Department of Mechanical Engineering

WORKSHOP
LABORATORY MANUAL

Student Name:……………………………………………………

RollNo :………………………………………………………………

Branch:……………………………..Section……………………

Year …………………………Semester………………………..
 SAFETY RULES & UNSAFE PRACTICES

Remember that “accidents do not occur, they are caused”. With this in mind, strictly follow the
general safety rules given below and safe practices indicated in brief under each section.

1. Safety first, work next.

2. Know your job and follow instructions.
3. Avoid wearing clothing that might catch, moving or rotating parts. Long sleeves of
shirts, long hair, neck tie and jewellery are definite hazards in the shop.
4. Wear safety shoes. Do not wear canvas shoes; they give no resistance to hard
objects dropped on the feet.
5. Keep the area around machine or work clean.
6. Keep away from revolving work.
7. Be sure that all guards are in place.
8. One person only should operate the machine controls.
9. Use tools correctly and do not use them if they are not in proper working condition.
10. Wear safety goggles when working in areas, where sparks or chips of metal are
flying.
11. Get to know who in-charge of first aid is and where boxes are placed and where the
first aid can be found in case of emergency.
 CONTENTS

1. FITTING 04 - 15

2. CARPENTRY 16 - 26

3. SHEET METAL 27- 36

4. WELDING 37 - 46

5. MACHINE SHOP 38 - 52
 MRCET ENGINEERING WORKSHOP MANUAL B.TECH 1ST YEAR

FITTING

Introduction

Machine tools are capable of producing work at a faster rate, but, there are occasions when
components are processed at the bench. Sometimes, it becomes necessary to replace or repair
component which must be fit accurately with another component on reassembly. This involves a
certain amount of hand fitting. The assembly of machine tools, jigs, gauges, etc, involves certain
amount of bench work. The accuracy of work done depends upon the experience and skill of the
fitter.

The term ‘bench work’ refers to the production of components by hand on the bench, where as
fitting deals which the assembly of mating parts, through removal of metal, to obtain the required
fit.

Both the bench work and fitting requires the use of number of simple hand tools and considerable
manual efforts. The operations in the above works consist of filing, chipping, scraping, sawing
drilling, and tapping.

Holding Tools:

Bench Vice

The bench vice is a work holding device. It is the most commonly used vice in a fitting shop.The
bench vice is shown in figure below.

It is fixed to the bench with bolts and nuts. The vice body consists of two main parts, fixed jaw
and movable jaw. When the vice handle is turned in a clockwise direction, the sliding jaw forces
the work against the fixed jaw. Jaw plates are made of hardened steel. Serrations on the jaws ensure
a good grip. Jaw caps made of soft material are used to protect finished surfaces, gripped in the
vice. The size of the vice is specified by the length of the jaws.

Fig: Bench Vice

The vice body is made of cast iron which is strong in compression, weak in tension and so fractures
under shocks and therefore should never be hammered.

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V‐block is rectangular or square block with a V‐groove on one or both sides opposite to each other.
The angle of the ‘V’ is usually 900. V‐block with a clamp is used to hold cylindrical work securely,
during layout of measurement, for measuring operations or for drilling for this the baris faced
longitudinally in the V‐Groove and the screw of V‐clamp is tightened. This grip the rod is firm with
its axis parallel to the axis of the v‐groove.

Fig: V‐ Block Fig: C ‐ Clamp

C‐ Clamp

This is used to hold work against an angle plate or v‐block or any other surface, when gripping is
require Its fixed jaw is shaped like English alphabet ‘C’ and the movable jaw is round in shape and
directly fitted to the threaded screw at the end .The working principle of this clamp is the same as
that of the bench vice.

Marking and Measuring Tools:

Surface Plate

The surface plate is machined to fine limits and is used for testing the flatness of the work piece. It
is also used for marking out small box and is more precious than the marking table. The degreeof
the finished depends upon whether it is designed for bench work in a fitting shop or for using in an
inspection room; the surface plate is made of Cast Iron, hardened Steel or Granite stone. Itis
specified by length, width, height and grade. Handles are provided on two opposite sides, to carry
it while shifting from one place to another (refer figure in next page).

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It is measuring and marking tool for 900 angle .In practice, it is used for checking the squareness
of many types of small works when extreme accuracy is not required .The blade of the Try
square is made of hardened steel and the stock of cast Iron or steel. The size of the Try square is
specified by the length of the blade.

Scriber
A Scriber is a slender steel tool, used to scribe or mark lines on metal work pieces. It is made of
hardened and tempered High Carbon Steel. The Tip of the scriber is generally ground at 12oto 15o.

It is generally available in lengths, ranging from 125mm to 250mm .It has two pointed ends the
bent end is used for marking lines where the straight end cannot real.

Fig: Try Square Fig: Scriber

Odd Leg Caliper

This is also called ‘Jenny Caliper’ or Hermaphrodite. This is used for marking parallel
liners from a finished edge and also for locating the center of round bars; it has one leg pointed
like a divider and the other leg bent like a caliper. It is specified by the length of the leg up to the
hinge point.
Divider
It is basically similar to the calipers except that its legs are kept straight and pointed at the
measuring edge. This is used for marking circles, arcs laying out perpendicular lines, by setting
lines. It is made of case hardened mild steel or hardened and tempered low carbon steel. Its size
is specified by the length of the leg.

Fig: Odd Leg Caliper and Divider

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Trammel is used for drawing large circles or arcs.

Punches
These are used for making indentations on the scribed lines, to make them visible clearly. These
are made of high carbon steel. A punch is specified by its length and diameter (say as 150’
12.5mm). It consists of a cylindrical knurled body, which is plain for some length at the top of it.
At the other end, it is ground to a point. The tapered point of the punch is hardened over a length
of 20 to 30mm.

Dot Punch is used to lightly indent along the layout lines, to locate center of holes and to provide
a small center mark for divider point, etc. for this purpose, the punch is ground to a conical point
having 60° included angle.

Center Punch is similar to the dot punch, except that it is ground to a conical point having 90°
included angle. It is used to mark the location of the holes to be drilled.

Fig: Punches
Calipers:
They are indirect measuring tools used to measure or transfer linear dimensions. These are used
with the help of a steel Rule to check inside and outside measurements. These are made of Case
hardened mild steel or hardened and tempered low carbon steel. While using, but the legs of the
caliper are set against the surface of the work, whether inside or outside and the distance between
the legs is measured with the help of a scale and the same can be transferred to another desired
place. These are specified by the length of the leg. In the case of outside caliper, the legs are bent
inwards and in the case of inside caliper, the legs bent outward.

Fig: Calipers
Cutting Tools:

Hack Saw
The Hack Saw is used for cutting metal by hand. It consists of a frame, which holds a thin blade,

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firmly in position. Hacksaw blade is specified by the number of teeth for centimeter. Hacksaw
blades have a number of teeth ranging from 5 to 15 per centimeter (cm). Blades having lesser
number of teeth per cm are used for cutting soft materials like aluminum, brass and bronze. Blades
having larger number of teeth per centimeter are used for cutting hard materials like steel and cast
Iron.

Fig: Hacksaw Frame with Blade

Hacksaw blades are classified as (i) All hard and (ii) flexible type. The all hard blades are made of
H.S.S, hardened and tempered throughout to retain their cutting edges longer. These are used to
cut hard metals. These blades are hard and brittle and can break easily by twisting and forcing
them into the work while sawing. Flexible blades are made of H.S.S or low alloy steel but only the
teeth are hardened and the rest of the blade is soft and flexible. These are suitable for use by un‐
skilled or semi‐skilled persons.

The teeth of the hacksaw blade are staggered, as shown in figure and known as a ‘set of teeth’.
These make slots wider than the blade thickness, preventing the blade from jamming.

Chisels

Chisels are used for removing surplus metal or for cutting thin sheets. These tools are made from
0.9% to 1.0% carbon steel of octagonal or hexagonal section. Chisels are annealed, hardened and
tempered to produce a tough shank and hard cutting edge. Annealing relieves the internalstresses
in a metal. The cutting angle of the chisel for general purpose is about 60°.

Fig: Flat Chisel

Finishing Tools:

Reamers
Reaming is an operation of sizing and finishing a drilled hole, with the help of a cutting tool called
reamer having a number of cutting edges. For this, a hole is first drilled, the size of which is
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slightly smaller than the finished size and then a hand reamer or machine reamer is used for
finishing the hole to the correct size.

Hand Reamer is made of High Carbon Steel and has left‐hand spiral flutes so that, it is prevented
from screwing into the whole during operation. The Shank end of the reamer is made straight so
that it can be held in a tap wrench. It is operated by hand, with a tap wrench fitted on the square
end of the reamer and with the work piece held in the vice. The body of the reamer is given a slight
tapper at its working end, for its easy entry into the whole during operation, it is rotated only in
clock wise direction and also while removing it from the whole.

Fig: Reamers

Files

Filing is one of the methods of removing small amounts of material from the surface of a metal
part. A file is hardened steel too, having small parallel rows of cutting edges or teeth on its
surfaces.

On the faces, the teeth are usually diagonal to the edge. One end of the file is shaped to fit into a
wooden handle. The figure shows various parts of a hand file. The hand file is parallel in width
and tapering slightly in thickness, towards the tip. It is provided with double cut teeth. On the
faces, single cut on one edge and no teeth on the other edge, which is known as a safe edge.

Fig: Parts of a Hand File

Files are classified according to their shape, cutting teeth and pitch or grade of the teeth. The
figure shows the various types of files based on their shape.

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Fig: Single and Double Cut Files

Miscellaneous Tools:

Ball‐ Peen Hammer

Ball‐ Peen Hammers are named, depending upon their shape and material and specified by their
weight. A ball peen hammer has a flat face which is used for general work and a ball end,
particularly used for riveting.

Cross‐Peen Hammer

It is similar to ball peen hammer, except the shape of the peen. This is used for chipping,
riveting, bending and stretching metals and hammering inside the curves and shoulders.

Fig: Cross Peen Hammer Fig: Straight Peen Hammer

Straight‐Peen Hammer

This is similar to cross peen hammer, but its peen is in‐line with the hammer handle. It is used
for swaging, riveting in restricted places and stretching metals.

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EXPT.NO: 01 SQUARE CUTTING DATE:

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EXPT.NO: 02 V-FITTING DATE:

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Viva Questions

Question: Define the terms: Fitting and Bench work.

Question: Name the material with which a vice body is normally made of. What is the
characteristic of this material?
Question: What for a C-clamp is used?
Question: Classify hacksaw blades.
Question: Differentiate between ‘Single cut’ and ‘Double cut’ files.
Question: Differentiate between ‘Cross filing’ and ‘Draw filing’. Question:
Name the different types of hammers used in fitting work.
Question: Differentiate between cross-peen hammer and straight-peen hammer.
Question: What is meant by pinning of files?
Question: With what the size of a spanner is denoted?

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CARPENTRY
Introduction

Carpentry may be defined as the process of making wooden components. It starts from a marketable
form of wood and ends with finished products. It deals with the building work, furniture, cabinet
making. Etc. joinery, i.e., preparation of joints is one of the important operations in all woodworks.
It deals with the specific work of carpenter like making differenttypes of joints to form a finished
product.

Timber:

Timber is the name given to the wood obtained from well grown trees. The trees are cut, sawn
into various sizes to suit building purposes.

The word, ‘grain’, as applied to wood, refers to the appearance or pattern of the wood on the cut
surfaces. The grain of the wood is a fibrous structure and to make it strong, the timber must be so
cut, that the grains run parallel to the length.

Timber Sizes

Timber sold in the market is in various sizes and shapes. The following are the common
shapesand sizes.
a. Log ‐ The trunk of the tree which is free from branches.
b. Balk ‐ The log, sawn to have roughly square cross section.
c. Post ‐ A timber piece, round or square in cross section, having its diameter or side
from175 to 300mm.
d. Plank ‐ A sawn timber piece, with more than 275 mm in width, 50 to 150
mm inthickness and 2.5 to 6.5 meters in length.
e. Board ‐ A sawn timber piece, below 175 mm in width and 30 to 50 mm in thickness.
f. Reapers‐ Sawn timber pieces of assorted and non‐standard sizes, which do not confirm
to theabove shapes and sizes.

Classification of Timber

Wood suitable for construction and other engineering purposes is called timber. Woods in
general are divided into two broad categories: Soft woods and Hard woods.

Soft woods are obtained from conifers, kair, deodar, chir, walnut and seemal. Woods obtained
from teak, sal, oak, shisham, beach, ash mango, neem and babul are known as hard wood, but
itis highly durable.

Another classification of woods is based on the name of the trees like teak, babul, shisham,
neem, kair, chir, etc.

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Seasoning of Wood

A newly felled tree contains considerable moisture content. If this is not removed, the timber is
likely to wrap, shrink, crack or decay. Seasoning is the art of extracting the moisture content under
controlled conditions, at a uniform rate, from all the parts of the timber. Only seasoned wood
should be used for all carpentry works. Seasoning makes the wood resilient and lighter. Further, it
ensures that the wood will not distort after it is made into an object.

Characteristics of Good Timber

The good timber must possess the following characteristics

a. It should have minimum moisture content, i.e., the timber should be well seasoned.
b. The grains of wood should be straight and long.
c. It must retain its straightness after seasoning.
d. It should produce near metallic sound on hammering.
e. It should be free from knots or cracks.
f. It should be of uniform color, throughout the part of the wood.
g. It should respond well to the finishing and polishing operations.
h. During driving the nails and screw, it should not split easily.
Marking and Measuring Tools:
Accurate marking and measurement is very essential in carpentry work, to produce parts to exact
size. To transfer dimensions onto the work; the following are the marking and measuring tools that
are required in a carpentry shop.

Steel Rule and Steel Tape

Steel rule is a simple measuring instrument consisting of a long, thin metal strip with a marked
scale of unit divisions. It is an important tool for linear measurement. Steel tape is used for large
measurements, such as marking on boards and checking the overall dimensions of the work.

Fig: Steel Rule and Steel Tape

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Marking Gauge

It is a tool used to mark lines parallel to the edge of a wooden piece. It consists of a square wooden
stem with a sliding wooden stock (head) on it. On the stem is fitted a marking pin, made of steel.
The stock is set at any desired distance from the marking point and fixed in position by ascrew. It
must be ensured that the marking pin projects through the stem, about 3 mm and theend are
sharp enough to make a very fine line. A mortise gauge consists of two pins. In this, it is possible
to adjust the distance between the pins, to draw two parallel lines on the stock.

Marking gauge Mortise gauge

Fig: Marking Gauges

Try ‐ Square

It is used for marking and testing the squareness and straightness of planed surfaces. It consists
of a steel blade, fitted in a cast iron stock. It is also used for checking the planed surfaces for
flatness. Its size varies from 150 to 300 mm, according to the length of the blade. It is less accurate
when compared to the try‐square used in the fitting shop.

Fig: Try Square

Compass and Divider
Compass and divider, are used for marking arcs and circles on the planed surfaces of the wood
(refer fig in next page).

Scriber or Marking Knife

It is used for marking on timber. It is made of steel having one end pointed and the other end
formed into a sharp cutting edge (refer Fig. in next page).

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Bevel Square
It is used for laying‐out and checking angles. The blade of the bevel is adjustable and may be
held in place by a thumb screw. After it is set to the desired angle, it can be used in much the same
way as a try‐square. A good way to set it to the required angle is to mark the angle on a surface
and then adjust the blade to fit the angle

Fig: Compass and Divider Fig: Scriber and Bevel Square

Holding Tools:

Carpenter's Vice

It is used as a work holding device in a carpenter shop. Its one jaw is fixed to the side of the table
while the other is movable by means of a screw and a handle. The Carpenter's vice jaws are lined
with hard wooden' faces

Fig: Carpenters Vice Fig: C‐Clamp

C‐Clamp
It is used for holding small works (see figure above)
Bar Cramp
It is made of steel bar of T‐section, with malleable iron fittings and a steel screw. It is used for
holding wide works such as frames or tops.
Planing Tools:

Planing is the operation used to produce flat surfaces on wood. A plane is a hand tool used for this
purpose. The cutting blade used in a plane is very similar to a chisel. The blade of a plane is fitted
in a wooden or metallic block, at an angle.

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Types of Planes:
Jack Plane

It is the most commonly used general purpose plane. It is about 35 cm long. The cutting iron
(blade) should have a cutting edge of slight curvature. It is used for quick removal of material on
rough work and is also used in oblique planning.

Smoothing Plane

It is used for finishing work and hence, the blade should have a straight cutting edge. It is about
20 to 25 cm long. Being short, it can follow even the slight depressions in the stock, better than
the jack plane. It is used after using the jack plane.

Rebate Plane

It is used for making a rebate. A rebate is a recess along the edge of a piece of wood, which is
generally used for positioning glass in frames and doors.

Plough Plane

It is used to cut grooves, which are used to fix panels in a door. The following figure shows the
various types of planes mentioned above.

Cutting Tools:
Saws
A saw is used to cut wood into pieces. There are different types of saws, designed to suitdifferent
purposes. A saw is specified by the length of its toothed edge.

Types of Saws:
Cross‐Cut Saw or Hand Saw
It is used to cut across the grains of the stock. The teeth are so set that the saw kerf will be wider
than the blade thickness. This allows the blade to move freely in the cut, without sticking

Rip Saw
It is used for cutting the stock along the grains. The cutting edge of this saw makes a steeper
angle, i.e., about 60° whereas that of crosscut saw makes an angle of 45° with the surface of the
stock.
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Tenon Saw
It is used for cutting the stock either along or across the grains. It is used for cutting tenons and
in fine cabinet work. However, it is used for small and thin cuts. The blade of this saw is very
thin and so it is stiffened with a thick back steel strip. Hence, this is sometimes called as back‐saw.
In this, the teeth are shaped like those of cross‐cut saw.
Compass Saw
It has a narrow, longer and stronger tapering blade, which is used for heavy works. It is mostly
used in radius cutting. The blade of this saw is fitted with an open type wooden handle.

Fig: Types of Saws

Chisels:

Chisels are used for cutting and shaping wood accurately. Wood chisels are made in various blade
widths, ranging from 3 to 50 mm. They are also made in different blade lengths. Most of the wood
chisels are made into tang type, having a steel shank which fits inside the handle. These are made
of forged steel or tool steel blades.

Fig: Types of Chisels

Types of Chisels:

Firmer Chisel
The word 'firmer' means 'stronger' and hence firmer chisel is stronger than other chisels.
It is a general purpose chisel and is used either by hand pressure or by a mallet. The blade of a
firmer chisel is flat, as shown in figure.

Dovetail Chisel
It has a blade with a beveled back, as shown in Figure, due to which it can enter sharp comers
for finishing, as in dovetail joints.

Mortise Chisel
It is used for cutting mortises and chipping inside holes, etc. The cross‐section of the
mortise chisel is proportioned to withstand heavy blows during mortising. Further, the cross‐
section is made stronger near the shank..

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EXPT.NO: 03 T-LAP JOINT DATE:

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EXPT.NO: 04 DOVETAIL LAP JOINT DATE:

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Viva Questions

Question: Name the commonly available shapes of timber in the market.

Question: What is the sequence of operations in carpentry?
Question: What is the difference between marking gauge and marking knife?
Question: What is the difference C-clamp and bar cramp?
Question: What for a plane is used in a carpentry shop?
Question: Classify the planning tools.
Question: Classify the chisels and their applications.
Question: Name the tools used for pulling nails.
Question: Name the various joinery materials used in carpentry.
Question: Name the various types of joints.
Question: Name some holding, marking, measuring, cutting, planning and finishing tools.

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SHEET METAL

INTRODUCTION
Tin smithy deals with the production of components in a wide variety of shapes and sizes
from a sheet of metal with the aid hand or machines. For example many Engineering and house
hold articles such as hoppers, guards covers, boxes and cans, funnels and ducts etc. are made from
a flat sheet of metal.

Sheet Metals Used in Metal Work:

A wide variety of metals, in the form of sheet are used in sheet metal workshop. The most
commonly used are explained below.

Galvanized Iron (G.I.) Sheet

It is a sheet of soft steel coated with zinc. I sheet is one of the least expensive metals used in sheet
metal shop. It is used for making pans, buckets, gutters, tanks, boxes etc. Generally GI products
are very suitable for corrosive environment because zinc coating protects the iron form corrosion.

Copper

It has reddish color and is used for water pipes, roofing, gutters and other parts of the building.
Copper products are used where thermal resistance is the criterion along with corrosion resistance.
But copper is somewhat expensive.

Tin Plate

Tin plate is the iron or steel coated with pure tin. It has bright silvery appearance and is used for
containers, dairy equipments, furnace fittings, cans, trays and pans.

Stainless Steel

The 18-8 type steel is used in sheet metal work from the available different type of stainless steel.
The products like food containers, dairy equipments and kitchen wares are prepare from 18-8 steel.

Black Iron

It is an uncoated sheet of metal with bluish appearance. The black iron sheet is used for the
products, which are having no restrictions on painting after its preparation.

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Aluminium

It is an uncoated sheet of metal with bluish appearance. The black iron sheet is used for the
products, which are having no restrictions on painting after its preparation.

Tools and Equipment’s:

Most of the tools that are used in fitting are also used in sheet metal work. The additional tools
specially used in sheet metal work are described below.

Steel Rule

Steel rule is a simple measuring instrument consisting of a long, thin metal strip with a marked
scale of unit divisions. It is an important tool for linear measurement.

Fig: Steel Rule

Try Square

It is measuring and marking tool for 900 angle .In practice, it is used for checking the squareness
of many types of small works when extreme accuracy is not required .The blade of the Try
square is made of hardened steel and the stock of cast Iron or steel. The size of the Try square is
specified by the length of the blade.

Fig: Try Square

Compass and Divider

Compass and divider, are used for marking arcs and circles on the planed surfaces of the GI
sheet.
Snips:
Snips are hand shears varying in length from 200mm to 600mm. The 250 mm length is
the commonly used one.

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Types of Snips:

Straight snip

It has a straight blade and is used for cutting along straight lines and for trimming the edges. The
straight snip and its usage is shown in figure below:

Fig: Straight Snip

Bent or Curved Snip

It is having curved blade and is used for cutting circles and irregular shapes. It is also used for
trimming the cylindrical edges. The curved snip and its usage is shown in figure below:

Fig: Bent or Curved Snip

Double Snip

Double shears are used for cutting thin cylinders, stove pipes and for cutting holes and light
gauge metals. The double cut snip is shown in figure below:

Fig: Double Snip

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Bench Shear

In this type of hand cutting machine, the sheet is cut by shearing action. The force is applied
through compound lever. The machine is able to cut the sheet metal upto 2 mm thick.

The bench shear also consists of chopping hole in the chopping blade which can shear a mild steel
rod upto 10 mm diameter. The below figure represents the schematic diagram of bench shear.

Fig: Bench Shear

Stakes:
Stakes are supporting tools used in sheet metal work. These are used to form, seam, bend or rivet
the sheet metal objects. Stakes are made of wrought iron, faced with steel. Its working face well
machined and polished to prevent harmful effect to sheet while doing the hammering process.
Types of Stakes:

Funnel Stake
It is used for forming conical shapes and for making wire rings. The below figure shows the line
diagram of funnel stake:
Half Moon Stake

It is used for folding edges of cylindrical shaped articles. The half moon stake is shown in figure
below:

Beak Horn Stake

It is used for shaping round, square surfaces, bending edges, and making corners. The beak horn
stake is shown in figure below:

It is used for forming or seaming funnels. The below figure represents the blow horn stake:

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Conductor Stake

It is used for forming pipes and cylindrical pieces. The conductor stake is shown in figure below:

Hatchet Stake

It has a horizontal sharp straight edge and is used for making straight, sharp bends and folding
edges. The schematic representation of hatchet stake is shown in figure below:

Fig: Hatchet Stake Fig: Setting Hammer

Hammers and Mallets:

Hammers and mallets are used to apply moderate forces gently in the processes accompanied in
tinsmithy such as forming and bending.

Types of Hammers and Mallets:

Setting Hammer

It has a square, flat face and its peen is tapered on one side. It is used for setting down the edges
for making a double seam. The below figure represents the setting hammer:
Riveting Hammer

It has a square slightly curved face and its peen is tapered. It is used for riveting. The riveting
hammer is represented in figure below:

Fig: Riveting Hammer

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Raising Hammer

It is used for making depressions on a flat sheet, and it is particularly adapted for making trays,
bowls, and similar objects. The sketch of raising hammer is shown in figure below:

Fig: Raising Hammer

Mallet:

It is generally made of wood or plastic. It is used whenever slight blows are required. Wooden
hammer (mallet) is most commonly used because it does not damage the work surface. The simple
mallet used in tinsmithy is shown in figure below:

Fig: Mallet
Miscellaneous Tools:

Hand Groover

It is used for grooving a seam by a hand. It has a recessed end to fit over the block of seam. The
shape of hand groover and usage is shown in figure below.

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EXPT.NO: 05 OPEN SCOOP DATE:

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EXPT.NO: 06 RECTANGLE TRAY DATE:

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WELDING

INTRODUCTION

Welding is a process for joining two similar or dissimilar metals by fusion. It joins
different metals/alloys, with or without the application of pressure and with or
without the use of filler metal. The fusion of metal takes place by means of heat. The
heat may be generated either from combustion of gases, electric arc, electric
resistance or by chemical reaction.
Welding provides a permanent joint but it normally affects the metallurgy of the
components. It is therefore usually accompanied by post weld heat treatment for most
of the critical components. The welding is widely used as a fabrication and repairing
process in industries. Some of the typical applications of welding include the
fabrication of ships, pressure vessels, automobile bodies, off-shore platform, bridges,
welded pipes, sealing of nuclear fuel and explosives, etc.

Most of the metals and alloys can

be welded by one type of welding
process or the other. However,
some are easier to weld than
others. To compare this ease in
welding term ‘weldability’ is often
used. The weldability may be
defined as property of a metal
which indicates the ease with
which it can be welded with other
similar or dissimilar metals.
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Elements of welding process used with common Terminology of welding process
welding joints such as base metal, fusion zone, weld face, root face, root opening
toe and root are depictedin Figure.

Edge preparations
For welding the edges of joining surfaces of metals are prepared first. Different edge
preparations may be used for welding butt joints, which are given in Figure.

Welding joints
Some common welding joints are shown in Figure. Welding joints are of generally
of two major kinds namely lap joint and butt joint. The main types are described as
under.

1. Lap weld Joint

This joint, made by overlapping the
edges of the plate, is not recommended
for most work. The single lap has very
little resistance to bending. It can be used
satisfactorily for joining two cylinders
that fit inside one another.

2. Double-Lap Joint
This is stronger than the single-lap joint
but has the disadvantage that it requires
twice as much welding.

3. Tee Fillet Weld

This type of joint, although widely used, should not be employed if an alternative design is
possible.

I. Butt weld joint

a) Single-Vee Butt Weld
It is used for plates up to 15.8 mm thick. The angle of the vee depends upon the
technique being used, the plates being spaced approximately 3.2 mm.
b) Double-Vee Butt Weld
It is used for plates over 13 mm thick when the welding can be performed on
both sides of the plate. The top vee angle is either 60° or 80°, while the
bottom angle is 80°, depending on the technique being used.

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Welding Positions
As shown in Fig. , there are four types of welding positions, which are given as:
a) Flat or down hand position
b) Horizontal position
c) Vertical position
d) Overhead position

a) Flat or Down-hand Welding Position

The flat position or down hand position is one in which the welding is performed
from the upper side of the joint and the face of the weld is approximately horizontal.
b) Horizontal Welding Position
In horizontal position, the plane of the workpiece is vertical and the deposited weld
head is horizontal. This position of welding is most commonly used in welding
vessels and reservoirs.
c) Vertical Welding Position
In vertical position, the plane of the work-piece is vertical and the weld is deposited
upon a vertical surface. It is difficult to produce satisfactory welds in this position
due to the effect of the force of gravity on the molten metal.
d) Overhead Welding Position
The overhead position is probably even more difficult to weld than the vertical
position. Here the pull ofgravity against the molten metal is much greater.

ARC WELDING PROCESSES

The process, in which an electric
arc between an electrode and a
work-piece or between two
electrodes is utilized to weld base
metals, is called an arc welding
process. The basic principle of arc
welding is shown in Figure1.
However the basic elements
involved in arc welding process
are shown in Figure2. Most of
these processes use some
shielding gas while others employ

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coatings or fluxes to prevent the
weld pool from the surrounding
atmosphere.
1) Switch box.
2) Secondary terminals
3) Welding machine.
4) Current reading scale.
5) Current regulating handwheel.
6) Leather apron.
7) Asbestos hand gloves.
8) Protective glasses strap
9) Electrode holder.
10) Hand shield Job
11) Channel for cableprotection.
12) Welding cable.
13) Chipping hammer.
14) Wire brush.
15) Earth clamp.
16) Welding table(metallic).

Arc welding equipment, setup and related tools and accessories are shown in Figure.
However some common tools of arc welding are shown separately through Figure.
Few of the important components of arc welding setup are described as under.

a) Arc welding power source

Both direct current (DC) and alternating current (AC) are used for electric arc
welding, each having its particular applications. DC welding supply is usually
obtained from generators driven by electric motor or if no electricity is available by
internal combustion engines. For AC welding supply, transformers are predominantly
used for almost all Arc-welding where mains electricity supply is available. They
have to step down the usual supply voltage (200-400 volts) to the normal open circuit
welding voltage (50-90 volts). The following factors influence the selection of a
power source:
i. Type of electrodes to be used and metals to be welded
ii. Available power source (AC or DC)
iii. Required output
iv. Duty cycle
v. Efficiency
vi. Initial costs and running costs
vii. Available floor space
viii. Versatility of equipment
Welding cables

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Welding cables are required for conduction of current from the power source
through the electrode holder, the arc, the work piece and back to the welding power
source. These are insulated copper or aluminum cables.

a) Electrode holder
Electrode holder is used for holding the electrode
manually and conducting current to it. These are
usually matched to the size of thelead, which in turn
matched to the amperage output of the arc welder. Fig. Electrode Holder

Electrode holders are available in sizes that range

from 150 to 500 Amps.

b) Welding Electrodes
An electrode is a piece of wire or a
rod of a metal or alloy, with or
without coatings. An arc is set up
between electrode and workpiece.
Welding electrodes are classified
into following types- Fig. Parts of a electrode

(i) Consumable Electrodes

(a) Bare Electrodes
(b) Coated Electrodes
(ii) Non-consumable Electrodes
(a) Carbon or Graphite Electrodes
(b) Tungsten Electrodes

Consumable electrode is made of different metals and their alloys. The end of this electrode
starts melting when arc is struck between the electrode and workpiece. Thus consumable
electrode itself acts as a filler metal. Bare electrodes consist of a metal or alloy wire without
any flux coating on them. Coated electrodes have flux coating which starts melting as soon
as an electric arc is struck. This coating on melting performs many functions like prevention
of joint from atmospheric contamination, arc stabilizers etc.
Non-consumable electrodes are made up of high melting point materials like carbon, pure
tungsten or alloy tungsten etc. These electrodes do not melt away during welding. But
practically, the electrode length goes on decreasing with the passage of time, because of
oxidation and vaporization of the electrode material during welding. The materials of non-
consumable electrodes are usually copper coated carbon or graphite, pure tungsten, throated or
zirconated tungsten.
i. Hand Screen
Hand screen used for protection of eyes and supervision of weld bead.
ii. Chipping hammer
Chipping Hammer is used to remove the slag by striking.
iii. Wire brush
Wire brush is used to clean the surface to be weld.

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Fig. Earth Clamp Fig. Chipping Hammer Fig. Wire Brush

a) Protective clothing
Operator wears the protective clothing such as apron to keep away the exposure of direct heat to
thebody.

Safety Recommendations for ARC Welding

The beginner in the field of arc welding must go through and become familiar with these
general safetyrecommendations which are given as under.
1. The body or the frame of the welding machine shall be efficiently earthed. Pipe
lines containing gases or inflammable liquids or conduits carrying electrical
conductors shall not be used for a ground return circuit All earth connections shall
be mechanically strong and electrically adequatefor the required current.
2. Welding arc in addition to being very is a source of infra-red and ultra-violet light
also; consequently the operator must use either helmet or a hand-shield fitted with
a special filter glass to protect eyes
3. Excess ultra-violet light can cause an effect similar to sunburn on the skin of the
welder
4. The welder’s body and clothing are protected from radiation and burns caused by
sparks and flying globules of molten metal with the help of the following:
5. Gloves protect the hands of a welder.
6. Leather or asbestos apron is very useful to protect welder’s clothes and his trunk
and thighs while seated he is doing welding.
7. For overhead welding, some form of protection for the head is required.
8. Leather skull cap or peaked cap will do the needful.
9. Leather jackets and 1ather leggings are also available as clothes for body protection.
10. Welding equipment shall be inspected periodically and maintained in safe
working order at all times.
11. Arc welding machines should be of suitable quality.
12. All parts of welding set shall be suitably enclosed and protected to meet the
usual service conditions.

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SINGLE V – BUTT JOINT

Ex. No: 7 Date:

Aim: Preparation of butt joint by Material required: Two mild steel pieces of
100 mm X 50 mm X 6 mm.
Tools required:
1. Welding transformer,
2. Connecting cables,
3. Electrode holder,
4. Ground clamp,
5. Electrodes,
6. Hipping hammer,
7. Welding shield etc.

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Procedure:
1. The given metallic pieces filled to the desired size.
2. On both pieces beveled in order to have V groove.
3. The metallic pieces are thoroughly cleaned from rust grease, oil, etc.
4. The metallic pieces are connected to terminals of Trans former.
5. Select electrode diameter based on thickness of work piece and holds holder.
6. Select suitable range of current for selected dia.
7. Switch on the power supply and initiates the arc by either strand drag method.
8. Take welding to be done before full welding.
9. In full welding process after completion one part before going to second part.
10. Slag is removed from the weld bed. With the metal wire brush or chipping hammer.
11. Then the above process will be repeated until to fill the groove with weld bed or weld metal.

Precautions:
1. Use goggles, gloves in order to protect the human body.
2. Maintain the constant arc length.

Result: Butt joint is prepared as shown in figure by using arc-welding process.

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LAP JOINT

Ex No: 8 Date:

Aim:-To make a double lap joint, using the given mild steel pieces and by arc welding.

Material used: Two mild steel pieces of 102 mm X 51 mm X 6 mm.

Tools and equipment used

1. Arc welding machine, 10. Bench vice,
2. Mild steel electrodes, 11. Rough flat file,
3. Electrode holder, 12. Try square,
4. Ground clamp, 13. Steel rule,
5. Flat nose Tong, 14. Wire brush,
6. Face shield, 15. Ball peen hammer,
7. Apron, 16. Chipping hammer
8. Hand gloves,
9. Metallic work Table,

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Procedure
1. Take the two mild steel pieces of given dimensions and clean the surfaces thoroughly from
rust, dust particles, oil and grease.
2. Remove the sharp corners and burrs by filing or grinding and prepare the work pieces.
3. The work pieces are positioned on the welding table, to form a lap joint with the required over
lapping.
4. The electrode is fitted in to the electrode holder and the welding cur value.
5. The ground clamp is fastened to the welding table.
6. Wearing the apron, hand gloves, using the face shield and holding the over lapped pieces the
arc is struck and the work pieces are tack
7. The alignment of the lap joint is checked and the tack
8. Welding is then carried out throughout the length of the lap joint, on both the sides.
9. Remove the slag, spatters and clean the joint.

Precautions:
1. Use goggles, gloves in order to protect the human body.
2. Maintain the constant arc length.

Result The lap joint is thus made, using the tools and equipment as mentioned above.

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MACHINE SHOP

INTRODUCTION
In a machine shop, metals are cut to shape on different machine tools. A lathe is used to cut and shape
the metal by revolving the work against a cutting tool. The work is clamped either in a chuck, fitted on
to the lathe spindle or in post, mounted on a movable carriage that is positioned on the lathe bed. The
cutting tool can be fed on to the work, either lengthwise or cross counter‐clockwise direction, when
Principal parts of a Lathe
Figure 1 shows a center lathe, indicating the main parts. The name is due to the fact that work pieces
are held by the centers.
Bed
It is an essential part of a lathe, which must be strong and machine and resists the cutting forces. The
carriage and the tail stock move along the guide ways provided on the bed. It is usually made of cast
iron.
Head stock
It contains either a cone pulley or gearings to provide It contains the main spindle, to which the work
is held and rotated.
Tail stock
It is used to support the right hand end of a long work piece. It may be clamped in any position along
the lathe bed. The tailstock center that supports the work. Drills, reamers, taps may also be fitted into
the spindle, for performing operations such as drilling, reaming and tapping.
Carriage or Saddle
It is used to control the movement of the cutting tool. The carriage assembly consists of the longitudinal
slide, cross slide and the compound slide and apron. The cross slide moves across the length of the bed
and perpendicular to the axis of the spindle. This movement is used facing and to provide the necessary
depth of cut while turning. The apron, which is bolted to the saddle, is on the front of the lathe and
contains the longitudinal and cross slide controls.
Compound Rest
It supports the tool post. By swiveling the be turned to any desired angles.
Tool post:
The tool is clamped over the tool post. It is fixed over the compound rest. There are four types of tool
post
a. Single screw tool post
b. Open side tool post
c. Four bolt tool post
d. Four way tool post
Apron:
Apron is attached to the saddle and hangs in front of the bed. It has gears, levers, clutchesfor moving
the carriage automatically. A split nut is attached for engaging and disengaging thecarriage from the
lead screw. It is used in thread cutting work
Lead Screw:
It is a longer screw with standard AC ME square threads and used for transmitting power for
automatic feed for thread cutting operation.
Feed rod:
The feed rod is the long shaft used for the movement of carriage along the axis of bed. Itis used for
operations like facing, turning and boring.

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FACING AND TURNING
Ex No: 9 Date:
Aim:
To obtain the required shape and size of the workpiece by turning and facing operations.

Materials Used:
Cylindrical workpiece of diameter 30mm and length 107mm mild steel rod.

Tools Required:
1. Lathe 2. Cutting tool 3. Vernier Caliper
4. Try Square 5. Scriber 6. Vernier Height Gauge

Sequence of Operations:
1. Checking 2. Workpiece setting 3. Tool setting
4. Facing 5. Turning 6. Taper Turning

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Procedure:
1. The given workpiece is checked for its dimensions.
2. The workpiece is help in the chuck. Chuck key is used to tighten the job firmly, ensuring centre
of workpiece.
3. The single point cutting tool is held in the tool post and tighten the nuts using spanner.
4. Facing is done with cutting tool moving from the centre of workpiece towards outside. It is done
until the required length of the job is obtained.
5. Turning is done to reduce the diameter of the job. Sufficient depth of cut is given and it is done
until the required diameter of the job is obtained.
6. Finally, the dimensions of workpiece are again checked.

Result:
Thus the required size and shape of the given workpiece is obtained.

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STEP TURNING AND TAPER TURNING
Ex No: 10 Date:
Aim:
To obtain the required shape and size of the workpiece by turning, facing and taper turning operations.

Materials Used:
Cylindrical workpiece of diameter 35mm and length 112mm mild steel rod.

Tools Required:
1. Lathe 2. Cutting tool 3. Vernier Caliper
4. Try Square 5. Scriber 6. Vernier Height Gauge

Sequence of Operations:
1. Checking 2. Workpiece setting 3. Tool setting
4. Facing 5. Turning 6. Taper Turning

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Procedure:
1. The given workpiece is checked for its dimensions.
2. The workpiece is help in the chuck. Chuck key is used to tighten the job firmly, ensuring centre
of workpiece.
3. The single point cutting tool is held in the tool post and tighten the nuts using spanner.
4. Facing is done with cutting tool moving from the centre of workpiece towards outside. It is done
until the required length of the job is obtained.
5. Turning is done to reduce the diameter of the job. Sufficient depth of cut is given and it is done
until the required diameter of the job is obtained.
6. Next the taper turning is done on the workpiece, as per the taper angle already calculated. Then
the compound rest base is swivelled and set to half tape angle. Cutting tool is moved at an angle
to the athe axis. Tool is moved by the compound rest hand wheel.
7. Finally, the dimensions of workpiece are again checked.
Result:
Thus the required size and shape of the given workpiece is obtained.

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