OSI MODEL

1. Physical Layer (Layer 1):

The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the physical layer. The physical layer contains
information in the form of bits. It is responsible for the actual physical connection between the
devices. When receiving data, this layer will get the signal received and convert it into 0s and 1s
and send them to the Data Link layer, which will put the frame back together.

The functions of the physical layer are:

1. Bit synchronization: The physical layer provides the synchronization of the bits by
providing a clock. This clock controls both sender and receiver thus providing
synchronization at bit level.
2. Bit rate control: The Physical layer also defines the transmission rate the number of bits
sent per second.
3. Physical topologies: Physical layer specifies the way in which the different, devices/nodes
are arranged in a network bus, star or mesh topology.
4. Transmission mode: Physical layer also defines the way in which the data flows between
the two connected devices. The various transmission modes possible are: Simplex, half-
duplex and full-duplex.
* Hub, Repeater, Modem, Cables are Physical Layer devices.

2. Data Link Layer (DLL) (Layer 2):

The data link layer is responsible for the node-to-node delivery of the message. The main
function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is error free from one node to another, over
the physical layer. When a packet arrives in a network, it is the responsibility of DLL to transmit
it to the Host using its MAC address. Data Link Layer is divided into two sub layers:

1. Logical Link Control (LLC)

2. Media Access Control (MAC)
The packet received from Network layer is further divided into frames depending on the frame
size of NIC (Network Interface Card). DLL also encapsulates Sender and Receiver’s MAC address
in the header The Receiver’s MAC address is obtained by placing an ARP (Address Resolution
Protocol) request onto the wire asking “Who has that IP address?” and the destination host will
reply with its MAC address.
The functions of the data Link layer are:

1. Framing: Framing is a function of the data link layer. It provides a way for a sender to
transmit a set of bits that are meaningful to the receiver. This can be accomplished by
attaching special bit patterns to the beginning and end of the frame.
2. Physical addressing: After creating frames, Data link layer adds physical addresses (MAC
address) of sender and/or receiver in the header of each frame.
3. Error control: Data link layer provides the mechanism of error control in which it detects
and retransmits damaged or lost frames.
4. Flow Control: The data rate must be constant on both sides else the data may get
corrupted thus, flow control coordinates that amount of data that can be sent before
receiving acknowledgement.
5. Access control: When a single communication channel is shared by multiple devices, MAC
sub-layer of data link layer helps to determine which device has control over the channel
at a given time.
* Packet in Data Link layer is referred as Frame.
*** Switch & Bridge are Data Link Layer devices.

3. Network Layer (Layer 3):

Network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to the other located in different
networks. It also takes care of packet routing selection of the shortest path to transmit the
packet, from the number of routes available. The sender & receiver’s I P a d d r e s s are p l a c e
d in the header by network layer. The functions of the Network layer are:
1. Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is suitable from source to
destination. This function of network layer is known as routing.
2. Logical Addressing: In order to identify each device on internetwork uniquely, network
layer defines an addressing scheme. The sender & receiver’s IP address are placed in the
header by network layer. Such an address distinguishes each device uniquely and
universally.
* Segment in Network layer is referred as Packet.

** Network layer is implemented by networking devices such as routers.

4. Transport Layer (Layer 4):

Transport layer provides services to application layer and takes services from network layer.
The data in the transport layer is referred to as Segments. It is responsible for the process-to-
process delivery of the complete message. Transport layer also provides the acknowledgment
of the successful data transmission and re- transmits the data if an error is found.
The functions of the transport layer are:

1. Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts the message from the (session) layer,
breaks the message into smaller units. Each of the segment produced has a header
associated with it. The transport layer at the destination station reassembles the message.
2. Service Point Addressing: In order to deliver the message to correct process, transport
layer header includes a type of address called service point address or port address. Thus,
by specifying this address, transport layer makes sure that the message is delivered to the
correct process.
The services provided by transport layer:

1. Connection Oriented Service: It is a three-phase process which include

– Connection Establishment
– Data Transfer
– Termination / disconnection
In this type of transmission, the receiving device sends an acknowledgment, back to the
source after a packet or group of packets is received. This type of transmission is reliable
and secure.
2. Connection less service: It is a one phase process and includes Data Transfer. In this type
of transmission, the receiver does not acknowledge receipt of a packet. This approach
allows for much faster communication between devices. Connection oriented Service is
more reliable than connection less Service.
* Data in the Transport Layer is called as Segments.
** Transport layer is operated by the Operating System. It is a part of the OS and communicates
with the Application Layer by making system calls. Transport Layer is called as Heart of OSI
model.
5. Session Layer (Layer 5):

This layer is responsible for establishment of connection, maintenance of sessions,

authentication and also ensures security.
The functions of the session layer are:
1. Session establishment, maintenance and termination: The layer allows the two processes
to establish, use and terminate a connection.
2. Synchronization: This layer allows a process to add checkpoints which are considered as
synchronization points into the data. These synchronizations point help to identify the
error so that the data is re-synchronized properly, and ends of the messages are not cut
prematurely and data loss is avoided.
3. Dialog Controller: The session layer allows two systems to start communication with each
other in half-duplex or full-duplex.

6. Presentation Layer (Layer 6):

Presentation layer is also called the Translation layer. The data from the application layer is
extracted here and manipulated as per the required format to transmit over the network.
The functions of the presentation layer are:
1. Translation: For example, ASCII to EBCDIC.
2. Encryption/ Decryption: Data encryption translates the data into another form or code.
The encrypted data is known as the cipher text and the decrypted data is known as plain
text. A key value is used for encrypting as well as decrypting data.
3. Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted on the network.

7. Application Layer (Layer 7):

At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of layers, we find Application layer which is
implemented by the network applications. These applications produce the data, which has to
be transferred over the network. This layer also serves as a window for the application services
to access the network and for displaying the received information to the user.
Ex: Application – Browsers, Skype Messenger etc.
OSI Layer Function Example Protocols
Layer 7 - Application Provides network services to users HTTP, HTTPS, FTP, SMTP, IMAP, DNS, SSH
Layer 6 - Presentation Data format, encryption, compression SSL/TLS, JPEG, MPEG, ASCII
Layer 5 - Session Manages sessions between applications SIP, PPTP, NetBIOS, RPC
Layer 4 - Transport End-to-end communication, reliability TCP, UDP, SCTP Layer 3
- Network Routing and addressing (IP) IP, ICMP, ARP, OSPF, BGP, RIP Layer 2 -
Data Link Node-to-node communication Ethernet, Wi-Fi, PPP, HDLC, ARP
Layer 1 - Physical Transmission of raw bits Ethernet cables, Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, 4G/5G, DSL

TCP vs UDP

TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) UDP (User Datagram Protocol)

Connection Connection-oriented (establishes a Connectionless (sends data without
Type connection before sending data) establishing a connection)
Reliability Reliable (ensures data is delivered and in Unreliable (no guarantee of delivery
order) or order)
Error Checking Performs error checking, retransmission, Performs error checking but no
and acknowledgment retransmission
Speed Slower due to connection setup, Faster due to minimal overhead
acknowledgments, and retransmissions
Packet Order Ensures packets arrive in sequence No ordering of packets
Header Size Larger (20-60 bytes) Smaller (8 bytes)
Use Cases File transfer (FTP), web browsing Streaming (video/audio), online
(HTTP/HTTPS), email (SMTP, IMAP, POP3) gaming, VoIP, DNS