Volume 10, Issue 8, August – 2025 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology

ISSN No: 2456-2165 https://doi.org/10.38124/ijisrt/25aug437

Spatial - Temporal Mapping of Ambient Air

Pollutants (PM2.5, PM10 and CH4) in Minna Town,
Niger State, Nigeria
Ahmed, A. S.1; Bello, Y. 2; Jidauna, G. G.3; Etsuyankpa, M. B.5; Francis, C. I.6
1
CPES, Federal University of Technology, Minna, Niger State Nigeria
2,3
Department of Geography, Federal University Dutsin-Ma, Katsina State,Nigeria
4
Department of Chemistry, Federal University Lafia, Nasarawa State,Nigeria
5
Department of Chemistry, Imo State University Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria

Publication Date: 2025/08/23

Abstract: The study analyses and mapped the spatio-temporal variation of ambient air pollution in Minna town. The spatio-
temporal pattern of ambient air pollution level and identify air quality index in Minna town. Primary and secondary data
were used. Portable handheld Aeroqual’s Series 500 was used to take readings in parts per million (ppm) for gaseous air
pollutants (PM2.5, PM10 and CH4) across selected sampled locations. Geographical information system (GIS) was used to
analyzed the data. The total variance explained pollution causal parameter was 63.1% and the key index identified was
Green House Gases (GHGs). Concentration levels of PM 10um particulate matter were recorded around Dutsin- Kura
junction and Kure market (> 0.0078ppm), followed by Kasuwa gwari market. The least concentration was of PM10 NNPC
Mega station, City gate. The PM2.5 concentration was observed to be higher in Kasuwan Gwari Market, Dutsinkura junction,
City Gate Shango and Gbeganu Junction Bida road while the lowest concentration of PM 2.5 was observed around College of
Education locations like Kasuwan Gwari market, Dutsin kura junction, and Kure market recorded very high level (1084.61,
1086.72, and 1099.82 ppm) of CH4 respectively during dry seasons. The study conclude that. pollutants concentration varies
over space and time in Minna town. The findings recommend clean energy for the inhabitants in order to reduce release of
pollutants into the environment from their means of livelihood.

Keywords: Temporal, Pollutant, Concentration and Location.

How to Cite: Ahmed, A. S.; Bello, Y.; Jidauna, G. G.; Etsuyankpa, M. B.; Francis, C. I. (2025). Spatial - Temporal Mapping of
Ambient Air Pollutants (PM2.5, PM10 and CH4) in Minna Town, Niger State, Nigeria. International Journal of Innovative Science
and Research Technology, 10(8), 1005-1014. https://doi.org/10.38124/ijisrt/25aug437

I. INTRODUCTION respiratory diseases as well as the probability of premature

mortality. Generally, there are five (5) principal sources of
Air pollution is considered to be the most critical as atmospheric pollutants. This are industrial and mining
there is no single minute that we cannot do without clean air processes, fuel combustion (including fuel wood burning,
(Manisalidis, Stavropoulou, Stavropoulos and Bezirtzoglou bush fire sand flaring of natural gas), waste disposal by
2020). Air pollution occurs when gases, dust particles, fumes burning, road traffic. And other abrasive forces which raise
(or smoke) or odour are introduced into the atmosphere in a dust Particulate Matters (PM) from the ground and naturally
way that makes it harmful to humans, animals and plants occurring pollutants like pollen, spore sand bacteria
(Joshi, 2022). Air pollution from both outdoor and indoor (Bessagnet, et al., 2022). Many agricultural practices like
sources represents the single largest environmental risk to land preparation, deforestation, slash-and-burn farming
human health globally (Espanol, 2019). World Health releases various air pollutant like PM2.5 and PM10 (Rana, and
Organization [WHO], 2014 warns that air pollution sources Chopra, 2013). Also, rearing of animals and rice farming/
represent the greatest environmental risk to human health, processing produce a lot of CH4 . Particulate matter with an
evidenced in more than over 6 million premature deaths aerodynamic diameter of less than 2.5 μm (PM2.5) is
caused by exposure to contaminated air sources (Fernanda et generated from various natural and anthropogenic sources
al., 2023). Lee et al. (2020).

Several studies like Bassols, Johnston, and Shields Dust particles arising from the frequent movement of
(2023) have shown that exposure to air pollution at an early vehicles along kpakungu Bida road through non-asphalted
age can impair lung function, and increase the risk of (under construction), poor environmental sanitation and

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Volume 10, Issue 8, August – 2025 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology
ISSN No: 2456-2165 https://doi.org/10.38124/ijisrt/25aug437

failed portions of major roads, as most vehicles access the importantly spatial and temporal distribution of pollutants in
nation’s capital through Minna Niger State. Findings revealed Minna.
that high concentration of the pollutants in Minna metropolis II. STUDY AREA
are outrageously high and therefore detrimental to human
health, livestock and crops. Minna is the administrative capital of Niger State. It lies
within Latitude 9o36' 0" to 9o 38ʹ 0ʺ North of the equator and
Despite all these researches, there is scarcity of air Longitudes 6o 31ʹ 0ʺ to 6o 34ʹ 0ʺ East of the Greenwich
pollutant mapping in Nigeria, especially in Minna, Niger Meridian (Figure 3.2). In terms of distance, it is about 145
State. The pollutant are spatio-temporal in nature, due to the kilometers by road from Abuja, the Federal Capital Territory
continuously changing of environmental conditions resulting (FCT) of Nigeria. Out of Niger state’s total area size of
from the movement of pollutants and pollutant sources. The 76,363km2, the study area covers about 110 km2 and it’s
spatio-temporal variability of air pollutant from multiple located at the south-eastern axis of the state, in the middle belt
locations comes with significant design challenges, this form region of the country (Wakili, Nsofor, Suleiman and
the bases of this study. The study intend to carry out a Mohammed 2017).
comprehensive mapping of air pollutant, particularly on
particulate matter (PM10, PM2.5 and CH4), and more

Fig 1 Map of Niger State Showing the Study Area

Source: Niger State Ministry of Land and Survey (2020).

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Volume 10, Issue 8, August – 2025 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology
ISSN No: 2456-2165 https://doi.org/10.38124/ijisrt/25aug437

Minna has a Tropical savanna climate (Köppen-Geiger accuracy. The study adopt Inverse Distance Weights (IDW)
classification: Aw) with a pronounced dry period. The spatial interpolation method with the application of the GIS
climate of Minna is the result of the general atmospheric framework to map and address the spatial distribution of
circulation of air masses over the earth modified by surface ambient air quality, because of its practicability and
topography and elevation. The principal air masses affecting applicability in the study.
the weather of Minna are the Tropical maritime (mT) and the
Tropical Continental air masses (cT). IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The rainfall pattern shows a distinct and fairly South- The average annual spatial distribution of Particulate
North gradient in which the annual rainfall decreases from the matter (PM10) around Minna for both dry and wet season is
Southern fringe (Samson and Ellis, 2024). The annual rainfall presented in Figure 2 and 3. The results on the spatial
ranges from around 1,600mm to 1,230mm. The total annual distribution of particulate matter for dry seasons show that
rainfall received was 1,209.7mm. Ebitu Ekiwe road (GRA), Kateren Kwari, and College of
Education Minna recorded very low (7.72, 8.83, and 9.10
The highest mean monthly temperature is recorded in µg/m3) concentration of PM10, while Citygate Shango, Dutse
March with about 30.5oC (Anon, 2021). Furthermore, it kura junction and Kure market recorded low (11.19, 11.92,
experiences high temperatures all the year round, the mean and 12.46 µg/m3) level concentration of PM10 (Figure 2).
annual temperature increases northward from about 30oC to
37oC. Average temperature and sunshine duration per year Also, the spatial distribution of PM10 for wet season
were 27°C and 2672 hours, March and September were the shows that Ebitu Ekiwe road (GRA), Kateren Kwari, and
warmest and coldest months with corresponding average College of Education Minna showed very low level (3.29,
temperature values of 30.2°C and 24.9°C respectively. 3.32, and 3.02µg/m3) of PM10 within the study area whereas,
Access roundabout, Eastern bypass (Mechanic village), and
III. METHODOLOGY Kure market recorded low level (3.50, 3.80, and 3.09 µg/m3)
of PM10 in the study area (Figure 3).
Field work was carried out on selected sites of the study
areas to collect air samples. Air quality monitoring station Apparently, findings show that the spatial distribution
positioned approximately 1.5m from the nearest road were of PM10 in Minna town ranges between very low to low levels
selected according to specific legislation to guarantee the of concentration of the pollutant. Virtually all year (dry and
representativeness of the study locations for the measurement wet) it is obvious that Ebitu Ekiwe road (GRA), Kateren
of suspended particulate matter (PM10, PM2.5) and methane Kwari, and College of Education Minna recorded very low
(CH4). The Aeroqual commercial sensors used for this study (8.83 µg/m3) while it is only in Kure market that low level of
were S500 portable monitors and were positioned at 1.5m concentration which in turn is highly variable across the
elevation above the ground at different focal locations in seasons. This result is line with Ugonabo et al.,(2023) who
Minna and were used to collect air samples (July-September reported that PM10 (µ/gm3) have more spread during dry
2023 and December 2022- January and Febuary 2023 ), seasons than in wet seasons. Mostaghim et al., (2024) the
which covered two seasons (wet and dry) in Minna. highest PM10 level due to a low average precipitation in
autumn while the lowest levels in summer. Chauhan et
Portable handheld Aeroqual’s Series 500 was used to al.,(2022) indicated that seasonal variation shows relatively a
take readings in parts per million (ppm) for the gaseous air higher concentration of PM10 in the winter season, which
pollutants (PM2.5, PM10 and CH4) across selected sampled may be due to stable meteorological conditions and increased
locations. The sensor was calibrated and tested at the biomass burning in winter.
laboratory before being taken to the field for operation. For
each of the 15 selected location, readings were taken thrice a Kalander and Al-Harahsheh (2023) reported that the
day for three different months at each seasons and statistical highest concentration of dust was in Al-Rumaithiya station
analysis was conducted to show variations within a particular with concentration of 146–330 µg/m3, followed by Al-Jahra
area and across the study area as well as within and across station with concentration of 108–199 µg/m3, and the lowest
pollutants. was in Al-Fahaheel station with of concentration of 108–177
µg/m3.
Spatial interpolation is a critical aspect of Geographic
Information Systems (GIS) that is allows to estimate values Ugonabo et al.,( (2023) report that in Ogui New
for locations where data is not available. By using various Layout, during the dry season, the air pollutants (PM10) had
statistical techniques, spatial interpolation helps in predicting maximum values of 225 µg/m3 and minimum values of 184
and visualizing data patterns across a geographic area. The µg/m3 while during the wet season, (PM10) had maximum
first step is data collection, where the relevant data points are values of 202 µg/m3 and minimum values of 108 µg/m3.
gathered from various sources such as field surveys. These Vaddiraju (2019) reported that PM10 concentration of 146
data points have the necessary attributes and spatial µg/m3 which was the highest concentration observed at the
coordinates for interpolation. After the data was collected, it center of the town with minimal space.
was cleaned and organized to ensure consistency and

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Volume 10, Issue 8, August – 2025 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology
ISSN No: 2456-2165 https://doi.org/10.38124/ijisrt/25aug437

Fig 2 Spatial Distribution of Particulate Matter (PM10) In Minna (Dry Season)

Source: Authors Analysis, 2024

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Volume 10, Issue 8, August – 2025 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology
ISSN No: 2456-2165 https://doi.org/10.38124/ijisrt/25aug437

Fig 3 Spatial Distribution of Particulate Matter (PM10) In Minna (Wet Season)

Source: Authors Analysis, 2024

The average annual spatial distribution of Particulate Equally, the spatial distribution of Particulate matter
matter (PM2.5) around Minna for both dry and wet season is (PM2.5) around Minna in the wet season shows that Ebitu
presented in Figure 4 and 5. The results of the spatial Eukiwe (GRA), Kateren Gwari, and College of Education
distribution of particulate matter for dry seasons shows that Minna recorded very low level (2.30, 2.33, and 2.11µg/m3) of
Ebitu Eukiwe (GRA), Kateren Gwari, and College of PM2.5 concentration within the study area while, Eastern
Education Minna recorded very low concentration (5.80, bypass (mechanic village), Access roundabout, and Kure
6.67, and 6.69µg/m3) of PM2.5 in the study area whereas, market recorded low level (2,66, 2.46, and 2.84 µg/m3) of
Gbegamu junction (Bida road), Dutsin kura junction, and PM2.5 concentration in the study area respectively (Figure 5).
Kure market recorded low level (7.55, 8.34, and 8.57 µg/m3)
of PM2.5 level of concentration in the study area (Figure 4). The findings from this revealed that across all the
season (dry and wet), locations like Ebitu Eukiwe (GRA),

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Volume 10, Issue 8, August – 2025 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology
ISSN No: 2456-2165 https://doi.org/10.38124/ijisrt/25aug437

Kateren Gwari, and College of Education, Minna recored low Rusmili (2023) report that the concentrations of PM2.5
level of PM2.5 concentration while only Kure market often has in 2019 were not randomly distributed because economic
low level concentration of PM2.5 which could be attributed to activities occurred regularly in certain areas in Peninsular,
several factors amongst which is season dynamics that easily and haze episodes occurred at that time while, in the year
create oscillation in climatic elements. 2020, the concentrations were randomly distributed due to a
movement control order that only allowed a few industrial
The seasonal variation shows relatively a higher and transportation operations in certain areas during a certain
concentration of PM2.5, in the winter season, which may be period in the COVID-19 era.
due to stable meteorological conditions and increased
biomass burning in winter( Chauhan, et al.,2022).

Fig 4 Spatial Distribution of Particulate Matter (PM2.5) In Minna (Wet Season)

Source: Authors Analysis, (2024)

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Volume 10, Issue 8, August – 2025 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology
ISSN No: 2456-2165 https://doi.org/10.38124/ijisrt/25aug437

Fig 5 Spatial Distribution of Particulate Matter (PM2.5) In Minna (Wet Season)

Source: Authors Analysis, (2024)

The average annual spatial distribution of Methane (Bida road) recorded moderate level (1073.44, 1076.90, and
(CH4) around Minna for both dry and wet season is presented 1082.49 ppm) of CH4 concentration while locations like
in Figure 6 and 7. The results of the spatial distribution of Kateren Gwari, Kpakungu road roundabout, and Citygate
CH4 for dry season in the study area reveals that NNPC mega Shango recorded high level (1086.78, 1084.88, and 10.89.62
filling station, Access bank roundabout, and Gbegamu ppm) of CH4, Also, very high level (1102.09, 1105.96, and
junction (Bida road) recorded moderate level of (1069.90, 2225.58 ppm)of CH4 was identified in Gwari market, Dutsin
1073.01, and 1075.79 ppm) CH4 concentration in the kura junction, and Kure market locations respectively (Figure
identified study location. Also, locations like Kateren Gwari, 7).
Kpakungu road roundabout, and Citygate Shango recorded
high level (1077.60, 1077.72, and 1078.01 ppm) of CH4 in .Generally, the finding revealed that CH4 concentrations
the study area, while locations like Kasuwan Gwari market, were moderate in selected areas like NNPC mega filling
Dutsin kura junction, and Kure market recorded very high station, Access bank roundabout, and Gbegamu junction
level (1084.61, 1086.72, and 1099.82 ppm) of CH4 (Bida road). It was high in Kateren Gwari, Kpakungu road
respectively (Figure 6). roundabout, and Citygate Shango. Equally, locations like
Gwari market, Dutsin kura junction, and Kure market were
Equally, the spatial distribution of CH4 in the dry season characterized with very high concentration of CH4
in Minna shows that locations like NNPC mega filling respectively (Figure 7).
station, Access bank roundabout, and Gbegamu junction

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Volume 10, Issue 8, August – 2025 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology
ISSN No: 2456-2165 https://doi.org/10.38124/ijisrt/25aug437

Fig 6 Spatial Distribution of Methane (CH4) In Minna (Dry Season)

Source: Authors Analysis, (2024)

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Volume 10, Issue 8, August – 2025 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology
ISSN No: 2456-2165 https://doi.org/10.38124/ijisrt/25aug437

Fig 7 Spatial Distribution of Methane (CH4) In Minna (Wet Season)

Source: Authors Analysis, (2024)

V. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS College of Education and NNPC Mega station. The PM2.5
concentration was observed to be higher in Kasuwan Gwari
The PM10 concentration was observed to be higher in Market, Dutsinkura junction, City Gate Shango and Gbeganu
the morning and lower in the afternoon across most locations. Junction Bida road while the lowest concentration of PM2.5
Kasuwan Gwari Market and Dutsinkura junction recorded was observed around College of Education. The CH4
significantly the highest PM10 concentration. The lowest concentration was observed to range from 0.107 to 0.122 ppm
PM10 concentration was recorded at Mobil roundabout, and the spatial variation across different locations and

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Volume 10, Issue 8, August – 2025 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology
ISSN No: 2456-2165 https://doi.org/10.38124/ijisrt/25aug437

duration during dry seasons while during wet seasons it [12]. Rana, S.S., Chopra, P. (2013). Integrated farming
ranges from 1.057 to 1.230 ppm. The findings recommended system. Department of Agronomy, College of
that Kanteren Gwari mechanic village should be relocated to Agriculture, CSK Himachal Pradesh Krishi
outside of the town because of its proximity to residential Vishvavidyalaya: Palampur, India; 83- 86
areas where human population is concentrated and to avoid [13]. Rusmili, S.H.A.; Mohamad Hamzah, F., Choy, L.K.,
exposing the populace from being vulnerable to the menace Azizah, R., Sulistyorini, L., Yudhastuti, R.,
of air pollution. Chandraning Diyanah, K., Adriyani, R., and Latif,
M.T. (2023).Ground-Level Particulate Matter
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