Module: 3 Transducers

Syllabus :

Transducers: Classification by function, classification by performance,

classification by output.
Developments in transducer technology:
Solid state transducer, Optical transducers, Piezoelectric Transducers Resistive
Transducers: Potentiometer, Strain Gauges, Resistive Temperature Transducers,
Inductive Transducers: LVDT Optical measurements system: Thermal photo
detectors

Introduction:

A transducer is a device that converts one form of energy into another—typically

non-electrical (like pressure, temperature, or light) into an electrical signal, or vice
versa. Transducers are the unsung heroes in engineering—they make systems
smarter, safer, and more responsive. They’re essential for monitoring, control,
automation, and design validation. Without them, modern engineering would be
nearly impossible.

Why Are Transducers Important for Engineers?

1. Bridging the Physical and Digital Worlds

Transducers allow engineers to measure real-world phenomena and convert

them into data that machines can interpret.

2. Automation and Control Systems

They are at the heart of automation—providing feedback for control systems like
in HVAC (Heat Ventilation and Air-conditioning), robotics, industrial machinery,
etc. Without transducers, systems wouldn’t know what’s going on in the
environment.

3. Precision and Accuracy

Transducers enable precise measurements of variables like pressure, strain,

displacement, etc., which are critical in engineering designs and safety.

For instance, strain gauges help monitor structural integrity in bridges or

buildings.

4. Data Collection for Analysis

In research and development, transducers help engineers collect data for analysis,
simulation, and design optimization. Essential in prototype testing and
performance evaluation.

5. Enhancing Human-Machine Interfaces

Devices like microphones, touch sensors, and accelerometers are transducers that
enable more natural interaction with machines and devices.

3.1 Classification of Transducers:

3.1.1 Classification by function:

Active Transducers

These transducers do not require any external power source to operate. They
generate an output signal (usually electrical) in response to a physical quantity
directly.

Self-generating

Converts energy from one form to another directly

Generally used for dynamic measurements

Passive Transducers

These transducers require an external power source (excitation) to operate. They

modulate the power supplied in response to the physical input.

Need external excitation (voltage or current)

Output is a variation in electrical property (resistance, capacitance, inductance,

etc.) Often more stable but require signal conditioning

3.1.2 Classification by Performance

Transducers can be classified based on performance into several categories. This

classification focuses on how well the transducer operates under various
conditions, including its accuracy, sensitivity, linearity, hysteresis, dynamic
response, and stability.

Here's a breakdown of transducer classification based on performance

characteristics:

1. Accuracy

 High-accuracy transducers: Provide very precise measurements, used in

lab-grade or calibration equipment.
 Low-accuracy transducers: Suitable for applications where approximate
values are acceptable, such as industrial process monitoring.

2. Sensitivity

 High-sensitivity transducers: Detect very small changes in input (e.g.,

piezoelectric sensors).
 Low-sensitivity transducers: Require significant input to produce a
measurable output.

3. Linearity
  Linear transducers: Output is directly proportional to input over a wide
range (e.g., LVDTs – Linear Variable Differential Transformers).
 Non-linear transducers: Output does not follow a straight line with input;
requires calibration or compensation (e.g., thermistors).

4. Stability

 Stable transducers: Maintain consistent performance over time and

environmental changes.

 Unstable transducers: Show drift in output with time, temperature, or

humidity variations.

5. Repeatability

 High-repeatability transducers: Produce the same output under repeated,

identical input conditions.
 Low-repeatability transducers: Output may vary for the same input, which
affects reliability.

3.1.3 Classification by Output

On the basis of the nature of the output signal generated by the transducers, it
can be classified into two types.

Analog transducers:

An analog transducer transforms a physical quantity in to analog output signal

(Changes are shown by hand or a pointer) that changes continuously with time.
For example output of LVDT

Digital transducers

Digital transducers are the one which generates the output in the form of digital
signal.
 Table 3.1 Difference between Analog and Digital Output Transducer

Feature Analog Transducer Digital Transducer

Data output Outputs continuous voltage or Outputs discrete digital signals,

current signals representing the usually in binary form
analog value

Accuracy Depends on the quality of the High accuracy, less affected by

sensor and circuit design, may noise and interference
be affected by noise

Resolution Limited by the sensor and ADC High resolution, typically 12-bit,
resolution, usually lower 16-bit, or higher

Signal Requires an ADC to convert Usually integrates ADC

processing analog signals to digital for internally, no external
processing conversion needed

Transmission Limited transmission distance, Can be transmitted over long

distance susceptible to electromagnetic distances via serial interfaces,
interference strong anti-interference ability

Interface Simple interface, typically reads Complex interface, requires

complexity signals through voltage or current protocols and standards to read
changes and transmit data

Power Usually low, depending on May be higher due to more

consumption specific circuit design integrated circuits and
processing functions

Cost Generally cheaper, suitable for Generally more expensive, but

simple and low-cost applications has advantages in accuracy
and reliability
 Calibration May require Lower calibration frequency,
frequent calibration to maintain usually calibrated at the factory
accuracy

Response Short response time, suitable for Response time may be longer
time measuring rapidly changing due to data processing and
signals conversion

3.2 Developments in transducer technology

Like any other technology, Transducer technology has also evolved keeping
challenges and future demands at various times. The development of transducer
technology has evolved through several key stages, paralleling advances in
materials science, electronics, and computing. Here's a breakdown of the major
stages in transducer development:

Stage 1. Early Mechanical Transducers

Examples: Barometers, thermometers, and simple pressure gauges.

 Principle: Mechanical deformation or movement (e.g., mercury rising in a

thermometer) used to indicate a physical quantity.
 Limitations: No electrical output; limited precision and range.

Stage 2. Electromechanical Transducers

Examples: Carbon microphones, strain gauges, galvanometers.

 Principle: Convert physical phenomena (pressure, displacement) into

electrical signals using mechanical movement.
 Milestones:
o Carbon microphones (used in early telephony)
o Wheatstone bridge circuits for strain gauges

Stage 3. Piezoelectric and Magnetic Transducers

  Examples: Piezoelectric microphones, ultrasonic sensors, magnetic pickups.
 Principle: Use of special materials that generate voltage when deformed
(piezoelectric) or magnetic induction.
 Applications: Sonar, medical imaging (ultrasound), audio devices.
 Materials: Quartz, Barium Titanate, Ferrite cores.

Stage 4. Semiconductor-Based Transducers

 Examples: Thermistors, photodiodes, Hall effect sensors.

 Advances:
o Use of silicon and semiconductors to create sensitive and compact
sensors.
o Integration with early electronics and signal processing.
 Applications: Early computers, industrial automation, automotive systems.

Stage 5. Microelectromechanical Systems (MEMS)

 Examples: MEMS accelerometers, gyroscopes, pressure sensors.

 Principle: Miniaturized mechanical and electro-mechanical elements using
semiconductor fabrication techniques.
 Features: Tiny, cost-effective, low-power, integrable with ICs.
 Applications: Smartphones, airbags, game controllers, IoT devices.

Stage 6. Smart Transducers

Features: Built-in microcontrollers for signal conditioning, calibration, and digital

communication.

Support for digital interfaces (I2C, SPI, UART).

Self-diagnostics and networking capabilities (e.g., in smart factories and smart

homes).

 Examples: Digital temperature sensors, environmental sensors (humidity,

gas), biosensors.

Stage 7. Next-Gen & Emerging Transducer Technologies (2020s–Future)

o Nanotechnology: Nanoscale sensors and actuators.

 o Flexible and wearable sensors: For health monitoring and human-
machine interfaces.
o Wireless and energy-harvesting transducers.
o Quantum sensors: Ultra-sensitive measurements for scientific
research.
 Applications: Wearable, robotics, precision agriculture, space tech,
biomedical implants.

3.3 Solid state transducer

Solid state transducers are devices that convert one form of energy into another
using solid-state (no moving parts) electronic components—typically
semiconductors. These are commonly used in sensors and actuators because they
offer durability, reliability, compact size, and fast response times.

They are famous for:

 No moving parts → more durable and reliable

 Compact → suitable for modern electronics
 Fast response time → ideal for real-time monitoring
 Low power consumption

Types of Solid State Transducers:

1. Thermistors and RTDs (for temperature) (Discussed in detail in Module. 5)

 Thermistors: Resistance changes with temperature (non-linear).

 RTDs (Resistance Temperature Detectors): More linear, often made of
platinum.

2. Piezoelectric Transducers (for pressure, vibration)

Principle : Generate voltage when pressure is applied to piezoelectric

material (like quartz).

3. Photodiodes and Phototransistors (for light)

 Convert light energy into electrical signals.

4. Strain Gauges

 Measure mechanical strain via changes in resistance.

5. Hall Effect Sensors (for magnetic fields)

 Produce a voltage proportional to magnetic field strength.

Some of the applications:

 Medical devices (e.g., thermometers, heart rate sensors)

 Automotive systems (e.g., tire pressure, speed sensors)
 Industrial automation (e.g., vibration monitoring, temperature control)
 Consumer electronics (e.g., smartphones, wearables)

3.4 Optical transducers

Optical transducers are devices that convert light (optical signals) into electrical
signals or vice versa. They're a subset of transducers and are key to many modern
technologies, especially in sensing, communication, and imaging.

Working Principle:

An optical transducer works by interacting with light in a way that changes some
property—intensity, phase, wavelength, or polarization—and then converting
that change into an electrical signal that can be measured.

Types of Optical Transducers:

1. Photodetectors (Light → Electrical)

These convert light into electrical signals.

 Photodiodes: Most common; generate current when exposed to light.

 Phototransistors: Like photodiodes but with amplification.
 Photovoltaic cells: Convert sunlight into electricity (solar panels).
 Photoresistors (LDRs): Change resistance based on light intensity.

2. Light Emitters (Electrical → Light)

These convert electrical signals into light.

 LEDs (Light Emitting Diodes): Emit light when current passes through.
 Laser diodes: Used in fiber-optic communication for high-intensity light.

(These topics you have covered in detail insemester-1)

3. Fiber Optic Sensors

Use optical fibers to transmit light to and from a sensing point.

 Can measure temperature, pressure, displacement, strain, etc.

 Often used in hazardous environments or where electromagnetic
interference is an issue.

Applications:

 Telecommunications (fiber-optic networks)

 Medical equipment (pulse oximeters, optical biosensors)
 Automation & Robotics (object detection, position sensing)
 Environmental monitoring (gas sensors using light absorption)
 Consumer electronics (light sensors in phones and cameras)

3.5 Piezoelectric Transducers

What is Piezoelectric Transducer?

The definition of a Piezoelectric transducer is an electrical transducer which can

convert any form of physical quantity into an electrical signal, which can be used
for measurement. An electrical transducer which uses properties of piezoelectric
materials for conversion of physical quantities into electrical signals is known as
a piezoelectric transducer.

Piezoelectric materials exhibit the property of piezoelectricity, according to which

on the application of any type of mechanical stress or strain leads to the
generation of an electric voltage proportional to the applied stress. This produced
electric voltage can be measured using voltage measuring instruments to
calculate the value of stress or strain applied to the material.
Types of Piezoelectric Materials

Some of the types of piezoelectric materials are:

Naturally Available Ones: Quartz, Rochelle salt, Topaz, Tourmaline-group

minerals, and some organic substances as silk, wood, enamel, bone, hair, rubber,
dentin. Artificially manufactures piezoelectric materials are Polyvinylidene
difluoride, PVDF or PVF2, Barium titanate, Lead titanate, Lead zirconate titanate
(PZT), Potassium niobate, Lithium niobate, Lithium tantalate, and other lead-free
piezoelectric ceramics.
Piezoelectric Transducer Working

Piezoelectric Transducer works with the principle of piezoelectricity. The faces of

piezoelectric material, usual quartz, is coated with a thin layer of conducting
material such as silver. When stress has applied the ions in the material move
towards one of the conducting surface while moving away from the other. This
results in the generation of charge. This charge is used for calibration of stress.
The polarity of the produced charge depends upon the direction of the applied
stress. Stress can be applied in two forms as Compressive stress and Tensile
stress as shown below.

Fig. 3.5.1 Working of a Piezoelectric Transducer

Piezoelectric Transducer Applications

 As piezoelectric materials cannot measure static values these are primarily

used for measuring surface roughness, in accelerometers and as a vibration
pickup.
 They are used in seismographs to measure vibrations in rockets.
 In strain gauges to measure force, stress, vibrations etc…
 Used by automotive industries to measure detonations in engines.
 These are used in ultrasonic imaging in medical applications.

Advantages and Limitations of Piezoelectric Transducers

The advantages and limitations of piezoelectric transducers include the following.

Advantages
 These are active transducer i.e. they don’t require external power for working
and are therefore self-generating.
 The high-frequency response of these transducers makes a good choice for
various applications.
Limitations
 Temperature and environmental conditions can affect the behavior of the
transducer.
 They can only measure changing pressure hence they are useless while
measuring static parameters.

3.6 Resistive Transducers

The resistive transducers are used for measurements of Physical quantities like
Temperature, Displacements, and Vibrations etc. The resistive transducers convert
these quantities in variable resistance that can be calibrated suitably for
measurements.
The resistive potentiometer is perhaps the best-known displacement-measuring
device. It consists of a resistance element with a movable contact, as shown
in Fig. 3.6.1. A voltage Vs is applied across the two ends, A and B, of the resistance
element and an output voltage V0 is measured between the point of contact C of
the sliding element and the end of the resistance element A. A linear relationship
exists between the output voltage V0 and the distance AC, which can be
expressed by:
Vo/Vs=AC/AB ____________(3.6.1)

Fig 3.6.1 Resistive potentiometer

The body whose motion is being measured is connected to the sliding element of
the potentiometer, so that translational motion of the body causes a motion of
equal magnitude of the slider along the resistance element and a corresponding
change in the output voltage V0.
Three different types of potentiometer exist, wire-wound, carbon-film and plastic-
film, so named according to the material used to construct the resistance
element.
Some of the important Potentiometer based Transducer applications :
 Displacement Measurements
Used in sensors for measuring the position of a moving object like joystick
for a fuel gauge
 Angle measurement:
Rotary potentiometers are commonly used to measure position of rotating
 shaft.
 Control systems:
Used in various control systems such as volume control in audio equipment
and speed control of rotors.

3.7 Strain Gauges

Strain Gauges Strain gauges are devices whose resistance changes under the
application of force or strain. They can be used for measurement of force, strain,
stress, pressure, displacement, acceleration etc. It is often easy to measure the
parameters like length, displacement, weight etc that can be felt easily by some
senses. However, it is very difficult to measure the dimensions like force, stress
and strain that cannot be really sensed directly by any instrument. For such cases
special devices called strain gauges are very useful. There are some materials
whose resistance changes when strain is applied to them or when they are
stretched and this change in resistance can be measured easily. For applying the
strain you need force, thus the change in resistance of the material can be
calibrated to measure the applied force. Thus the devices whose resistance
changes due to applied strain or applied force are called as the strain gauges.

Working principle: It is based on the concept of electrical resistance variation

due to mechanical strain. The strain gauge consists of a fine wire or foil, typically
made of a highly conductive material like copper or constantan, which is attached
to a flexible backing material. When a mechanical strain is applied to the strain
gauge, the wire or foil undergoes deformation, resulting in a change in its length
and cross-sectional area. This alteration in dimensions causes a corresponding
change in the electrical resistance of the wire or foil.

The change in resistance can be measured using a Wheatstone bridge circuit,

which is commonly employed in strain gauge applications. The Wheatstone bridge
consists of four resistive arms, with the strain gauge forming one of the arms. The
other three arms typically consist of fixed resistors. When the strain gauge
experiences a strain, the resistance of the gauge changes, leading to an imbalance
in the Wheatstone bridge circuit. This imbalance generates a small electrical
output signal, which is proportional to the applied strain.

Fig 3.7.1 Strain gauge

By measuring the output signal, the magnitude of the strain can be determined.
This allows for the analysis of various mechanical properties such as stress, load,
and deformation in structural components. Strain gauges find extensive
applications in areas like civil engineering, aerospace, automotive, and material
testing. We will learn more about its applications in civil engineering in following
sections.

3.8 Resistive Temperature Transducers

An RTD (Resistance Temperature Detector) is a sensor whose resistance changes
as its temperature changes. The resistance increases as the temperature of the
sensor increases. The resistance vs temperature relationship is well known and is
repeatable over time. An RTD is a passive device. It does not produce an output
on its own. External electronic devices are used to measure the resistance of the
sensor by passing a small electrical current through the sensor to generate a
voltage. Typically 1 mA or less measuring current, 5 mA maximum without the risk
of self-heating.

(Learner will find more details in Module No.5 which is completely dedicated to RTDs )
3.9 Inductive Transducers:
Inductive Transducer is the self-generating type otherwise the passive type
transducer. The first type like self-generating uses the principle of
fundamental electrical generator. The electric generator principle is when a
motion among a conductor as well as magnetic field induces a voltage
within the conductor. The motion among the conductor and the field can be
supplied by transforms in the measured. An inductive transducer
(electromechanical) is an electrical device used to convert physical motion into
modifying within inductance.
The most useful Inductive Transducer is LVDT (Linear Variable Differential
Transducer) - Displacement Transducer .

Principle of Operation and Working As the primary is connected to an AC source

so alternating current and voltages are produced in the secondary of the LVDT.
The output in secondary S1 is e1 and in the secondary S2 is e2. So the
differential output is, eout = e1 – e2

Fig.3.9.1 LVDT schematic diagram

This equation explains the principle of Operation of LVDT. Now three cases
arise according to the locations of core which explains the working of LVDT are
discussed below as,
CASE I : When the core is at null position (for no displacement) When the core
is at null position then the flux linking with both the secondary windings is
equal so the induced emf is equal in both the windings. So for no displacement
the value of output eout is zero as e1 and e2 both are equal. So it shows that no
displacement took place.
CASE II: When the core is moved to upward of null position (For displacement
to the upward of reference point) In the this case the flux linking with
secondary winding S1 is more as compared to flux linking with S2. Due to this e1
will be more as that of e2.

Fig.3.9.2 LVDT output vs Displacement

Some important points about magnitude and sign of voltage induced in LVDT
The amount of change in voltage either negative or positive is proportional to
the amount of movement of core and indicates amount of linear motion. By
noting the output voltage increasing or decreasing the direction of motion can
be determined The output voltage of an LVDT is linear function of core
displacement
Advantages of LVDT
High Range – The LVDTs have a very high range for measurement of
displacement. they can used for measurement of displacements ranging from
1.25 mm to 250 mm
No Frictional Losses – As the core moves inside a hollow former so there is no
loss of displacement input as frictional loss so it makes LVDT as very accurate
device.
High Input and High Sensitivity – The output of LVDT is so high that it doesn’t
need any amplification. The transducer posseses a high sensitivity which is
typically about 40V/mm.
Low Hysteresis – LVDTs show a low hysteresis and hence repeatability is
excellent under all conditions
Low Power Consumption – The power is about 1W which is very as compared
to other transducers.
Direct Conversion to Electrical Signals – They convert the linear displacement to
electrical voltage which are easy to process
Disadvantages of LVDT
LVDT is sensitive to stray magnetic fields so it always requires a setup to
protect them from stray magnetic fields. LVDT gets affected by vibrations and
temperature. It is concluded that they are advantageous as compared than any
other inductive transducer.
Applications of LVDT
 1. We use LVDT in the applications where displacements to be measured are
ranging from a fraction of mm to few cms. The LVDT acting as a primary
transducer converts the displacement to electrical signal directly.
2. The LVDT can also act as a secondary transducer. E.g. the Bourbon tube
which acts as a primary transducer and it converts pressure into linear
displacement and then LVDT coverts this displacement into an electrical signal
which after calibration gives the readings of the pressure of fluid.

3.10 Optical measurements system

An Optical Measurement System refers to a set of instruments and techniques

that use light (often lasers, LEDs, or other sources of electromagnetic radiation) to
measure physical quantities such as:

 Distance or displacement
 Surface profile or roughness
 Strain or deformation
 Thickness (e.g., film thickness)
 Velocity (e.g., Doppler effect)
 Dimensional accuracy (in metrology)
 Optical properties (e.g., refractive index, absorption)

A learner may use, in future, one or more of these as per their branch domain.
The reason why do engineers use this technique is as listed below:

1. High Precision & Accuracy

 Optical systems can detect minute changes in position, shape, or

dimensions — often at the micron or nanometer level.
 Crucial in quality control, semiconductor manufacturing, aerospace, and
precision machining.
 2. Non-Contact Measurement

 Ideal for fragile or hot objects (e.g., molten metals, microchips, biological
tissues).
 No risk of damaging the part or affecting the measurement due to
mechanical contact.

3. Versatility

 Useful across many engineering fields:

o Mechanical & Civil: for surface inspection, structural analysis,
alignment.
o Electrical , Electronics: PCB inspection, semiconductor wafer analysis.
o Biomedical: tissue imaging, medical device measurements.

4. Data-Rich Outputs

 Many optical systems provide full-field data (not just point measurements)
– like full 3D models or deformation maps.
 Enables better simulations, reverse engineering, and deeper analysis.

3.10.1 Thermal photo detectors

Thermal photo-detectors are sensors that detect infrared (IR) radiation by

measuring the change in temperature caused by absorbed light rather than
relying on photon-electron interactions (as in quantum detectors). They’re
commonly used in infrared imaging, thermal cameras, and non-contact
temperature sensing.
Some of the examples are
1. Bolometer detector structure for Thermal Imaging:
Bolometers use the phenomenon of change in resistance of a material
when its temperature changes when IR radiation is incident onto the
bolometer, its temperature changes which in turn causes change in its
resistance. The change in resistance is sensed by an electrical bias to
 measure the energy of the incident photon. The bolometer is in a circuit in
series with a voltage source, so that current flows through it and, as the
resistance changes, the voltage drop across the element changes, providing
a photon energy sensing mechanism
2. Pyroelectric Detectors
These detectors employ pyroelectric effect to sense the photons .Among
the materials that reveal the pyroelectric effect are those whose molecules
have dipole moment such as triglycine sulfate (TGS), lithium tantalate
(LiTaO3) and polyvinyl fluoride (PVF)
Advantages: Pyroelectric detectors have faster response as compared to
other thermal detectors
Disadvantages: Pyroelectric detectors do not have a DC signal and hence
the surface temperature must be modulated in time by means of a chopper
placed in front of the detector
Applications: Pyroelectric detectors are used as temperature change
sensors and in infrared imaging.
3. Photovoltaic Detectors
Based on Photovoltaic effect across a p-n junction No bias voltage is
required If the junction is short-circuited, current will flow in the circuit
when the junction is illuminated.