Introduction :

Sampling is an essential part of research design that enables researchers to study a

subset of a population to draw inferences about the entire population. Due to practical
constraints such as time, cost, and accessibility, studying an entire population is often
impossible, making sampling not only necessary but fundamental to empirical research
. It can be an individual element or a group of elements selected from the population.
Although it is a subset, it is representative of the population and suitable for research in
terms of cost, convenience and time. The sample group can be selected based on a
probability or a non-probability approach. A sample usually consists of various units of
the population. The size of the sample is represented by ‘n’.

Sampling is the act, process, or technique of selecting a representative part of a

population for the purpose of determining the characteristics of the whole population.
In other words, the process of selecting a sample from a population using special
sampling techniques called sampling. It should be ensured in the sampling process
itself that the sample selected is representative of the population.

Sampling design: Census and sample survey:

All items in any field of inquiry constitute a ‘universe’ or ‘population’. A complete

enumeration of all the items in the ‘population’ is known as a census inquiry. It can be
presumed that in such an inquiry, when all the items are covered, no element of chance
is left and highest accuracy is obtained. In practice, this may not be true.Even the
slightest element of bias in such an enquiry will get larger and larger as the number of
observations increase. Moreover, there is no way of checking the element of bias or its
extent, except through a resurvey or use of sample checks. Besides,this type of inquiry
involves a great deal of time, money and energy. Therefore,when the field of inquiry is
large, this method becomes difficult to adopt because of the resources involved. At
times, this method is practically beyond the reach of ordinary researchers. Perhaps,
government is the only institution which can get the complete enumeration carried out.
Even the government adopts this method in very rare cases such as population census
conducted once in a decade. Further, many a times it is not possible to examine every
item in the population and sometimes it is possible to obtain sufficiently accurate
results by studying only a part of total population. In such cases there is no utility of
census surveys.I

Implications of a sample design: A sample design is a definite plan for obtaining a

sample from a given population. It refers to the technique or the procedure the
researcher would adopt in selecting items for the sample. Sample design may as well
lay down the number of items to be included in the sample, i.e. the size of the sample.
Sample design is determined before data are collected. There are many sample designs
from which a researcher can choose. Some designs are relatively more precise and
easier to apply than others. The researcher must select/prepare a sample design which
should be reliable and appropriate for his research study.

MERITS OF SAMPLING:-

(1) It saves time: Sampling method of data collection saves time because fewer
items are collected and processed. When the results are urgently required, this
method is very useful.
(2) It reduces cost: Since only a few and selected items are studied in sampling, so
there is a reduction in cost of money and reduction in terms of man-hours.
(3) More reliable results: Through sampling more reliable results can be obtained
because

(a)There are fewer chances of sampling statistical errors. Though, any sampling error,
it is possible to estimate and control the results.

(b)Highly experienced and trained persons can be: employed for scientific processing
and analyzing of relatively limited data and they can use their high technical knowledge
and get more accurate and reliable results.

(4) It provides more detailed information: As it saves time, money and labour more
detailed information can be collected in a sample survey.

(4) Sometimes only method to depend upon: It is observed that sometimes one has
to depend only upon sampling method. It happens when the population under
study is infinite. In such situation it is only the method to be used.

For example: If someones blood has to be examined, it will become fatal to take all the
blood out from the body and study depending upon the total enumeration method.

(5) Administrative convenience: The organization and administration of sample

survey are easy for the same time, money and labour reasons.
(6) More scientific: Since the methods used to collect data are based on scientific
theory and results obtained can be tested, sampling is a more scientific method
to collect data.

Sampling procedure

Sampling is a complicated process. A researcher has to identify all the factors which
can affect the sample. The various criteria related to choice of sampling procedure are
as follows:

• Purpose of survey: Defining the purpose of survey helps the researcher in the
selection of a particular method of sampling. A particular method of sampling choice
depends on the geographical area of the survey and size and nature of the study.
• Measurability: The application of statistical inference theory requires computation of
the sampling error from the sample itself. Probability samples only allow such
computation. Hence, where the research objectives require statistical inference, the
sample should be drawn by applying simple random sampling method or stratified
random sampling method, depending whether the population is homogeneous or
heterogeneous.

• Degree of precision: A desired level of precision of the result of the survey decides
the method adopted for sampling.

• Information about population: Details of information available about the population

to be studied help in deciding the method of sampling. If no data is available about
population, it is difficult to apply probability random sampling. In this condition, the
non-probability sampling method can be used for getting an idea of the population.

• Nature of population: Whether the population is homogeneous or heterogeneous

decides the variables to be studied. Simple random sampling can be used for a
homogeneous population. If the population is heterogeneous, stratified random
sampling is a better option.

• Geographical area of study and size of population: Multi-stage, cluster sampling is

used for the study of wide geographical area and large size of population.

• Financial resources: Availability of finance decides the need of sampling method.

• Time limitation: The time limit to complete a study decides the method of sampling

Characteristics of a good sample:

The following are the characteristics of a good sample:

• Representative

• Accurate

•Precise

• Right sized

Methods of sampling:

There are two basic approaches to sampling: probabilistic and non-probabilistic

sampling. Let us various types of sampling under each category:

A. Probability Sampling
1. Simple random sampling
2. Systematic sampling
3. Stratified sampling
4. Multistage cluster sampling
 B. Non-probability Sampling
1. Convenience sampling
2. Quota sampling
3. Judgment sampling
4. Snowball sampling
A. Probability Sampling

A sampling in which every member of the population has a calculable and non-zero
probability of being included in the sample is known as probability sampling. Methods
of random selection consistent with both the probabilities of inclusion are used in
forming estimates from the sample. The probability of selection need not be equal for
members of the population. If the purpose of a research is to arrive at conclusions or
make predictions affecting the population as a whole, then the choice of a probabilistic
sampling approach is desirable.

1. Simple random sampling:

In this case each individual is chosen entirely by chance and each member of the
population has an equal chance, or probability, of being selected. One way of obtaining
a random sample is to give each individual in a population a number, and then use a
table of random numbers to decide which individuals to include.

For example, An example of a simple random sample would be the names of 25

employees being chosen out of a hat from a company of 250 employees. In this case,
the population is all 250 employees, and the sample is random because each employee
has an equal chance of being chosen.

Advantages:

The following are the advantages of simple random sampling:

• Easy to use

• Equal and independent chance of selection of every element

• No need of prior information of population

Disadvantages:

The following are the disadvantages of simple random sampling:

• Impractical because of non-availability of population details

• Does not represent proportionate representation because observations are selected

randomly so there is a chance of selecting same type of observation In one sample
whereas population may consist of different type of observations

• May be expensive and time consuming

 2. Systematic random sampling:
Individuals are selected at regular intervals from the sampling frame. The
intervals are chosen to ensure an adequate sample size.

Systematic sampling is often more convenient than simple random sampling, and it is
easy to administer. However, it may also lead to bias, for example if there are underlying
patterns in the order of the individuals in the sampling frame, such that the sampling
technique coincides with the periodicity of the underlying pattern.

Advantages

The following are the advantages of systematic random sampling:

• Simpler than random sampling

• Easy to use

• Easy to instruct

• Less time consuming

• Cost effective

• Statically more efficient

Disadvantages

The following are the disadvantages of systematic random sampling:

• Ignorance of all other elements between two n elements

• Each element does not get an equal chance

• Method gives biased sample

3. Stratified sampling: In this method, the population is first divided into

subgroups (or strata) who all share a similar characteristic. It is used
when we might reasonably expect the measurement of interest to vary
between the different subgroups, and we want to ensure representation
from all the subgroups.

For example, in a study of stroke outcomes, we may stratify the population by sex, to
ensure equal representation of men and women. The study sample is then obtained by
taking equal sample sizes from each stratum.

Advantages

The following are the advantages of disproportionate stratified random sampling

• Less time consuming

• Appropriate weightage to a particular group which is small but more important

Disadvantages:

The following are the limitations of disproportionate stratified random sampling:

• No proportionate representation to each stratum

• Prior knowledge of composition of population required

• Doubtful practical feasibility

• Classification errors

4. Multistage Clustered sampling

In a clustered sample, subgroups of the population are used as the sampling unit, rather
than individuals. The population is divided into subgroups, known as clusters, which are
randomly selected to be included in the study. Clusters are usually already defined.

For example individual villages could be identified as clusters for Study of Rural poverty.

B.

Non- probability sampling

Non-probability sampling or non-random sampling is not based on the theory of

probability. This sampling does not provide a chance of selection to each population
element

1. Convenience Sampling:

Convenience sampling is perhaps the easiest method of sampling, because

participants are selected based on availability and willingness to take part. Useful
results can be obtained, but the results are prone to significant bias, because those
who volunteer to take part may be different from those who choose not to

Advantage

The main advantage of this method is that it is cheap and simple. Also, it does not
require a list of population or statistical expertise.

Disadvantage

The only disadvantage of this method is that it is highly biased because of the
researcher’s subjectivity. This method is used the least and its findings cannot be
generalized.

2. Quota sampling :
This method of sampling is often (used by market researchers, Interviewers are
given a quota of subjects of a specified type to attempt to recruit.
 For example, an interviewer might be told to go out and select 20 adult men, 20
adult women, 10 teenage girls and 10 teenage boys so that they could interview
them about their television viewing. Ideally the quotas chosen would
proportionally represent the characteristics of the underlying population.
3. Judgement or purposive sampling:
Also known as selective, or subjective, sampling, this technique relies on the
judgement of the researcher when choosing who to ask to participate.
Researchers may implicitly thus choose a “representative” sample to suit their
needs, or specifically approach individuals with certain characteristics.
This approach is often used by the media when canvassing the public for
opinions and in qualitative research.
4. Snowball sampling:
This method is commonly used in social sciences when investigating hard-to-
reach groups. Existing subjects are asked to nominate further subjects known to
them, so the sample increases in size like a rolling snowball.
For example, when carrying out a survey of risk behaviours amongst intravenous
drug users, participants may be asked to nominate other users to be interviewed
Conclusion
Sampling is a cornerstone of scientific research that, when properly designed,
allows researchers to draw meaningful conclusions about populations. The
choice between probability and non-probability sampling depends on the nature
and purpose of the study. While probability methods ensure greater
generalizability and statistical rigor, non-probability methods offer flexibility and
depth for exploratory inquiries. Ultimately, effective sampling requires clear
planning, ethical practice, and alignment with research objectives to ensure
valid, reliable, and impactful results.
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