝑗 ,
𝑏2𝑗 + 𝑐2𝑗 , … … … … . . 𝑏𝑛𝑗 + 𝑐𝑛𝑗 .
Then the element standing in the 𝑖 𝑡ℎ row and 𝑗𝑡ℎ column of
𝑨 𝑩 + 𝑪 is
𝑎𝑖1 (𝑏1𝑗 + 𝑐1𝑗 ), 𝑎𝑖2 (𝑏2𝑗 + 𝑐2𝑗 ), …….. 𝑎𝑖𝑛 (𝑏𝑛𝑗 + 𝑐𝑛𝑗 )
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
= 𝑎𝑖𝑘 𝑏𝑘𝑗 + 𝑐𝑘𝑗 = 𝑎𝑖𝑘 𝑏𝑘𝑗 + 𝑎𝑖𝑘 𝑐𝑘𝑗 ,
𝑘=1 𝑘=1 𝑘=1
The sum of the elements standing in the 𝑖 𝑡ℎ row and 𝑗𝑡ℎ column
of 𝑨𝑩 + 𝑨𝑪
Prove: If 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] is of order m n , if B = [𝑏𝑖𝑗 ] is of order 𝑛 × 𝑝 and C = [𝑐𝑖𝑗 ] is
of order 𝑝 × 𝑞 then 𝑨(𝑩𝑪) = (𝑨𝑩)𝑪
Solution: The elements of the 𝑖𝑡ℎ row of A are 𝑎𝑖1 , 𝑎𝑖2 , … … 𝑎𝑖𝑛 and the elements of
the 𝑗𝑡ℎ column of 𝑩𝑪 are
𝑝 𝑝 𝑝
𝑏1ℎ 𝑐ℎ𝑗 , 𝑏2ℎ 𝑐ℎ𝑗 , … … … . , 𝑏𝑛ℎ 𝑐ℎ𝑗
ℎ=1 ℎ=1 ℎ=1
Then the element standing in the 𝑖𝑡ℎ row and 𝑗𝑡ℎ column of 𝑨 𝑩𝑪 is
𝑝 𝑝 𝑝
𝑎𝑖1 𝑏1ℎ 𝑐ℎ𝑗 + 𝑎𝑖2 𝑏2ℎ 𝑐ℎ𝑗 + ⋯ … . + 𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑏𝑛ℎ 𝑐ℎ𝑗
ℎ=1 ℎ=1 ℎ=1
𝑛 𝑝 𝑝 𝑛
= 𝑎𝑖𝑘 𝑏𝑘ℎ𝑐ℎ𝑗 = 𝑎𝑖𝑘 𝑏𝑘ℎ 𝑐ℎ𝑗
𝑘=1 ℎ=1 ℎ=1 𝑘=1
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
= 𝑎𝑖𝑘 𝑏𝑘1 𝑐1𝑗 + 𝑎𝑖𝑘 𝑏𝑘2 𝑐2𝑗 + 𝑎𝑖𝑘 𝑏𝑘3 𝑐3𝑗 + ⋯ … . + 𝑎𝑖𝑘 𝑏𝑘𝑝 𝑐𝑝𝑗
𝑘=1 𝑘=1 𝑘=1 𝑘=1
This is the element standing in the 𝑖 𝑡ℎ row and 𝑗𝑡ℎ column of (𝐴𝐵)𝐶; hence 𝐴 𝐵𝐶 = 𝐴𝐵 𝐶.
