Biogas Guidebook

for Small- to Medium-Scale

Industrial Biogas Plants in South Africa
 Contents
Disclaimer v
Acknowledgements vi
List of figures vii
List of tables viii
Acronyms ix
Glossary x
Chemical compounds xii
Units of measure xiii
1. Purpose 1

2. What is biogas? 2
2.1 Biogas technology 3
2.1.1 Commercial biogas plants: 3
2.1.2 Domestic digesters 4
2.1.3 Biogas at wastewater treatment works 5
2.1.4 Landfill gas 5
2.2 Biogas in South Africa 6
2.2.1 Biogas case studies in South Africa 8
3. Applications of biogas 10
3.1 Electricity production 10
3.2 Combined heat and power (CHP) 10
3.3 Biogas burner/boiler 11
3.4 Bio-methane 12
3.4.1 Use of bio-methane 13
3.4.1.1 Household cooking 13
3.4.1.2 Transport sector 13
3.4.1.3 Bio-methane as a raw material in the chemical industry 13
3.4.2 Bio-methane storage 13
3.5 Fertilizer production 14
3.6 Wastewater treatment 15
3.7 Process water from breweries and sugar mills 15
3.8 Biogas technology for society 15
3.8.1 Odour reduction 15
3.8.2 Compliance with international climate pledges 15
3.8.3 Environmental protection and sustainability 16
3.8.4 Employment opportunities 16
4. Feedstock for a biogas plant 18
4.1 What feedstock do you need? 18
4.1.1 Animal by-products 18
4.1.2 Vegetable by-products 18

BIOGAS GUIDEBOOK
 4.1.3 Industrial and commercial waste 19
4.1.4 Biowaste from households 19
4.1.5 Energy crops 19
4.1.6 Wastewater 20
4.1.7 Considerations for feedstock 20
4.2 Feedstock preparation 21
4.2.1 Removal of pathogens 21
4.2.2 Removal of physical contaminants 22
4.2.3 Upgrading the feedstock 22
4.2.4 Feedstock for high-quality digestate 22
5. Choosing a site for your biogas plant 23
5.1 Biomass availability 23
5.2 Space and available land 24
6. How a biogas plant works 25
6.1 Components of a biogas plant 25
6.2 Feedstock storage 26
6.2.1 Storage of liquid feedstock 26
6.2.2 Storage of solid feedstock 27
6.2.3 Feeding systems 27
6.3 Digester technology 27
6.3.1 Digester volume 28
6.3.2 Digester tanks 28
6.3.3 Mixers 33
6.3.4 Heating systems 33
6.4 Biogas cleaning 34
6.5 Gas storage 35
6.6 Gas flare 36
6.7 Measurement, control and regulation technologies 37
7. Getting it right: A toolbox for success 38
7.1 Four phases of anaerobic digestion 38
7.2 Microorganisms in your digester 39
7.2.1 Balancing the environment for microorganisms 40
7.2.2 Single-tank digester 41
7.2.3 Multi-tank digester 41
7.3 Role of temperature 42
7.4 Hydraulic retention time 43
7.5 Energy calculation 43
7.6 Start of operation 44
7.7 On-site safety 44
7.7.1 Safety documentation 45

BIOGAS GUIDEBOOK
8. Economics of biogas plants 47
8.1 Costs of biogas production 48
8.1.1 Investment costs 48
8.1.2 Operational costs (OPEX) 49
8.1.3 Capital expenses (CAPEX) 49
8.2 Revenue from biogas plant operation 49
8.2.1 Energy: Electricity and heat 49
8.2.2 Fertilizer 50
8.2.3 Carbon credits 50
8.3 Financing mechanisms and incentives 51
8.3.1 Financing and funding instruments 52
8.3.2 GEEF – The Green Energy Efficiency Fund 52
8.3.3 Environmental tax incentives 53
8.4 Business models for biogas plants 53
9. Planning a biogas plant 56
9.1 Initial idea for a biogas plant 56
9.2 Feasibility study 56
9.3 Stakeholder liaison 57
9.3.1 Local authorities 57
9.3.2 Communities 57
9.4 Finance 57
9.5 The law and biogas plants 58
10. Biogas plant construction 60
10.2 Collective action partnerships 61
10.3 Construction sign-off 61
10.4 Documentation 61
11. References 62

BIOGAS GUIDEBOOK
 Disclaimer

v This document has been produced without formal United Nations editing. The
designations employed and the presentation of the material in this document do
not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Secretariat
of the United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) concerning
the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or
concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries, or its economic system
or degree of development. Designations such as “developed”, “industrialized”
and “developing” are intended for statistical convenience and do not necessarily
express a judgment about the stage reached by a particular country or area in the
development process. Mention of firm names or commercial products does not
constitute an endorsement either by DFFE or by UNIDO.

This document may be freely quoted or reprinted, but acknowledgement is

requested.

Copyright (c) 2021 Department of Forestry, Fisheries and the Environment (DFFE).

BIOGAS GUIDEBOOK
 Acknowledgements

vi Our sincere gratitude to all our partners who have contributed and supported
our efforts in developing the Biogas Guidebook for Small- to Medium-Scale Indus-
trial Biogas Plants in South Africa.

• The Global Environment Facility, in providing funding towards the Pro-

gramme
• The United Nations Industrial Development Organisation (UNIDO): Mr Alois
Mhlanga, Mr Nokwazi Moyo and Ms Phumelele Makhanya as the imple-
menting partner
• The Southern African Biogas Industry Association (SABIA)
• Project Developers
• The German Biogas Association - Fachverband Biogas e.V.
• Anaergia Africa (Pty) Ltd for their contribution
• Biogas Project Steering Committee Members.

Finally, the efforts of the Department of Forestry, Fisheries and the Environment,
with specific reference to Dr Jenitha Badul, Ms Leanne Richards, Ms Elizabeth
Ntoyi and Ms Anam Ngoma is acknowledged.

The document has been developed by Jive Media Africa, with editorial support
undertaken by Ms Kay Montgomery and Dr Chelsea Tucker, on behalf of the De-
partment of Forestry, Fisheries and the Environment and the United Nations In-
dustrial Development Agency (UNIDO).

Our apologies, if we have excluded and individual or an organisation.

BIOGAS GUIDEBOOK
 List of figures

vii Figure 2.1 Commercial biogas plant (courtesy of Mark Tiepelt)

Figure 2.2 AGAMA BiogasPro 6 (courtesy of Agama)
Figure 2.3 A wastewater treatment works in South Africa (courtesy of Mark Tiepelt)
Figure 2.4 A South African landfill biogas plant (SABIA)
Figure 2.5 Map of biogas digesters installed in South Africa (SABIA)
Figure 2.6 Flow diagram showing overall process of New Horizons Waste to Energy (Anaergia)
Figure 2.7 New Horizons Waste to Energy plant (Anaergia)
Figure 2.8 Zandam Farm plant (Anaergia)
Figure 3.1 A South African landfill biogas plant in Ekurhuleni Municipality at the Sebenza waste site
(SABIA)
Figure 6.1 Diagram of the components of a biogas plant (Fachverband Biogas e.V.)
Figure 6.2 Storage for liquid feedstock (Fachverband Biogas e.V.)
Figure 6.3 Feedstock preparation through ensilaging attached
(courtesy of Mr Vusumzi Mnisi)
Figure 6.4 Difference between gross and net digester volume
Figure 6.5 Overview of digester technologies (Fachverband Biogas e.V.)
Figure 6.6 CSTR and hydraulic digester (Fachverband Biogas e.V.)
Figure 6.7 Plug flow digester (Fachverband Biogas e.V.)
Figure 6.8 Illustration of a garage system (Fachverband Biogas e.V.)
Figure 6.9 Heating system showing pipes containing hot water on the inner digester walls (Anaergia)
Figure 6.10 Digester with foil roof for gas storage (Anaergia)
Figure 6.11 Gas flare of a biogas plant (Anaergia)
Figure 7.1 Process description of the degradation process of biomass inside the digester 1
Figure 7.2 Phases in a one-stage process biogas plant
Figure 7.3 Phases in a multistage process biogas plant
Figure 8.1 Multiparty ownership model for a biogas project 2
Figure 8.2 Relationship diagram for a community biogas project 2
Figure 8.3 User cooperative business model 2
Figure 10.1 Biogas plant planning process

BIOGAS GUIDEBOOK
 List of tables

viii Table 1: Typical chemical composition of biogas

Table 2: Typical chemical composition of biogas and bio-methane
Table 3: Generation times of organisms involved in the biogas process
Table 4: Properties of the gaseous constituents of biogas [Sources: 3 and 4 ]
Table 5: Regulations to be considered

BIOGAS GUIDEBOOK
 Acronyms

ix AD Anaerobic digestion
BMP Bio-methane potential
CHP Combined heat and power
CNG Compressed natural gas
COC Certificate of compliance
COD Chemical oxygen demand
CSTR Continuously stirred tank reactor
DM Dry matter
FiT Feed-in tariffs
HDPE High density polyethylene
HRT Hydraulic retention time
ICP Inductively coupled plasma
GUP Gas upgrading plant
MSW Municipal solid waste
LNG Liquefied natural gas
LFG Landfill gas
O&M Operation and maintenance
oDM Organic dry matter
OLR Organic loading rate
POW Pure organic waste
PP Polypropylene
ppm Parts per million
PVC Polyvinyl chloride
SRT Solid retention time
TS Total solids
VFA Volatile fatty acid
VOC Volatile organic compound
VS Volatile solids
WWTP Wastewater treatment plant

BIOGAS GUIDEBOOK
 Glossary

x Acidification: Making or becoming acid; converting into an acid. This happens in a digester when acidic
molecules are produced at a faster pace than they can be pro-cessed by the bacteria.

Biogas production: The amount of biogas (m³) produced in a defined period of time (per hour or per day)

Biogas yield: Potential amount of biogas which can be produced from any specific type of feedstock

Bio-methane potential (BMP): A measure of the possible methane yield resulting from digestion of a feedstock

Combined heat and power (CHP): Describes a generator unit that combines the generation of electricity with
the capturing of thermal energy. The conversion of chemically bound energy into electrical energy and thermal
energy occurs on the basis of an engine linked to a generator.

CSTR: A continuously stirred tank reactor is a conceptual model for a type of reactor. The fundamental
assumption is that the entire contents of the reactor is constantly mixed such that all concentrations are
homogeneous within. In practice, well-mixed reactors are labelled CSTRs.

Digestate: The effluent of a biogas plant, which remains after the biogas has been extracted

Digester volume: The gross digester volume is the theoretical maximum volume of the digester.

Digester: A vessel where chemical or biological reactions are carried out. Sometimes called tank, reactor of
fermenter.

Dry matter: The portion of material that is not water/moisture. It is determined by drying the sample at around
105°C to ensure all water has evaporated. It is measured in tonnes, typically shown as t/a, t/d, or in % of fresh
mass (FM).

Energy crop: A plant that is grown and harvested for the production of energy only. An energy crop is not a
by-product of other processes like feed or food production.

Feedstock: Biomass or organic waste that is processed in a biogas plant

Fresh mass: Mass of fresh feedstock, including water, which is fed into the digester. It is measured in tonnes,
typically shown as t/a, t/d.

HRT: A measure of the average time material is retained in a vessel (e.g. digester), defined as the ratio of vessel
volume (m³) and total feeding rate (m³/day). The unit is measure of time, e.g. days.

Mesophilic: Refers to a particular temperature range for digestion, namely 38–42°C

Organic dry matter (oDM): Organic components of dry matter (dry matter - raw ash = organic dry matter). Only
the organic part (not the ash content) contributes to the generation of biogas. oDM indicates the potential of
organic waste substances to contribute to biogas generation. It is measured in kg or tonnes, and sometimes
in % of dry matter (DM).

BIOGAS GUIDEBOOK
 Organic volume load / organic loading rate: Indicates how much organic dry matter per day is fed into the
digester of a certain size

Outgassing: The release of gas that was dissolved, trapped, frozen or absorbed in any material.

Raw ash: Mineral content of organic waste (feedstock). To measure raw ash, a sample of feedstock (FM)
is taken and mixed, and the water is then vaporized. What remains is referred to as dry matter. If the DM is
burned off, raw ash remains.

Renewable resources: A natural resource which replenishes to overcome resource depletion caused by usage
xi
and consumption, either through biological reproduction or through other naturally recurring processes

Sewage sludge: By-product of sewage treatment of industrial or municipal wastewater treatment works
(WWTW). It is a residual, semi-solid material.

Thermophilic: Temperature range for digestion, namely 52–65°C

Volatile fatty acids: A group of organic acids including acetic acid, propionic acid, butyric acid and valeric acid

Wobbe Index: An indicator for burning characteristics and the interchangeability of fuel gases such as natural
gas and bio-methane. It is defined as heating value divided by the square root of the specific gas density.

BIOGAS GUIDEBOOK
 Chemical compounds

xii CaCO3 Calcium carbonate

CH3COOH Acetic acid
CH4 Methane
CO2 Carbon dioxide
C2H3O2 Acetate
CO3-2 Carbonate
C4H8O2 Butyric/valvic acid
H2 Hydrogen molecule
H2CO3 Carbonic acid
H2S Hydrogen sulphide
H2SO3 Sulphuric acid
Fe Iron
FeCl3 Ferric solution
Fe(OH)3 Iron hydroxide
Mo Molybdenum
N Nitrogen
NaHCO3 Sodium bicarbonate
NaOH Caustic solution
NH3 Ammonia
NH4+ Ammonium
NH4-N Ammonium nitrogen
NOx Nitrogen oxides NO and NO2
P Phosphorus
SO2 Sulphur dioxide
SOX Sulphur oxides
Sn Tin
Zn Zinc

BIOGAS GUIDEBOOK
 Units of measure

xiii In this publication, the International System of Units is used. Some additional units or units that are used often
are explained below.

a annum
d day
h hour
J Joule
kV kiloVolt
kW kilowatt
kWe kilowatt electrical
kWh kilowatt hour
kWth kilowatt thermal
mg/L milligram per litre
MW mega watt
MWe mega watt electrical
MWth mega watt thermal
t tonne (metric tonne)
t/h tonnes per hour
t/d tonnes per day
t/a tonnes per annum
Nm3 normal cubic metres
ppm parts per million
% w/w mass percent
Vol.% volume percent

BIOGAS GUIDEBOOK
 1. Purpose

1 The purpose of this guidebook is to promote biogas technology in small, medium

and micro enterprises (SMMEs) in South Africa. Advancing the adoption of biogas
technologies is in line with the country’s drive to promote the development of
the renewable energy sector and an inclusive low-carbon economy.

The Biogas Guidebook for Small- to Medium-Scale Industrial Biogas Plants in South
Africa contains comprehensive information for biogas plant operators and rele-
vant stakeholders, including:

� What is biogas?
� Applications of biogas technology in South Africa
� Feedstock for a biogas plant
� Choosing a site for a biogas plant
� How a biogas plant works
� A scientific toolbox for anaerobic digesters
� Economics of biogas projects
� Planning and implementation of biogas projects.

The purpose of this Guidebook serves to enhance the knowledge base on biogas
technology in South Africa.

BIOGAS GUIDEBOOK
 2. What is biogas?

2 Biogas is a by-product of the anaerobic1 decomposition of organic matter. 1 Anaerobic refers to a

This organic matter can include vegetable and animal waste, organic waste process that occurs in the
absence of oxygen.
from industrial processes (from abattoirs, food canning, fruit juice and dairy
production), biowaste from households, wastewater and agricultural crops.

In nature, anaerobic decomposition (scientifically referred to as anaerobic

digestion) occurs in swamps and the digestive tracts of cattle.

Biogas2 is a mixture of mainly two components – methane and carbon dioxide

– with small amounts of water, hydrogen, hydrogen sulphide and nitrogen. 2 The term biogas is
sometimes also used to refer
Methane gas is the most important component, because it can be used as an to gas from gasification.
energy source in a wide range of applications. These include cooking, heating and Gasification works on a
different operation principle
electricity generation. Methane can also be converted into a transportation fuel. and is not part of this
publication.

Table 1: Typical chemical composition of biogas

Typical composition (%)

Methane (CH4) 50–70
Carbon dioxide (CO2) 30–45
Oxygen (O2) 2–4
Hydrogen sulphide (H2S) 0–0.6
Ammonia (NH3) 0–0.05
Water vapour (H2O) 1–5
Nitrogen (N2) 0–5

BIOGAS GUIDEBOOK
 Biogas technology has many advantages when compared with traditional
waste management using landfills and energy derived from fossil fuels. These
advantages include:

� It offers an environmentally friendly waste management system, as

opposed to landfilling or dumping.
� Biogas acts as a decentralised, storable and renewable energy source.
� It reduces uncontrolled methane and carbon dioxide emissions from
organic waste.
3
� It has a positive impact on climate change mitigation, thereby helping
to achieve South Africa’s goal to reduce carbon emissions.
� It offers a substitute for fossil fuel imports.
� It enhances rural development through energy security and employment
opportunities .
� It offers upskilling opportunities due to the introduction of new
technologies.
� It generates natural fertilizer as a by-product, thereby enhancing
nutrient recycling.
� It reduces odour emissions from agriculture and landfills.
� It can be used directly for cooking or lighting purposes in rural domestic
applications, which avoids the use of burning wood or charcoal, thus
minimizing the negative effects that this practice has on health and
wellness due to smoke inhalation and the environment (i.e. minimizing
deforestation).

2.1 Biogas technology

There is a wide variety of biogas production technologies, and these can be
classified into four main categories, as follows:

2.1.1 Commercial biogas plants:

Medium- to large-scale biogas plants range in size from 100 m3 to greater than
10 000 m3 , with a similar gas storage capacity. Gas produced is primarily used to
generate electricity and heating or is upgraded to bio-methane.
Medium- to large-scale biogas plants can produce between 50 kWe and 5 MWe of
electricity, depending on the feedstock availability. The planning, construction
and operation of commercial biogas plants require experienced contractors and
skilled operators to ensure the long-term operational success of such plants.

BIOGAS GUIDEBOOK
4

Figure 2.1: Commercial biogas plant (courtesy of Mark Tiepelt)

2.1.2 Domestic digesters

Small-scale domestic digesters usually have a reactor volume below 50 m³. The
biogas is generally used for cooking, lighting and heating water. It is also possible
to use this biogas to run small biogas generators to generate electricity for a
couple of hours a day.

Figure 2.2: AGAMA BiogasPro 6

(courtesy of Agama)

BIOGAS GUIDEBOOK
 2.1.3 Biogas at wastewater treatment works

Sewage sludge is produced at wastewater treatment works (WWTW) as part of

the water treatment process. The sludge contains the solids and bacterial biomass
rich in nutrients and organic matter. The benefits of biogas from sewage sludge
are widely recognised, and the technology is well established in many countries.

The disposal of sludge is one of the major challenges faced by all WWTW in South
Africa. It is easier to sell sludge that has been processed as opposed to raw
5
sludge. Processed sludge is used by the fertilizer industry.

In recent years, a number of WWTW have either upgraded old digester tanks or
built new digesters to produce biogas to generate heat and electricity. The first
WWTW in SA to refurbish its old digesters, which had been built in the 1980s, was
the Diepsloot WWTW of Johannesburg Water, where a 1.2 MW biogas plant was
commissioned in 2015.

Figure 2.3: A wastewater treatment works in South Africa (courtesy of Mark Tiepelt)

2.1.4 Landfill gas

Landfill gas (LFG) is biogas produced in a landfill by decomposing waste. This

gas is extracted by drilling pipes into the waste and using negative pressure to
extract the gas. This waste is typically compacted to increase landfill airspace
on a daily basis. Compaction also prevents oxygen from penetrating the waste
and encourages the anaerobic microbes to thrive. The gas will gradually build up
and be released into the atmosphere if the landfill has not been engineered to
capture the gas.

BIOGAS GUIDEBOOK
 Historically, most landfill sites in South Africa have not been designed or operated
to capture landfill gas. Furthermore, landfills in South Africa are not designed for
optimal compaction, which hinders the collection of biogas produced, as well as
the collection of resultant fertilizer.

Figure 2.4: A South African landfill biogas plant in Ekurhuleni Municipality at the
Sebenza waste site (SABIA)

2.2 Biogas in South Africa

Biogas technology in South Africa dates back to 1957, when John Fry installed the
first biogas digester on a pig farm, using pig manure, and later started generating
electricity.

Since then, South Africa has experienced limited biogas market development.
This is due to the following factors:

� Low electricity costs from other sources, such as fossil fuels

� Limited grants or appropriate public sector incentives to support and
drive the biogas technology as an alternative renewable energy source
� Lack of local biogas technology providers. 5

According to the Southern African Biogas Industry Association (SABIA), there are
approximately 500 digesters3 installed in South Africa. Of these digesters, several
hundred are small-scale domestic digesters. Figure 2.5 is a map with the location
of biogas plants in South Africa.

Wider issues of bioenergy potential in South Africa are addressed in a report by

Bioenergy Atlas for South Africa. 6

BIOGAS GUIDEBOOK
 Northern Wastewater Treatment
Works, 1,2 MW, sewage sludge

Driefontein Wastewater Bronkhorstspruit Biogas

Treatment Works, 750 kW, Plant, 4,6 MW, manure
wastewater
Cavalier Abattoir
Meat to Market Jan Kempdorp, Cullinan, 135 + 360 kW,
135 kW, slaughter waste slaughter waste
7
Distell Stellenbosch,
industrial wastewater Morgan Abattoir, 400
kW, slaughter waste
Uilenkraal Dairy Farm,
600 kW, manure
Mariannhill Landfill,
SAB Miller, industrial 1,5 MW, MSW
wastewater
Sucro Power, 16
kW, Napier Gras
Cape Town MSW facility, Bisasar Road Landfill,
MSW with methane and 6 MW, MSW
CO2 production
Peninsula Piggery Queenstown,
Elgin Fruit Juice, 190 kW, pig manure
500 kW, fruit waste

Zandam Cheese and PetroSA, 4,2 MW,

Piggery, 75 kW, pig manure refinery waste

Hessequa Abattoir Riversdale,

50 kW, slaughter waste

Figure 2.5: Map of selected biogas digesters installed in South Africa (SABIA). For updates, see the SABIA Map.

A report by GreenCape offered a Business Case for Biogas from Solid Waste in
the Western Cape (29/11/2017). The report indicated that there were 21 biogas
plants operating in the Western Cape in 2017. With electricity prices in Europe
approximately double the electricity prices in South Africa at the time, GreenCape
concluded that the failure of various projects was primarily due to unfavourable
cost-benefit ratios:

• Financial viability of biogas facilities is highly site-specific, and general-

ly the business case is strong only under particular conditions.
• Those situations with larger volumes of organic waste (either on-site
or by acting as a waste service provider), higher waste disposal costs,
higher energy use on-site or in close proximity, and the ability to derive
income from various sources (accepting different waste streams and
selling multiple by-products) are most likely to be financially viable.

BIOGAS GUIDEBOOK
 2.2.1 Biogas case studies in South Africa

This section provides an overview of select number of case studies in South Africa.

Case study 1: New Horizons Waste to Energy – Athlone, Cape Town

The more than R400 million New Horizons Waste to Energy biogas plant opened in Athlone, Cape
Town, in January 2017. As the highest cost biogas project in South Africa, the plant aimed to digest
8
500 tonnes per day of organic household, municipal and industrial waste from across Cape Town and
produce bio-methane.

The plant offered 80 full-time and more than 100 indirect jobs in the City of Cape Town. Regretfully,
the New Horizons Waste to Energy biogas plant no longer operates (2020) and the new plant owner is
looking for partners to restart it soon.

Overs Reject
Fraction
Recyclables
Material Recovery RDF
Biogas
Extracted
Organics
MSW Coarse Screen OREX™ Biogas Recovered CO2
+WTW Separation Treatment + Biomethane
Polished
Organics

POW BIOREX™ Dewatering Process

CleanREX™ Anaerobic Water
Reject Digestion
Fraction Dewatered
Contaminants Cake
Disposal

Figure 2.6: Flow diagram showing overall process of New Horizons Waste to Energy (Anaergia)

Figure 2.7: New Horizons Waste to Energy plant (Anaergia) in Athlone, Cape Town

BIOGAS GUIDEBOOK
 Case study 2: Bronkhorstspruit biogas project

Bio2Watt operates the Beefcor Bronkhorstspruit Feedlot biogas project. The project cost R150 million
and started operations in April 2015.

The plant utilises 120 000 tonnes of feedstock a year, the bulk being manure, with additional supplements
from the abattoir along with food wastes. Challenges were experienced relating to the quality of the
9 feedstock, which contained high volumes of soil that displaced the volume in the digester tanks.

The Bronkhorstspruit plant has a generating capacity of 4.6 MW, although it was originally designed for
8MW. The plant supplies electricity via wheeling agreements with Eskom and the City of Tshwane to the
BMW Rosslyn Plant, roughly 60 km from the site. The biogas plant supplies roughly 25–30% of BMW’s
electricity demand.

Case study 3: Zandam Piggery biogas plant – Durbanville, Cape Town

Situated 18 km east of Durbanville in the Western Cape, the Zandam Farm biogas plant is a R9.2 million
agricultural biogas project. The feedstock is from 6 650 pigs that produce around 22 tonnes of manure
per day, which is fed into the digester.

This plant demonstrates the potential for small-scale commercial biogas in an agricultural setting
where the entire output is consumed on-site. The plant produces biogas combusted in on-site CHPs to
supplement the farm’s electricity demand. The estimated output is 41m³/h of biogas, converted to 75 kW
of electricity, however is currently not operational.

Figure 2.8: Zandam Farm plant (Anaergia)

BIOGAS GUIDEBOOK
 3. Applications of biogas

10 Biogas can be used for cooking, producing electricity, heating or cooling, or it

can be upgraded to bio-methane. This chapter provides an overview of the most
important applications of biogas.

It is important to note that biogas needs to be cleaned and pre-treated before

it can be used in the various aforementioned applications. This is to protect
4 When using biogas for
the machinery and equipment from chemical or mechanical deterioration4. For
cooking in domestic biogas
information on biogas pre-treatment, see Section 4.2. plants, the gas is often not pre-
treated.

3.1 Electricity production

The major use of biogas is to generate electricity, either for own use or to feed
into the public electricity grid (as a licensed independent power producer). Site
selection is important, particularly if the intention is to feed into the grid, as
access to transformers or substations becomes a critical factor.

Biogas is an energy carrier and can be stored. Biogas can therefore be used to
generate electricity that can be produced specifically during periods of peak
demand, or as standby during load-shedding or any other power outage. A biogas
plant can deliver a reliable electricity supply for energy-scarce regions.

The generation of electricity can be achieved using an engine and an electrical

generator (typically called a genset). These engines can operate using biogas as
a fuel, but require adjustments to account for biogas’s lower heating value when
compared with LPG or natural gas. In this process, less than 40% of the energy
contained in the biogas is converted into electricity. The rest is converted to heat,
which is normally released into the atmosphere.

3.2 Combined heat and power (CHP)

A heat recovery system can be added to capture this heat energy in the form
of hot water at approximately 85ºC. A system that includes a genset and a heat
recovery system is generally known as a CHP (combined heat and power) unit.

BIOGAS GUIDEBOOK
 A CHP unit has the potential to capture more of the energy contained in the
biogas when compared with a genset. The efficiency of typical CHP units varies
and is mainly related to the size of the CHP unit.

Typical efficiency percentages measured in practice over a long period (e.g. 12

years) are as follows:

Energy output Electrical efficiency Thermal efficiency

11 50 kWe sized CHP: 33% 55%

200 kWe sized CHP: 36% 50%
1 000 kWe sized CHP: 38% 40%

A CHP unit comes at a higher cost compared with a genset. This investment will
depend on the ability to use the extra heat energy. In commercial biogas plants,
25% of this heat energy could be used to increase the temperature in the anaerobic
digester. This increases the microbial activity and biogas yield. The rest of the
heat could be used to heat water or for space heating. There is no widespread
use of space heating in South Africa, so applications for CHP are limited.

Figure 3.1: A South African landfill biogas plant in Ekurhuleni Municipality at the Sebenza waste site (SABIA)

3.3 Biogas burner/boiler

Biogas can be used in a boiler or burner for direct heat/steam generation (in this
case, there is no electricity production). The range of applications includes:

� Heat for the biogas process itself

� Process heat in food processing plants (e.g. milk- and juice-producing
industry – pasteurization)
� Steam production
� Drying of materials.

Currently, there are burners available on the market to use specifically with biogas.
Boilers that are usually fuelled with natural gas can also be adapted to operate
with biogas.

BIOGAS GUIDEBOOK
 For biogas use in burners, the gas should meet the following technical require-
ments:

� Dry gas (relative humidity below 60%)

� Particle-free
� Methane content of at least 50%
� Constant gas pressure
� Specified limits on H2S content followed to avoid corrosion and limit
SOX emissions.
12

3.4 Bio-methane
Biogas can be upgraded to bio-methane, which can be used as a sustainable
alternative to natural gas. To upgrade biogas to bio-methane quality requires
the separation of methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide (CO2) and the removal of
hydrogen sulphide (H2S) and oxygen (O2). The CO2 separated from biogas to
create bio-methane can be used to produce dry ice and other food-grade CO2
applications.

Table 2 shows the difference in composition for biogas and bio-methane. Bio-
methane has a heating value of 9.97 kWh/m³. 5 5 As comparison, natural
gas has heating value of 10–14
kWh/m3 (depending on the
Table 2: Typical chemical composition of biogas and bio-methane quality), and LPG has a heating
value of 12.8 kWh/kg and a
density of 0.54–0.60 kg/l.
Composition (%)
Bio-methane
Biogas
(natural gas quality)
Methane (CH4) 50–70 > 97
Carbon dioxide (CO2) 30–45 <3
Oxygen (O2) 2–4 < 0.5
Hydrogen sulphide (H2S) 0–0.6 < 0.0005

There are several upgrading technologies available on the market, including the
following:

� Membrane separation When upgrading

Scrubbing technologies (absorption methods) biogas to bio-methane, em
� issions
of methane into the environ
– Water scrubbing ment
must be kept to a minimu
– Physical scrubbing m as
Methane is a greenhouse
– Chemical scrubbing gas
emission and the uncontrol
led
� Pressure swing adsorption (PSA) emissions of methane in
� Cryogenic treatment. atmosphere must be avoide
d.

BIOGAS GUIDEBOOK
 3.4.1 Use of bio-methane

Bio-methane can be used for all applications where natural gas or LPG is usually
used, subject to calibration of the appliance.

3.4.1.1 Household cooking

Bio-methane in gas cylinders can be used as an alternative to wood or electricity

for household cooking.
13
3.4.1.2 Transport sector

It is possible to run vehicles using compressed bio-methane as an alternative to

compressed natural gas (CNG) or liquefied natural gas (LNG). Bio-methane can
be used in all engines running on natural gas.

The use of bio-methane as a fuel for transportation vehicles may enhance the
environmentally-friendliness of the transport sector. The contribution to GHG
emission savings when vehicles use bio-methane reaches 90%, when compared
to a conventional petroleum-fuelled vehicle.

South Africa has potential to use bio-methane in the transport sector, already
having some experience, especially in public transportation. In 2014, CNG
Holdings opened a public filling station in Langlaagte, Johannesburg, which also
includes a training facility. During the first quarter of that year, some 300 natural
gas vehicles were on the roads, including company cars, taxis and minibuses. 7

3.4.1.3 Bio-methane as a raw material in the chemical industry

Bio-methane can be used in all kinds of applications to replace the use of natural
gas. In South Africa, Sasol uses natural gas to produce liquid fuels (diesel, petrol
and jet fuel) and wax via the Fischer-Tropsch process6. Bio-methane can be used 6 The Fischer-Tropsch
process involves the
for the same purpose. However, the chemical industry has specific guidelines on conversion of carbon
quality. monoxide and hydrogen to
long-chain hydrocarbons such
as fuels (diesel, petrol and
3.4.2 Bio-methane storage jet fuel), waxes and various
chemicals. Methane from
biogas can be converted
Bio-methane can be stored and transported in pressurized vessels (tanks or cyl-
to carbon monoxide and
inders). This is known as compressed natural gas (CNG) or liquefied natural gas hydrogen via a process called
(LNG). These cylinders are typically pressurized to 200–250 bar. Lower pressures reforming and fed into a
Fischer-Tropsch reactor.
of 50–70 bar can be used, which requires less electricity for compression, but less
bio-methane can be stored in the same volume.

BIOGAS GUIDEBOOK
 Some recommendations for safe biogas/bio-methane use in pressure cylinders
are as follows:

� Legal requirements (e.g. handling of pressure cylinders, gas quality,

etc.) must be followed.
� The gas must be dried (removal of H2O), as water promotes corrosion,
for example when H2S or CO2 are solved and acids result.
� H2S must be reduced, as H2S is extremely toxic for human health and is
also highly corrosive.
14
� The biogas should be free of siloxanes and particles.
� Cylinders should be connected by an authorised person.
� Cylinders must be controlled regularly to check that they are
mechanically sound. This aspect is of utmost importance because
little fissures often cannot be seen by the naked eye and could lead to
dangerous explosions.

More detailed reference is available on the Biogas Standards SANS 1753-1 and
1753-2 (link to GCS and/or SABS).

3.5 Fertilizer production

Anaerobic digestion produces two main products – biogas and digestate.
Digestate is the sludge material that is not turned into biogas. It can be used as a
high-quality organic fertilizer, rich in humus and nutrients. The digestate can either
be sold as an organic fertilizer or, if it contains a high level of impurities or heavy
metals, it can be used as an energy source through appropriate technologies.

Digestate is, in most cases, applied directly in its liquid form (containing 5% to 15%
dry matter), similarly to the way animal slurry is, or in a semi-solid form (containing
10% to 30% dry matter) like peat or compost. There are several techniques that
can be applied to upgrade the digestate. These include composting, drying,
pelletizing and granulating.

In South Africa, organic farming is an established practice. Operating an

anaerobic digester close to an organic farm offers synergies for high-value crops
and fertilizer cost savings.

It is important to make sure that digestate is not simply dumped or pumped into
a river, because it contains a substantial amount of nutrients (especially nitrogen)
which should not flow uncontrolled into the environment. If this digestate is not
sold as an organic fertilizer, it needs to be properly and carefully disposed of
(according to South African regulations). This can significantly increase the costs
of a biogas plant operation.

BIOGAS GUIDEBOOK
 3.6 Wastewater treatment
Anaerobic digestion can be a part of a wastewater treatment plant. In wastewater
treatment plants, sewage sludge is separated from water. Sewage sludge can be
used as a feedstock for an anaerobic digester to produce biogas.

Digestate can be used as a fertilizer; however, there might be impurities and

heavy metals in sewage sludge, so chemical analysis is necessary before the
15 digestate is converted to an organic fertilizer.

3.7 Process water from breweries and sugar mills

The food processing industry can use anaerobic digesters to treat their process
water. In breweries and sugar mills, anaerobic digestion offers the opportunity
to reduce organic matter present in the wastewater and produce energy which
can be used in the process.

3.8 Biogas technology for society

Biogas plants provide a host of benefits to society. They can be used to produce
organic fertilizer and are important aspects of wastewater treatment.

3.8.1 Odour reduction

The specific molecules which are responsible for emitting bad odours are usually
organic (called volatile fatty acids (VFA)). The anaerobic digestion process
converts these organic molecules into biogas, which effectively eliminates the
bad odours.

3.8.2 Compliance with international climate pledges

South Africa is a signatory to the United Nations Framework Convention on

Climate Change (UNFCCC). In 2009, South Africa’s international pledge was a
reduction to 34% below business-as-usual (BAU) emissions by 2020 and to 42%
below BAU by 2025.

In the framework of the Paris Agreement reached in 2015, South Africa then
committed itself to a National Determined Contribution (NDC) to reduce
emissions. The 2025 target in the NDC corresponds to the same 2025 emissions
target from the previous pledge. Nonetheless, this new target provides more
clarity by specifying an intended emissions range through to 2030, including
when emissions will peak.

BIOGAS GUIDEBOOK
 3.8.3 Environmental protection and sustainability

Biogas is a renewable energy, and the production of biogas can help to reduce
greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions in several ways:

� Replacing fossil fuels

Biogas substitutes fossil fuels in the production of energy, avoiding CO2
emissions.
16 � Avoiding methane emissions
When organic material is amassed (like manure or landfill sites),
methane emissions occur. Methane has a greenhouse gas potential
which is about a factor 25 times higher than carbon dioxide. As long
as biogas plants are well designed (so no methane escapes from the
system) and biogas is utilized, methane emissions can be avoided.
� Carbon neutrality
Biogas from agricultural waste contributes to carbon-neutral energy
generation. During the growing process, plants extract carbon
dioxide from the atmosphere and store it in the plant in the form of
carbon-containing molecules. After combustion, approximately the
same amount of carbon dioxide which was originally extracted from
the atmosphere, is emitted, resulting effectively in a carbon-neutral
process.
� Fertilizer production
Digestate (the effluent of a biogas plant) is a good-quality fertilizer.

Bioenergy Atlas estimates the biogas potential from domestic and commercial
waste in South Africa to be about 1 400 MWe. 6 Assuming 7 500 operating hours
per year, this amounts to 10 500 GWhe. By producing this amount of energy, 10
500 million tonnes of CO2 equivalent could be reduced. Furthermore, considering
the emissions taking place at the landfills, some 300 g of CO2 equivalent per KWhe
6 could be avoided.

3.8.4 Employment opportunities

Biogas technology has the potential to make a positive contribution towards

employment opportunities. The South African biogas industry employs approxi-
mately 1 700 people, according to an extensive study conducted in 2016. 8

As the industry grows, the potential for employment opportunities increases and
covers all skill levels (unskilled, skilled, semi-skilled and highly skilled). Conservative
estimations for the growth of South Africa’s biogas industry forecast the number
of jobs rising to approximately 59 000 full-time equivalents (FTE) by 2030. More
optimistic forecasts estimate the number of jobs to be at 88 000 FTE by 2030 8
. It is noteworthy that the jobs created can be located in rural and urban areas,
depending on the type of biogas plant as well as on the activities carried out in
the various phases of a biogas project. 6 With the advent of COVID-19, some of
these predictions may change significantly.

BIOGAS GUIDEBOOK
 The study, however, also states that one obstacle in the way of tapping the
envisaged growth potential fully, is the lack of certification standards in the
South African biogas industry, which could lead to a lack of trained/skilled
labour with certification: “With a lack of biogas standards, the certi­fication
skills gap remains at 100%, supplemented by practical/self-taught experience
and passion for the industry”. 8

In response to a need for biogas standards, UNIDO has developed SANS

1753-1 and SANS 1753-2, which focus on safety aspects. Further engagement
17
with the industry will ensure the creation of standards related to quality and
other management issues. These will be a valuable resource for operations
and maintenance technicians.

BIOGAS GUIDEBOOK
 4. Feedstock for a biogas plant

18 4.1 What feedstock do you need?

The types of feedstock that can be used in the anaerobic digestion process are
as follows: 9

 Animal by-products
 Vegetable by-products
� Biowaste from households
� Industrial and commercial waste
� Energy crops
� Wastewater.

Ongoing collaborations with institutes of higher education will add valuable

contextual knowledge about the possibilities for diverse sources of biogas
feedstock.

4.1.1 Animal by-products

Animal by-products consist mainly of liquid and solid manure, but also include
abattoir waste (cattle, pig, poultry) and fat separator contents.

� Manure is probably the most common feedstock in biogas plants, as it is

readily available and easy to digest. The composition of manure makes
it an ideal substance for the AD process. The most common types of
manure are from cattle (dairy as well as feedlot), pigs and poultry7. 10 7 The use of poultry
droppings is challenging,
Diluting the manure with water during collection will decrease the due to its high ammonium
biogas yield. content, which can inhibit
the biological process. This
� Abattoir waste has high biogas yield potential, but a sanitization type of feedstock should
(pasteurization) step is necessary to rule out the presence of pathogens be combined with other
low-ammonium-containing
in the digestate. feedstocks or diluted with
� Fat, oil and grease from canteen kitchens and restaurants are a valuable water.
feedstock for biogas plants. Collection of this feedstock is a challenge.

4.1.2 Vegetable by-products

Vegetable by-products that are not marketable or suitable for animal fodder (e.g.
due to their low quality, the presence of diseases or pest infestation) can be used
as feedstock in a biogas plant.

BIOGAS GUIDEBOOK
 These include: wheat straw, maize, residues from maize cleaning, rejected
potatoes, crop residues, rice husk flour, grass silage, cactus, apples, apricots,
pears, peaches, grapes, mangoes, guavas, pineapples, strawberries, plums,
oranges, lemons/limes and grapefruits.

Large quantities of vegetable waste are also produced by vegetable processing

plants. The digestate from these feedstocks is generally suitable as organic
fertilizer and can be directly applied without any further treatment. 10
19
4.1.3 Industrial and commercial waste

Organic residues from food, beverage (breweries and wineries) or feed

production can be designated as industrial and commercial waste. These
include residues from fruit processing (citrus pulp, pomace, potato pulp, oilseed
cake), from the sugar industry (sugarcane distillery vinasse, sugarcane press
cake, sugarcane bagasse), from the dairy industry (casein, whey, milk sugar,
unskimmed milk, waste milk) and from the beverage industry (spent grain, apple
and grape pomace). 10

Biogas plants operating on these types of feedstock typically have the advantage
of normally being located in close proximity to industries where there is high
demand for energy (electricity and heat). The challenge associated with these
plants, however, is around the seasonality of agricultural produce, i.e. no
consistent type and quantity of feedstock available throughout the year. This
challenge can be overcome by co-digestion of several (or at least two) types of
feedstock to even out the seasonality of the supply of feedstock.

4.1.4 Biowaste from households

Biowaste from households refers to the organic fraction of waste produced at

household level. Household waste is typically collected by municipalities and
referred to as municipal solid waste (MSW), and the organic fraction (OF) thereof
as OFMSW. It might also include garden and park waste.

While separated biowaste from households is advantageous due to a high

degree of pure organic material that can be anaerobically degraded, it needs to
be considered that waste separation is not a common practice in South Africa.
However, biowaste from hotels or restaurants has huge potential as feedstock
for biogas plants.

4.1.5 Energy crops

Energy crops refer to crops purposely grown for use in biogas plants. Inedible
crops such as grass, cactus and sugar sorghum can be used in South Africa. Energy
crops normally have higher biogas yields compared with other feedstocks, such
as manure and vegetable waste. The use of food crops to produce energy should
be done without endangering food security.

BIOGAS GUIDEBOOK
 South Africa has huge tracts of land not suitable for the cultivation of food or
fodder crops. Utilizing this land to grow specific energy crops for biogas could
prove to be a viable option for the biogas industry.

4.1.6 Wastewater

Wastewater is treated by municipal Wastewater Treatment Works (WWTW),

which separate the sewage sludge from the water. Sewage sludge can be used
as a feedstock for biogas plants.
20
South Africa has many digesters at WWTW all over the country that were built in
the 1980s primarily to manage sludge. The digestion process reduces the quantity
and improves the quality of the sludge, thus making it easier to manage. In the
past, biogas produced from sludge was not used, due to the relatively low cost
of electricity.

Most of these digesters, however, have fallen into disrepair over the years.
However, recently some larger municipalities have started refurbishing these
digesters to produce electricity.

Challenges associated with biogas production at WWTW include the following:

� Low biogas yields of sewage sludge

� Low solid content
� High volumes of sludge
� Presence of toxic contaminants like heavy metals.

4.1.7 Considerations for feedstock

The type of feedstock used in a biogas plant will determine the yield of biogas.

� Water content
For example, industrial waste that might have too much water and lack
structure for composting is excellent feedstock for anaerobic digestion.
� Degradability of the feedstock
Not every kind of organic material can be degraded in a digester. One
of the main limitations of the biogas process is its inability to degrade
lignin (a major component of wood). This type of waste should be
treated with aerobic degradation (composting).
� Composition of fat, protein and carbohydrate
Stale bread, for example, has a high proportion of carbohydrates,
which provide a high methane output per tonne. Canola, which has
a high protein concentration, could lead to increased concentrations
of H2S in the anaerobic digester, which could negatively affect the
microorganisms and machinery.
� Presence of soil/sand in the feedstock
For example, cattle feedlot manure can fill up the digester and
progressively reduce the volume of the digester.

BIOGAS GUIDEBOOK
 Transport costs may be prohibitive if the feedstock is not located close to the
biogas plant.

While it is possible to use a broad variety of input material, even slight changes
in the type or quality of feedstock may have a crucial impact on the digestion
process. Certain feedstocks can negatively impact the microbiology of the
process.

21 4.2 Feedstock preparation

The feedstock or an anaerobic digester should be as “clean” as possible to
ensure high yields of biogas as well as high-quality digestate and compost free
of contaminants. Impurities need to be removed from the feedstock before the
digestion process starts.

 “Clean” feedstock is free of:

 Unsorted domestic biowaste from households
 Plastics, glass, paper, metals or oversized components
 Sand and stones
 Wood and roots
 Pathogens that occur in biowaste or animal by-products.

In some cases, pre-treatment may be necessary.

Gaseous impurities in biogas that require pre-treatment include:

 Hydrogen sulphide
 Water
 Silicon organic compounds (e.g. siloxanes)
 Oxygen
 Ammonia
 Dust, oil and aerosols.

There are various solutions to achieve a clean feedstock, or to manage anaerobic

digestion where a clean feedstock is not possible.

4.2.1 Removal of pathogens

It is possible to remove pathogens at various stages in the process. Removal of

pathogens can be achieved by:

 Adding a pasteurization unit and heating up the material to over 70°C

for an hour prior to, or after, the anaerobic digestion process
 Using thermophilic digestion at temperatures greater than 50°C within
the anaerobic digester
 Composting the digestate in piles at temperatures over 60°C
 Treating the anaerobic digester with lime.

BIOGAS GUIDEBOOK
 4.2.2 Removal of physical contaminants

Physical contaminants such as plastic, large pieces of wood, metals and oversized
objects can be removed in the following ways:

 Waste pickers can be used to sort mixed biowaste from households.

 Sieving the feedstock can remove large objects.
 Breaking glass with presses can help to extract organic material from
packaging.
22
 Air separation techniques can blow plastics out of the feed.
 Magnets or eddy current separators can remove ferrous and non-
ferrous metals.
 Hydro-mechanical treatment can be used for waste in liquid form or
broken down into small particles and mixed with water.
 Sink-float separation can separate heavy materials like stones and bones
which sink to the bottom of the unit, while light impurities like textiles
and plastics float to the surface where they can be removed.
 Pulping waste can break down the feedstock and enable the separation
of unwanted materials via sink-float separation.
 Hydrocyclones can remove grit and sand.

In some cases, where the anaerobic digestion step is less sensitive to impurities
(normally dry digestion processes), the removal of physical contaminants can also
be carried out after the biogas process (e.g. by sieving the compost in rotating
drums).

4.2.3 Upgrading the feedstock

After removing contaminants, creating a more homogeneous feedstock with

a small particle size distribution will improve the biogas digestion. This can be
achieved using screw-cutting, milling, crushing or shredding machines.

4.2.4 Feedstock for high-quality digestate

Ensuring the quality of the digestate – its visual cleanliness and absence of
contaminants and harmful impurities (e.g. sharp objects) – is paramount when
it comes to marketing the product and fostering public acceptance of biogas
technology as a waste treatment option.

To create this kind of clean end product, a combination of both high-quality

feedstock that is largely free of impurities and the application of appropriate
technologies for treating each kind of impurity, are essential.

BIOGAS GUIDEBOOK
 5. Choosing a site for your biogas plant

23 The selection of the location for a biogas plant is of critical importance, and could
even influence the economic feasibility of the whole project; therefore, many
factors have to be taken into consideration, as described in this chapter.

5.1 Biomass availability

Available feedstock is the most important factor in the decision on the best
location of a biogas plant. Quite often, the idea of building a biogas plant arises
from abundant amounts of biomass that are produced or stored in one place.
Examples are:

 Big farming operations such as dairies, feedlots, pig farms or chicken

farms
 Abattoirs
 Markets that have vegetable and fruit waste
 Food processing industries like breweries, sugar factories and fruit
processing
 Canteens and restaurants with food waste
 Municipal solid waste processing plants where organic waste is
separated
 Agricultural industries that produce plant or forestry waste.

Viability of a biogas project depends on the amount of continuous feedstock

supply exceeding 6 000 t/a and being available in one place.

As a rule of thumb, the bigger the biogas plant, the lower the unit cost of energy
production. Under certain circumstances, it might be viable to import additional
biomass to the proposed site of the biogas plant in order to have a bigger
plant. The limiting factor when importing feedstock is the cost and greenhouse
emissions associated with transportation.

Liquid manure contains a lot of water and consequently has a low energy content,
and transportation would typically be limited to a few kilometres. Therefore, the
actual energy content of the feedstock plays a crucial role, as a higher transport
cost could be justified should the feedstock have a high biogas yield potential,
such as with liquids with high fat or oil content.

BIOGAS GUIDEBOOK
 5.2 Space and available land
The construction of a biogas plant requires adequate space. Small plants need
about 600 m2, while big installations require several thousand square metres.
Often, biogas plants are constructed close to an agricultural farm, where the
availability of space is not a challenge, whereas space could become a challenge
when the plant is developed in an industrial area.

24

BIOGAS GUIDEBOOK
 6. How a biogas plant works

25 6.1 Components of a biogas plant

A typical biogas plant consists of several components, as depicted in Figure 6.1.

BIO

1
Fuel
2

3 8
10
5
9
Natural
11
4 7 gas grid

6
12 13
Electricity
Digestate Heat

Figure 6.1: Diagram of the components of a biogas plant (Fachverband Biogas e.V.)

These components are as follows:

1. Feedstocks from biowaste, industry, abattoir waste, food waste and

agriculture
2. Feedstock delivery holding site
3. Feedstock preparation
4. Feedstock storage
5. Bio-filter to remove potential pollutants
6. Sanitation unit to clean digestate if necessary
7. Anaerobic digester
8. Gas storage
9. Gas cleaning system
10. Safety equipment
11. CHP unit
12. Digestate storage
13. Digestate upgrading.

BIOGAS GUIDEBOOK
 6.2 Feedstock storage
A typical biogas plant will be fed a couple of times per day with several tonnes
of feedstock. Feedstock could, however, be brought in daily, weekly or even
annually or seasonally (for agriculturally based feedstock). Several types of
storage options are available on the market.

6.2.1 Storage of liquid feedstock

26
Liquid feedstock, such as diluted manure, can be stored in any type of vessel
suitable for the storage of liquids. Such tanks are typically made from concrete,
steel or plastic, depending on the type, composition and quantity of feedstock
that needs to be stored.

Storage tanks are often equipped with mixers to avoid the formation of sinking
layers and to ensure the material remains homogeneous. It is possible that some
microbiological activities might, however, start in the storage tank, although on
a low level, as storage tanks are not heated.

Tanks are typically covered to avoid methane escaping into the atmosphere –
covers also assist in odour control and contribute to safety. The flow of liquid into
and out of the storage tanks is typically controlled by pumps.

Figure 6.2: Storage for liquid feedstock (Fachverband Biogas e.V.)

BIOGAS GUIDEBOOK
 6.2.2 Storage of solid feedstock

Solid feedstock is often stored on open ground next to the biogas plant. Storage
areas should be concreted to prevent nutrients from contaminating soil and
groundwater. Solid feedstock may also need to be protected from rain, as
rainwater could dilute feedstock and lower the average retention time in the
digester.

Stored material might start to digest before being fed into the digester. This leads
27
to energy losses and air emissions. To avoid or reduce pre-digester activities,
seasonally harvested material can be conserved by covering it with plastic
sheeting or turning it into silage.

Figure 6.3: Feedstock preparation through ensilaging attached

(courtesy of Mr Vusumzi Mnisi)

6.2.3 Feeding systems

For feeding solid and liquid feedstock into the digester, there is a wide variety of
feeding systems available on the market. The general purpose of feeding systems
is to ensure that feedstock is transported into the digester with a higher degree
of automation, while ensuring safety and minimizing emissions.

6.3 Digester technology

The digester is one of the core elements of a biogas plant. This section gives a brief
overview on the digester volume and then focuses on the digester technology.
For further information, refer to the Biogas Investment Decision-Making Tool.

BIOGAS GUIDEBOOK
 6.3.1 Digester volume
The digester is usually filled with liquid feedstock slurry up to a certain design
level, and this should ideally be maintained at a constant level.

When calculating the actual volume of feedstock that will fit in the digester,
consider the space taken up by installed equipment (mixer, heating systems,
etc.) and by sinking layers (stones, sand, etc.) which will effectively reduce the
active volume. Additionally, about 20% of the gross volume can be considered as
28 back-up capacity.

It is normal practice to allow 40–80 cm free space above the design liquid level
for movement caused by the mixing action and the possible formation of floating
layers. The gas pipeline is usually connected to this free space.

The actual construction size of the digester, the gross digester volume, will be
composed of the net digester volume, the back-up space and the free space
(Figure 6.4).

Internal digester
components

Free space
Back-up capacity
(20%)
Gross digester volume
Net digester
volume

Base mud
Net

Gross

Figure 6.4: Difference between gross and net digester volume

6.3.2 Digester tanks

There are a number of digester designs available on the market, primarily

influenced by the characteristics of the feedstock. Figure 6.5 shows the various
biogas systems that can be used, depending on the concentration of dry matter
in the digester.

BIOGAS GUIDEBOOK
 Overview of technologies depending on dry matter content for the possible operating mode*

2% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50%

Dry matter content

UASB** Dry batch digestion

Wet digestion Incineration

29
Dry continuous digestion

Composting

* Almost every type of feedstock can be diluted to the needed dry content of each digester technology.
** UASB: Upflow anaerobic sludge blanket technology is a form of anaerobic digestion designed for materials with high water content
(e.g. sewage sludge).
UASB reactors are installed for waste or process water treatment.

Figure 6.5: Overview of digester technologies (Fachverband Biogas e.V.)

6.3.2.1 Wastewater treatment digesters

Starting on the left, upflow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB) digesters are
typically used for wastewater treatment plants and can operate with 2% dry
matter and 98% water content.

Highly polluted water is pumped under pressure into the bottom of the reactor
where it forms sludge. Biogas is produced in the sludge layer, and the rising gas
bubbles mix the sludge without the assistance of any mixing components.

The clean water is extracted from the top of the tank in an area above the sloped
walls. The sludge blanket, which is heavy, remains at the bottom of the tank.

The following characteristics apply to UASB biogas plants:

 Mainly used for wastewater or sewage sludge treatment

 pH values between 6.3 and 7.85
 Temperature between 35°C and 42°C.

UASB has the advantages of being able to treat process water with low organic
material, being lower maintenance, having an odour-proof design, and having
good sludge retention and low space demand. The disadvantages are that it is
only suitable for materials with high water content (solid content of 2%), and it
has high investment costs and relatively low biogas yields.

BIOGAS GUIDEBOOK
 6.3.2.2 Wet digesters

Wet digestion refers to the digestion of feedstock that has a dry matter content
above 5%, but not more than 20%. It is easier to handle wet feedstock (as opposed
to dry feedstock), as it can be easily pumped and mixed. Feedstock that is too dry
can be mixed with water or wet digestate to decrease the dry matter content.
Liquid manure, on the other hand, can be used directly without dilution.

The continuously stirred tank reactor (CSTR) is the most commonly used tank
30
technology for wet digestion. It is a simple but robust technology that accepts
a wide range of possible feedstocks. Almost any sized plant is possible. Biomass
inside the digester has to be liquid and pumpable so that it can be mixed with
different kinds of mixers.

The following characteristics apply to CSTR:

 The material is fed in continuously.

 Suitable feedstocks are animal and vegetable by-products, household
waste, industrial and commercial waste and energy crops.
 The dry matter content of the feedstock ranges between 5% and 20%.
 Mixers/agitators are necessary to mix the feedstock.
 The process temperature is mesophilic (35–48°C) or thermophilic
(>50°C).
 The process can be single-stage or multi-stage.
 A post-digester and digestate storage usually need to be installed.

A hydraulic digester can also be used for wet digestion, and works without
mixing. This digester works on the principle of pressure. Wet feedstock is fed
into the tank, raising the level of liquid in the digester, which puts pressure on the
gas layer, pushing the biogas out of the tank (see Figure 6.6).

The following characteristics apply to the hydraulic digester:

 The material is fed in continuously.

 Suitable feedstocks are animal and vegetable by-products, household
waste, industrial and commercial waste and energy crops.
 The dry matter content of the feedstock ranges from 8% to 16%.
 No agitators are required, and there are no moving parts in the reactor.
 Mixing and feedstock discharge are driven by biogas produced by the
digester.

The process temperature is mesophilic (35–48°C) or thermophilic (>50°C).

BIOGAS GUIDEBOOK
 Continuously stirred tank reactor (CSTR) Hydraulic digester

Biogas

6
5

31
5 Biogas 6

4
1 7
2
4 3 2

1 Input 2 Biomass 3 Agitator 4 Heating system 5 Biogas storage 6 Biogas utilisation 7 Output

Figure 6.6: CSTR and hydraulic digester (Fachverband Biogas e.V.)

6.3.2.3 Dry digesters

Dry continuous digestion is the digestion of feedstock with higher dry matter
content in a continuous process. A plug flow digester is typically used.

The concept that underpins the plug flow digester is that the biomass is slowly
transported (horizontally or vertically) from the inlet to the outlet. Ideally, all
feedstock will spend equal amounts of time in the digester. This requires optimal
processing conditions and robust mixing technology.

Plug flow reactor

1 Input
Biogas
6 2 Biomass
5
3 Agitator
1 4 Heating system
3 5 Biogas storage
2 7
6 Biogas utilisation
4 7 Output

Figure 6.7: Plug flow digester (Fachverband Biogas e.V.)

BIOGAS GUIDEBOOK
 The following characteristics apply to the plug flow digesters:

 The material is fed in continuously.

 Suitable types of feedstock are animal and vegetable by-products,
household waste, industrial and commercial waste and energy crops.
 The dry matter content of the feedstock ranges from 15% to 45%.
 The digester can operate either horizontally or vertically.
 Agitators operate along or across the flow of material (although vertical
flow systems operate without agitators).
32
 A high reactor load is possible.
 Reactor volume is usually limited to between 1 000 and 2 000 m3
because of the strong radial forces involved that affect mixing ability;
however, a number of reactors can be operated side by side.
 The process temperature is mainly thermophilic (>50°C)8. 8 Because of the high
investment, it is necessary to
use the digester volume in
For drier feedstock, a dry batch anaerobic digester (garage system) can be used. the most efficient way. The
During dry batch digestion, biomass is processed in batches that remain in the thermophilic (>50°C) process
has the highest efficiency.
digester for a defined amount of time.

Afterwards, the digester is emptied and refilled with the next batch. New
incoming feedstock is mixed with digestate from the previous process or from
another reactor and is left to digest inside the digester. Leaching liquids that are
drained from the batch digester are recirculated to improve contact between the
biomass, acids and bacteria.

The following characteristics apply to dry batch digesters:

 The feedstock is added in batches.

 Biomass usually needs to be moved in and out of the unit using a front-
end loader.
 Suitable feedstocks will need to be stackable and thus contain a large
amount of structural material, e.g. animal and vegetable by-products,
household waste, industrial and commercial waste and energy crops.
 The dry matter content of feedstock must be higher than 30%.
 There are no moving components in the digester, making the digester
robust.
 Operations are reliable, and maintenance costs are low.
 A percolation liquid system ensures optimal water content.
 The process temperature is mesophilic (35–48°C).

BIOGAS GUIDEBOOK
 6.3.2.4 Garage systems

1
7 6
5

2 4
33 8

1 Gastight door 5 Biogas storage

2 Biomass 6 Biogas utilisation
3 Drainage system for percolation liquid 7 Percolation liquid distribution
4 Heating system 8 Percolation liquid storage tank

Figure 6.8: Illustration of a garage system (Fachverband Biogas e.V.)

6.3.3 Mixers

Mixers or agitators play an important role in a biogas plant. They are used to
ensure even distribution of feedstock and microorganisms throughout the
digester. Mixers also ensure good heat distribution and help avoid sinking and
floating layers. Finally, they help to agitate the gas bubbles out of the liquid.

There are many types of mixers available – mechanical, hydraulic and pneumatic.

6.3.4 Heating systems

A constant temperature inside the digester is of utmost importance for efficient

biogas production, as it guarantees ideal living conditions for the bacteria. It is
possible to use by-product heat from combined heat and power (CHP) to heat
the digester. If no CHP is available, the heat can be supplied by a biogas burner,
solar radiant heat (solar collectors) and other heat sources.

Typically, hot water is circulated through pipes installed all around the inner
digester walls. These pipes can be of different materials, such as plastic, stainless
steel or carbon steel.

BIOGAS GUIDEBOOK
34

Figure 6.9: Heating system showing pipes containing hot water on the inner
digester walls (Anaergia)

6.4 Biogas cleaning

Biogas, once produced, needs to be cleaned of various impurities, including the
following:

 Hydrogen sulphide
 Water vapour
 Silicon-organic compounds
 Oxygen
 Ammonia.

Hydrogen sulphide (H2S) is produced in greater quantities when using feedstock

containing high amounts of sulphur. There is a wide range of H2S concentrations
in biogas, from below 50 ppm to above 10 000 ppm.

H2S also has corrosive properties that could severely damage equipment if not
removed or reduced to acceptable levels. Typically, H2S should be reduced to less
than 200 ppm in state-of-the-art equipment.

H2S is also toxic to human beings. H2S further oxidises during combustion to form
sulphur dioxide (SO2), which is an environmental pollutant. The release of sulphur
dioxide into the atmosphere must therefore be kept to a minimum.

Consequently, biogas must be subjected to a desulphurisation process before

further processing and use.

BIOGAS GUIDEBOOK
 Biogas is naturally saturated with water vapour inside the digester and, if not
removed, has the potential to damage equipment due to corrosion. To avoid
corrosion and other negative effects during subsequent gas treatment, it is
necessary to dry the biogas.

Traces of ammonia can also be found in biogas. Because it is highly water-soluble,

it can be reduced by the water removal process.

Silicon-organic compounds (e.g. siloxanes) occur mainly in sewage treatment

35
plants. Possible sources include the feedstock (especially those feedstocks
coming from waste streams), residues from cosmetics, detergents and anti-foam
agents containing silicones, which are used in the digester.

Oxygen can also compromise the biogas process. Although biogas generation in
the digester takes place in the absence of oxygen, levels of 0.5% are low enough
not to affect the biogas process.

Biogas must additionally be free from impurities such as dust, oil and aerosols.
Filters used in gas technology are installed for this purpose.

6.5 Gas storage

Biogas will be produced continuously (24 hours per day, 365 days per year), but
the rate of biogas production can vary (cubic metres of biogas per hour) over
time. Additionally, every biogas plant has standstill periods due to maintenance.

To accommodate for these fluctuations, provision is made for gas storage.

Storage facilities must be:

 Gas-tight
 Resistant to pressure
 Resistant to UV radiation
 Resistant to temperature variations and changing weather conditions
 Resistant to external effects like strong wind.

Gas storage facilities typically operate at standard atmospheric pressure. Storage

facilities should also be equipped with an over-pressure and under-pressure
protection system.

The storage volume is selected based on space availability, budget and the need
for flexible operation.

BIOGAS GUIDEBOOK
36

Figure 6.10: Digester with foil roof for gas storage (Anaergia)

6.6 Gas flare

Methane produced in the biogas production process is harmful to the
environment. It has a greenhouse gas (GHG) potential which is 25 times higher
than that of carbon dioxide. Therefore, the produced methane must not be
emitted into the atmosphere.

Although biogas production is continuous, the utilization of the biogas might not
be, for example during times of maintenance. Biogas plants should be equipped
with a gas flare to burn methane and convert it into carbon dioxide, which is less
harmful to the environment.

Figure 6.11: Gas flare of a biogas plant (Anaergia)

BIOGAS GUIDEBOOK
 6.7 Measurement, control and regulation technologies
As it is important to control the digestion process, many measuring devices for
biogas plants have been developed.

Gas analyser

This shows the composition of the biogas and the presence of the following
37 components:

 Methane (CH4) is the most valuable component and contains the biogas
energy.
 Carbon dioxide (CO2) is important to measure, as it indicates the stability
of the biological process.
 Oxygen (O2) indicates if leakages in the gas system have occurred. If
above 1%, the operator should do a leak test.
 Hydrogen sulphide (H2S) is a toxic and corrosive gas. In general, the
concentration of H2S should be as low as possible. Typical limits for CHP
operation are in the range of 50–200 ppm.
 Hydrogen (H2) can be measured for process optimization.

Flow meter

This measures the volume rate of the biogas production, typically in m3/h. This
value shows whether the biological process is stable. If this value drops, the living
conditions for the microorganisms are not optimal anymore, and measures to
stabilise the process should be implemented.

Additionally, the biogas production rate indicates whether the whole biogas
plant is operating in an efficient manner and is according to what is expected
from the feedstock used.

BIOGAS GUIDEBOOK
 7. Getting it right: A toolbox for success

38 Biogas technology converts organic material into methane gas and other gases.
This occurs through a complex sequence of reactions that occur during the
decomposition of organic matter.

In the face of challenges, this chapter will offer a guide to the scientific principles
of anaerobic digestion, and help with technical troubleshooting.

7.1 Four phases of anaerobic digestion

The decomposition of organic matter can be divided into four different phases:
hydrolysis, acidogenesis, acetogenesis and methanogenesis, as follows:

 Hydrolysis: Complex long-chain molecules such as carbohydrates,

proteins and fats are broken down by microorganisms into smaller
molecules such as amino acids, sugars and fatty acids.
 Acidogenesis: The intermediate products formed in the first step are
further degraded to form lower fatty acids and other carboxylic acids,
such as butyric acid and propionic acid. In addition, hydrogen, carbon
dioxide and acetic acid are produced, and are the basic elements for
the subsequent production of methane.
 Acetogenesis: Lower fatty acids are broken down into acetic acid by
acetogenic microorganisms.
 Methanogenesis: During this phase, archaea – the oldest forms of
life on earth, also called methanogenic bacteria – produce methane
by converting either acetic acid or hydrogen and carbon dioxide into
methane.

BIOGAS GUIDEBOOK
 1. Phase 2. Phase 3. Phase 4. Phase
Hydrolysis Acidogenesis Acetogenesis Methanogenesis

H2/CO2
Biomass
Sugar
Carbohydrates Biogas
Amino Acid
Proteins CH2/CO2
39 Fatty Acid
Fats
Fatty Acid
(Propanoic Acetic Acid
Acid)

hydrolytic acidogenic acetogenic methanogenic

microorganism microorganism

Figure 7.1: Process description of the degradation process of biomass

inside the digester 1

7.2 Microorganisms in your digester

There are many types of microorganisms that assist the breakdown of feedstock
in the digester.

The five most common microorganisms have different growth rates (see Table 3).
Acid-forming organisms have a relatively short reproductive time. Methanogenic
bacteria grow slower and have a slower metabolism.

Table 3: Generation times of organisms involved in the biogas process

Type of organism Name Generation time (days)

Acid-forming Bacteroides <1
organisms Clostridia 1.5
Acetogenic bacteria 3.5
Methanogenic bacteria Methanosarcina 5–15
Methanococcus ~ 10

The time taken to produce biogas is influenced by the concentration of the micro-
organisms, the quality of the feedstock, mixing, particle size and temperature.
Sugars and starches degrade quickly, while woody biomass is slower to break
down.

BIOGAS GUIDEBOOK
 7.2.1 Balancing the environment for microorganisms

Balancing the environment to favour the growth of all these microorganisms is

important. Each of these microorganisms thrives under different conditions (pH,
temperature and feedstock composition).

The optimal living conditions of the various microbial strains differ considerably.
In practice, a biogas plant cannot provide optimal conditions for all organisms,
but needs to find a compromise which is suitable for all. Several influencing
40
factors are as follows:

 Amount of oxygen: Microorganisms involved in hydrolysis are partially

to low oxygen; however, microorganisms involved in the other three
phases thrive in strictly anaerobic environments.
 Mixing: Efficient mixing will ensure that microbes have constant access
to their source of food. Mixing also maintains consistent temperature.
However, excessive mixing can have a negative effect on microbe
communities.
 pH: Microorganisms thrive under specific pH levels.
– Microbes in the hydrolysis phase thrive under acidic pH levels of
5–6. However, they are able to survive when the pH rises.
– Microbes in the methanogenesis phase favour more neutral
environments with a pH of 6.6–8. These microbes are ineffective at
a higher or lower pH.
– To accommodate most microbes, the ideal pH should be maintained
between 7 and 8 in the digester.’

Feedstock has a significant effect on the pH of an anaerobic digestion system. If

the digester is fed with too much material that is easy to break down (like sugars
and starches), the bacteria which perform the first stage of digestion will grow
quickly, resulting in a build-up of organic acids which drop the pH.

 Buffer systems: This is a chemical system that can prevent the pH from
dropping too low. However, care must be taken when using buffer
systems, as they can get saturated if too many acids are generated,
which can cause further issues in the digester.
 Volatile fatty acids: The amount of volatile fatty acids (formic acid,
acetic acid, propionic acid, butyric acid and valeric acid) in the anaerobic
digester at any given time gives an indication of the speed of degradation
in the first three phases (hydrolysis, acidogenesis and acetogenesis), as
opposed to the fourth stage (methanogenesis). Volatile fatty acids are
commonly measured in Acetic Acid Equivalent (AcEq), which needs to
be < 2 000 mg/l to ensure a stable digestion process. This value should
never exceed 4 000 mg/l.
 Feedstock particle size: The particle size of the feedstock has a direct
effect on how well microbes can perform their task – the smaller the
particle size, the quicker the microbes can digest them.

BIOGAS GUIDEBOOK
  Ratios of nitrogen, carbon, phosphorus and sulphur: The amount of
nitrogen, carbon, phosphorus and sulphur in the feed needs to be
balanced for good biogas operation. The carbon-nitrogen ratio can be
influenced by the addition of feedstock high in carbon (veld grass) or
high in nitrogen (i.e. canola, dried chicken manure, abattoir waste).
 Micronutrients: Microorganisms also require micronutrients such as
sodium, potassium, magnesium, iron, nickel, cobalt, molybdenum,
tungsten, selenium, zinc and calcium for optimal performance.
41  Microbial inhibitors: Inhibitors like heavy metals, ammonia and
hydrogen sulphide slow down the anaerobic digestion process. In small
quantities, they decrease the rate of digestion. In large quantities, they
can create a toxic environment which stops digestion.
 Light: Light can inhibit digestion, thus should be prevented from
entering the digester.

7.2.2 Single-tank digester

Normally, biogas plants are set up as one-stage systems, where all the phases
occur in a single tank.

Advantages: It has lower investment costs, and the organisms live in close
synergy.

Disadvantages: Optimal conditions are a challenge, with so many different types

of microorganisms. Also, biogas yields may be lower.

Hydrolysis Acidification

Acidogenesis Methanogenesis

Figure 7.2: Phases in a one-stage process biogas plant

7.2.3 Multi-tank digester

Certain feedstocks, such as fats and cereals, experience increased hydrolysis,

which may cause the pH or acidity in a single-tank digester to increase. This
could have negative effects on certain microorganisms. In these cases, a multi-
stage digester system can be used. This allows different bacteria to work in their
optimal environments.

BIOGAS GUIDEBOOK
 Stage 1 Stage 2

Acidification Acidogenesis
Hydrolysis
Methanogenesis

42 Figure 7.3: Phases in a multi-stage process biogas plant

In a two-stage system, the hydrolysis stage of the biological process happens

in a separate tank, which allows for pH, temperature and retention time to be
optimised for each stage.

In practice, the first-stage digester would be a smaller tank compared with the
second-stage digester.

Advantage: Higher biogas yields

Disadvantage: Additional investment required

7.3 Role of temperature

The efficiency of the biogas process is directly influenced by temperature and
therefore requires careful consideration when designing a biogas plant. Typically,
AD operates within the following different temperature ranges:

 Psychrophilic (< 25°C): not relevant for commercial biogas plants in

practice
 Mesophilic (35–48°C): most common/optimal temperature
 Thermophilic (> 50°C): fastest degradation, but more difficult to control.

In general, the following may be observed:

 The higher the temperature, the faster the growth rate of the
microorganisms. The higher the growth rate, the higher the activity and
digestion of the feedstock.
 With faster digestion, lower HRT and less digester volume are needed.
This means reduced investment costs and less energy needed to mix
the process.
 If a digester is operated without being heated, it will operate at ambient
temperature only. Although this reduces cost, it also results in much
lower biogas production.
 Most industrial biogas plants operate at mesophilic temperatures (about
37–45°C). The microorganisms are well adapted to this temperature
range, because it is comparable to the inside of the digestive tract of
cattle and pigs.

BIOGAS GUIDEBOOK
  Thermophilic operation offers the fastest growth, but the process will
be more sensitive and will therefore require more accurate process
monitoring as well as experienced operators, because the biogas can
become more contaminated with hydrogen sulphide and ammonia.
 High temperatures are able to destroy potential pathogens in the
feedstock.

Irrespective of which operating temperature range is chosen, it is important to

ensure that a constant temperature is maintained. Quick temperature fluctuations
43
may lead to reduced microbiological activity and consequently lower gas yields.

Temperature differences of +/-1–2°C are described as tolerable and without

problems. Generally, mesophilic processes can accommodate temperature
fluctuations better than thermophilic processes can.

7.4 Hydraulic retention time

Hydraulic retention time (HRT) is the average time the feedstock stays inside
the digester. Different feedstocks require different retention times. Hydraulic
retention time is calculated using the following formula:

The hydraulic retention time is a ratio of the size of the digester and the amount

of feedstock. The feedstock determines the hydraulic retention time.

The typical HRT needed for different feedstocks is:

Feedstock: HRT:
Liquid cattle manure ≥ 20 days
Pig dung and straw ≥ 40 days
Energy crops ≥ 50 days

7.5 Energy calculation

The planning of a biogas plant usually starts with the calculation of the potential
biogas production and, therefore, the energy yield calculation. This can be done
as follows:

BIOGAS GUIDEBOOK
44

The guidance provided by applying the equations will give you the biogas
production, methane production and theoretical energy production.

7.6 Start of operation

The start-up phase of operation is very sensitive. The existing microorganisms are not
yet adapted to the prevailing conditions (feedstock, temperature, synergy with other
microorganisms), so the process may be quite unstable during the first few months of
operation.

At the start of the process, the amount of feedstock must be increased very slowly.
Factors such as pH-value and gas composition can be evaluated daily to ensure a stable
process.

Additional aspects to be considered ahead of initiating the start-up phase are listed below:

 Check that all equipment is functioning.

 Check that all safety precautions are in place.
 Check that all components are connected.
 Start with a small amount of material containing bacteria and micro­organisms
(digestate from another plant or cattle manure).
 Start feeding a low amount of feedstock.
 Monitor the process: gas production, gas quality and pH-value.
 The start-up phase may need several months until full load capacity is reached.

7.7 On-site safety

If biogas plants are not operated safely, they can pose a risk, negatively affecting the
environment and human health. For operational standards, refer to SANS 1753-1 and
SANS 1753-2.

Additionally, health hazards can still potentially occur at biogas plants, and are divided
into four categories:

BIOGAS GUIDEBOOK
 Explosion and fire hazards, since biogas is a mixture of different gases, the
concentration of which may vary depending on the plant in question
Hazardous substances such as biogas itself, processing additives, oils, activated
carbon, silage effluent, slurry and wastes
Electrical hazards such as control equipment, CHP units, pumps, agitators and
measuring instrumentation
Mechanical hazards such as falling, impact, crushing and cutting

Table 4 details the main components of gaseous materials that can be found in a
45
biogas plant, and their potential hazards.

3 4
Table 4: Properties of the gaseous constituents of biogas (Sources: and )

Recommended
Hazardous
Properties workplace
atmosphere
exposure limit
Colourless, odourless gas 8% v/v: danger of asphyxiation 5 500 ppm
CO2
Heavier than air
Colourless and pungent- Above 30–40 ppm: mucous membranes, 20 ppm
smelling gas respiratory tract and eyes become irritated
NH3
Lighter than air Above 1 000 ppm: breathing difficulties,
potentially inducing loss of consciousness
Colourless, odourless gas 4.4–16.5%
CH4
Lighter than air
Highly toxic, colourless gas Above 200 ppm: sense of smell deadened 5 ppm
H2S Heavier than air and gas no longer perceived
Smells of rotten eggs Above 700 ppm: danger of respiratory arrest

Explosions and fire hazards occur when three factors apply simultaneously: a
flammable substance (like biogas), oxygen (from air) and a source of ignition. If
the concentration of biogas in the atmosphere is between 6% and 22% v/v, there is a
risk of explosion in the presence of an ignition source (explosive range, explosive
atmosphere). In the case of pure methane gas, the explosive range is between
4.4% and 16.5% v/v. The ignition temperature of biogas is 700°C (methane 595°C).

The composition of biogas may vary with regard to the proportions of methane
and carbon dioxide, with the result that the explosive range of the gas mixture in
the presence of air also varies.

7.7.1 Safety documentation

Safety documentation is a crucial prerequisite for the operation of a biogas plant

and has to be constantly kept up to date.

In the event of an accident, it is of vast importance to document the situation

exactly as it happened, as investigators into the case, including police, the fire
brigade, insurance companies and other stakeholders, will look into safety
precautions, alarm chains and countermeasures.

BIOGAS GUIDEBOOK
 A major accident involving property damage and possibly personal injuries which
are not covered by the insurance, would financially endanger and probably halt
the whole biogas project. It is therefore of utmost importance for a biogas plant
operator to be able to prove that the operation and maintenance plans and
procedures, as well as the safety regulations, have been put in place and have
been followed at all times.

In accordance with national requirements, the following should be documented:

46
 Authority to issue directives / line of command: list of persons to contact
(both internal and external, e.g. authorities and agencies, including
phone numbers)
 Emergency plan (operating instructions for procedures in the event of
accident, fire, explosion, spilled substrate, power outage, unauthorised
entry, etc.)
 Hazard assessment / explosion protection document
 Operating instructions for the employees
 Instruction manuals from the manufacturer
 Hazardous substances register
 Safety data sheets
 Release/briefing forms
 Maintenance and repair plan (including schedule according to
manufacturer’s instructions9) 9 Maintenance contracts
 Regular tours of inspection and operation diary with specialist companies
are particularly advisable for
 Evidence of recurring tests (electrical tests, tests of work equipment) parts of the plant that are of
 Evidence of initial and recurring training on operation and relevance to safety and need
to be regularly calibrated
troubleshooting (e.g. gas warning system,
 Evidence of initial and recurring safety training gas analyser, gas detector,
personal protection monitor,
 Up-to-date inventory of facilities and equipment (floor plan for fire-
fire detector).
fighting, piping and instrumentation diagram, piping layout plan, etc.)
 Process management matrix
 Fire protection certificate.

BIOGAS GUIDEBOOK
 8. Economics of biogas plants

47 In this chapter, the cost structure of a biogas plant (investment costs, annual
capital costs, operation costs), followed by income streams, are further explained.
For more information, refer to the Biogas Investment Decision-Making Tool.

A biogas project should be financially viable. What makes a biogas plant financially
viable?

 Long-term feedstock supply. Is it free, or is there a purchase price

attached?
 Define all revenue streams. Is the energy, biomethane, fertilizer, fuels,
heat and/or biogas for burners being sold?
 Digestate management. Are there long-term contracts with farmers
who can spread the digestate on their fields as fertilizer?
 Project structure and stakeholders. Is there an experienced project
developer on the team?
 Choice of technology. Has the appropriate technology for the specific
type of project been selected?
 Location. Is the biogas plant located near a long-term feedstock source
and near customers?

Investment in a biogas plant can be motivated by several factors, but not all
aspects can be monetized. Aspects which are hard or impossible to monetize, but
might give additional reasons to invest in a biogas plant, are:

 Efficient waste management and reduction of organic matter, such as

process water in the food industry. A biogas plant helps reduce organic
matter, which allows wash water to flow into water bodies or reduces
costs for wastewater treatment.
 Duty of care towards environmental protection. In many cases, the
motivation to invest in biogas plants is based on the environmental
benefits.
 Fertilizer production. Digestate is a valuable liquid fertilizer. Some farms
invest in biogas plants mainly to produce fertilizer.
 Odour reduction. Biogas plants reduce odour of waste material.
 Independence from fossil fuels. Many farmers, especially in rural areas,
have little access to fossil fuels, which often must be transported a long
way.
 Security of supply. In some regions of Africa, the electricity grid is unstable
and the supply unreliable. A company producing biogas could potentially
rely 100% on energy produced from biogas and provide around 8 000
hours of electricity per year.

BIOGAS GUIDEBOOK
 8.1 Costs of biogas production
The costs of biogas production can be divided into three categories: investment
costs, operational costs and financial costs.

8.1.1 Investment costs

Biogas plants are customized to fit specific situations; therefore, components

differ from one plant to another. However, experience shows two tendencies:
48
 Robust components can make a difference in the long run, providing
economic sustainability and lower maintenance costs.
 A biogas plant can be operated for decades, provided it is closely
monitored and well maintained.

Therefore, it can be concluded that investing in reliable technology solutions is a

key aspect of a successful project.

Investment costs for a biogas plant vary, depending on factors such as:

 Type of technology: CSTR, plug-flow reactor, UASB reactor or batch

reactor
 Type of feedstock:
– Liquid feedstock can easily be pumped, which may lead to savings
on investments in the feedstock preparation stage. On the other
hand, costs for feedstock storage will be high, due to the water
content of the feedstock which increases its volume and thus the
storage capacity needed.
– If municipal waste is used as feedstock, the investment cost might
be higher, as additional equipment for separation and feedstock
preparation will be needed.
 Robust equipment: It is important to choose robust equipment,
specifically with regard to mixers and pumps, as these may require
regular maintenance, which may affect downtime. Choose robust
equipment to generate electricity to avoid long periods of downtime,
which affects revenues.

The experiences in South Africa show that large biogas plants that intend to
produce one megawatt of electricity (MWe) may cost in the range of R35 to R45
million.

In general, the relative investment cost (CAPEX plus OPEX) per biogas unit will
decrease with an increase in the size of the plant. This is because basic costs
apply regardless of the type and size of the plant. Therefore, the larger a plant,
the lower the cost per unit of installed capacity.

In the case of individual components (mixers, pumps, etc.), the cost difference
for similar equipment might vary as much as 30% (+/-), depending on the plant
design. Where possible, locally produced equipment should be procured, as this
could provide considerable cost savings.

BIOGAS GUIDEBOOK
 In the case of larger-scale biogas plants, approximately 10–20% of the total
investment should be budgeted as project development costs.

8.1.2 Operational costs (OPEX)

Operational costs of a biogas plant include the following:

 Feedstock costs (if any)

 Material costs, such as water or chemicals
49  Labour costs
 Maintenance costs
 Reinvestments
 Business and administrative costs
 Insurance (0.5–2% of investment costs per year).

Operational costs depend on the size of the biogas plant. Anecdotal evidence in
South Africa suggests that operational costs can be about R900 000 for a 50 kWe
biogas plant, R1.3 million for a 200 kWe plant and R3.7 million for a 1 MWe plant.

8.1.3 Capital expenses (CAPEX)

Capital expenses are influenced by investment costs and the conditions related to
the financing of the project. The CAPEX for the South African financial framework
would need to take into consideration the following factors:

– Return on debt Interest rate (foreign capital)

– Return on equity Interest rate (own capital)
– Tenure (loan) Lifetime of credit
– Debt / Total capital cost Percentage of foreign capital
– Resulting WACC Weighted average of capital costs.

Biogas plants should, however, be considered as long-term investment projects,

wherein the capital which is secured for the infrastructure development attracts
a low interest rate over the long term.

8.2 Revenue from biogas plant operation

Biogas plants have the possibility of generating various revenue streams. The
actual income of these revenue streams cannot be monetized in general terms,
as the conditions differ for each project. Potential revenue streams can, however,
be explained by means of a general example.

8.2.1 Energy: Electricity and heat

Assume that a biogas plant of 1 MWe with a CHP plant which operates approximately
8 000 hours per year will result in an electricity production of 8 000 000 kWhel.
Anecdotal evidence from South Africa suggests that the revenues will be in the
range of 0.9–1.6 R/kWhel. If, for example, the monetary value for electricity is 1.5 R/
kWhel, the electricity produced has a monetary value of R12 million per year.

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 Some industries, such as chicken farming, could potentially use the heat produced
by CHP units and thus generate additional revenue for the project. If, for instance,
a project runs a CHP plant, the engine will produce around 8 000 000 kWhth per
year. If only 25% of the amount of heat produced can be sold at 0.5 R/kWh, the
revenue from heat could reach R1 million per year.

8.2.2 Fertilizer

Another potential revenue source is the sale of digestate as fertilizer.

50
All nutrients (like N, P, K, S and elements such as Fe, Zn, Sn, Mo and many more)
present in the input material will be retained in the digestate. Material such as
manure is already used extensively as fertilizer. By introducing a biogas plant, the
amount of nutrients present in the output material remains the same, but it has
an improved quality as fertilizer.

The amount of nutrients in the digestate is directly dependent on the type of

feedstock.

For example, a 1 MWe biogas plant would require about 65 000 tonnes of liquid
cattle manure feedstock per year. Each tonne of digestate will contain 5.33 kg
of total nitrogen, 1.68 kg P2O5 and 2.45 kg K2O. This example will result in 346.45
tonnes of nitrogen, 109.2 tonnes of P2O5 and 160 tonnes of K2O being produced
per year.

Assuming the following prices for mineral fertilizer:

 R13 350 per tonne of nitrogen (N)

 R12 680 per tonne of phosphorus oxide (P2O5)
 R11 150 per tonne of potassium oxide (K2O).

the value of nutrients in the digestate is R7 742 000.

The biogas process improves the fertilizing effect of the minerals that were
already present in the input material, thus enhancing the value of the digestate
as fertilizer.

Digestate cannot be sold as fertilizer if it contains heavy metals or has excessively

high levels of mineral salts. Care should be taken to analyse digestate before
considering it as a fertilizer.

8.2.3 Carbon credits

A biogas plant also reduces greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Therefore, another
possible revenue source is the sale of carbon credits.

BIOGAS GUIDEBOOK
 Biogas production can help to reduce GHG emissions in several ways:

 Open storage of organic material (like manure or residues from

industrial production) generates methane emissions. Methane has
a GHG potential which is about a factor 25 times higher than that
of carbon dioxide. Due to material treatment in the biogas plant,
effectively a closed system, and gas utilization (e.g. in a gas engine or
boiler), these methane emissions are not released into the atmosphere
but are combusted and transformed into carbon dioxide.
51
 Biogas generation is a nearly carbon-neutral energy generation method
(“Zero Carbon Footprint”): during the growth of plants, carbon dioxide
from the atmosphere is stored in the plant in the form of carbon-
containing molecules (CO2 reduction). After combustion, about the
same amount of carbon dioxide is emitted as was originally extracted
from the atmosphere (CO2-neutral process).
 Due to renewable energy generation, fossil energy carriers can be
substituted and, by that, CO2 emissions avoided. The GHG emissions
for electricity production in South Africa are about 1 ton CO2 per MW
electricity produced.
 Digestate (the effluent of a biogas plant) is a good-quality fertilizer.

Methane is a rather aggressive GHG, which is why methane emissions from biogas
plants must be prevented or limited. This can be done by ensuring no leaks during
operation, covering the digestate storage areas, and installing a flare which burns
the produced methane in times when the biogas utilization is not in operation.

The value of carbon certificates depends strongly on the type of market.

Currently, the price of European Emission allowances is above 8.5 US$ per tonne
CO2. According to the example given, a CO2 emission reduction of 8 615 tonnes
would result in about 73 000 US$ value of carbon certificates.

In 2019, a carbon tax was introduced in South Africa, which may be potentially
beneficial to the biogas industry, given the emission reduction potential of the
technology.

8.3 Financing mechanisms and incentives

There are several financing mechanisms and incentives available for the South
African market. 11

The banking sector is in general very risk-averse, and due to the relatively small
number of biogas plants developed in South Africa, banks still perceive biogas
projects as high-risk investments. With higher risk comes higher interest and
more stringent lending conditions. However, there are several options to finance
a biogas plant in South Africa.

BIOGAS GUIDEBOOK
 8.3.1 Financing and funding instruments

The commercial banking sector of South Africa by now has recognized the
financing of renewable energy (RE) projects as a business area. South African
banks are highly involved in the Risk Mitigation Independent Power Producer
Procurement Programme (RMIPPPP). Therefore, it is generally possible for
creditworthy companies and enterprises to finance their RE plants via loans from
commercial banks. 11
52
Additionally, numerous public financing and supporting measures have been
introduced to promote the use of renewable energy and the increase of energy
efficiency in industry. These measures include financing instruments as well as
tax incentives. Funding instruments are accessible for companies established
in South Africa. A selection of instruments will be presented in the following
paragraphs to give an overview of the local funding mechanisms. 11

8.3.2 GEEF – The Green Energy Efficiency Fund

The GEEF aims at reducing the energy and CO2 intensity of South African industry,
as well as raising awareness among South African enterprises regarding energy
consumption. Specifically, the following aims are targeted:

 Stimulation of investment in the sector of energy efficiency (in industry)

 Support of RE projects for self-sufficiency
 Promotion of competitiveness of South African industry
 Contribution to international climate protection.

To achieve these goals, the GEEF supports projects by enterprises registered and
operating in South Africa (with a focus on small and medium enterprises (SMEs)),
according to the following conditions:

Eligible types of projects: Investment in energy efficiency leading to a significant

reduction of energy consumption (saving: > 20%) and CO2 emissions, as well as
investment in renewable energy for self-sufficiency.

Funding conditions: Credit up to R50 million with a credit period of 15 years,

depending on the payback time of investment; the rate is independent of the
project and always set to 2% below the base rate.

The GEEF is coordinated by South Africa’s Industrial Development Corporation

(IDC). The funds of the GEEF originate from, among others, the German KfW
Development Bank, which has granted the IDC a loan of over R500 million, and
established in 2011.

More information about the GEEF is available on the website of the IDC: Green
Energy Efficiency Fund – Industrial Development Corporation .

BIOGAS GUIDEBOOK
 8.3.3 Environmental tax incentives

South African Revenue Service (SARS) has developed measures to promote in-
vestment in renewable energy. These aim to help businesses become more
energy-efficient and self-sufficient.

An amendment to section 12B of the Income Tax Act provides for an accelerated
depreciation for movable assets used in the production of renewable energy. More
specifically, it allows for a depreciation on a 50|30|20 basis over three years in respect
53
of any machinery, plant, implement, utensil or article (referred to as a qualifying
asset) owned by the taxpayer. 12

The following sources of renewable energy are included:

 Wind power
 Solar energy
 Hydropower (gravitational water forces) to produce electricity of not
more than 30 megawatts
 Biomass comprising organic waste, landfill gas or plant material.

8.4 Business models for biogas plants

The most viable biogas projects in South Africa are those where the owner of the
project is also the owner of the feedstock and all energy produced is used for own
consumption. Another viable scenario is where the project manages to secure an
off-take for the energy produced by the plant. Additionally, other drivers for the
viability of biogas projects are:

 Difficulty in procuring electricity from the national grid.

 Reuse of the waste produced by food processing industries or by abattoirs
(rumen, blood), with consequent saving of the disposal costs of hazardous
waste.
 Reduction of greenhouse gas emissions due to the introduction of
the carbon tax or to the voluntarily policies and strategies adopted by
international owned industries in the automotive, food processing sectors
and breweries that operates in SA.
 Non availability of CO2 for industrial use in some regions of the country.

The Asian Development Bank, in their publication about business models for
renewable energy, 2 differentiates between two types of business models for
renewable energy and energy efficiency projects: a) ownership business models and
b) service models.

For medium-scale to large-scale renewable energy projects, the ownership model

most frequently used is a public-private partnership (PPP). A PPP involves a contract
between a public-sector authority and a private party, in which the private party
provides a public service (e.g. electricity supply) and assumes a substantial amount
of the financial, technical and operating responsibilities. 2

BIOGAS GUIDEBOOK
 Typically, a special-purpose vehicle (SPV) is developed to build, maintain and
operate the project for a contracted period of time. The SPV enters into a contract
with the client (the off-taker) and with subcontractors to build the facility and
then operate and maintain it. 2

A very important factor for biogas projects is a secured feedstock supply

agreement (FSA) to guarantee the expected output and the bankability of the
project. The feedstock supplier can also be the client for the energy itself. In
cases where the energy client is also the feedstock supplier, it is advisable to
54
integrate him into the SPV.

A multiparty ownership model could also be suitable for a biogas project. Figures
8.1 and 8.2 show the aspects of multiparty ownership for a biogas plant.

Farmer’s Slurry

delivery a

Anaerobic Digestion biogas Power Generation

(Site) (Farmer’s Site)

funding maintenance energy O&M

biogas sales contract b

Third Party Utility
biogas payment c

energy
sales
– Farmers have no equipment liability.
– Site-related risk is with third party or utility.

O&M = operation and maintenance

a Farmers obliged to deliver slurry and provide land
b Most likely equiring tripartitie agreement
c To cover debt and interest of digester

Figure 8.1: Multiparty ownership model for a biogas project 2

BIOGAS GUIDEBOOK
 Farmer 1 Farmer 2 Farmer 3 multiple
Slurry Slurry Slurry

land
lease
Anaerobic Digestion
Community or Central Site biogas Power Generation
Privately Owned Land land lease Farmer or Communal or Digester Site
55 or Others

lessee payment funding maintenance energy O&M

biogas sales
contract
Third Party Utility
land lease agreement biogas
payment a energy
sales
– Farmers have no equipment liability.
– Site-related risk is with third party or utility.
– Project may benefit from lease payment/property exemption if on commercial land.

O&M = operation and maintenance

a To cover debt and interest of digester

Figure 8.2: Relationship diagram for a community biogas project 2

Among the various business models, a cooperative or collective action model

could be used for a biogas project, especially for community-based projects.

service equipment
Equipment
End user
Supplier
payment payment

service loan
Credit
End user COOPERATIVE
Provider
payment repayment

service service
Maintenance/
End user
Service Company
payment payment

Multiple
Figure 8.3: User cooperative business model 2

A collective action model involves the establishment of a non-profit community organization, owned and
managed by its members. The community operates the project and is also in charge of the financial management.
This model offers a mechanism for governments and NGOs to support renewable energy projects at the local
level. Figure 8.3 shows what this model could look like in practice.

BIOGAS GUIDEBOOK
 9. Planning a biogas plant

56 Numerous factors need to be considered when planning a biogas plant. These

include a feasibility study, due diligence, stakeholder communications, financing,
licensing and construction.

9.1 Initial idea for a biogas plant

The first idea of building a biogas plant is usually initiated by either the owner of
the feedstock or a biogas project developer.

To assess the suitability of a particular location, the following considerations are

important:

 Is there (enough) feedstock available? As described above, the more

feedstock available, the better the chances that a biogas plant might be
viable. For a commercial biogas plant, at least 6 000 t/a feedstock should
be available.
 What kind of income might be generated (electricity, heat, fuel and/or
fertilizer)?
 Is there an off-take agreement for the energy produced?
 Is there enough space?
 Are there access roads?
 Is there an electricity connection?
 Is there any requirement for heat?
 Is there agricultural land close by to spray the digestate on the fields?

The first considerations should also include matters like the possibility of creating
partnerships with local stakeholders, feedstock providers and the customers of
outputs such as electricity/heat.

9.2 Feasibility study

A feasibility study concerns technical and economic factors. At this stage, a biogas
expert can be consulted. The result of the feasibility study is a report, describing
the main characteristics of the project, which would assist in final decision-making.
A report may include:

 Advantages and disadvantages of each technological option

 Rating of the options
 Risk assessment
 Cost analysis.

BIOGAS GUIDEBOOK
 Based on the feasibility study, further steps of project development can be taken.
For bigger projects with higher investment, additional due diligence might be
required.

9.3 Stakeholder liaison

Identifying and communicating with all relevant stakeholders is critical to any
biogas project in South Africa. The following stakeholders are important to any
57 biogas project.

9.3.1 Local authorities

Contact an Environmental Assessment Practitioner (EAP) familiar with local

government regulations. Points to discuss include:

 What approvals are required?

 What conditions need to be complied with in order to get an approval?
 What kind of information is needed?

SABIA assists members through webinars, and the Environmental Assessment

Practitioners Association of South Africa will give you details of EAP members in
your area.

9.3.2 Communities

Communities or farms near the planned location of the biogas plant can support
or block the project. Involve these stakeholders from the beginning. Convene
stakeholder meetings and offer sound and realistic information. Communicate
the issues and advantages of a proposed biogas plant:

 Employment creation: work on the plant, maintenance, direct and

indirect jobs
 Low-cost energy production, e.g. heat
 Organic fertilizer (digestate) for their fields
 Energy independence.

Stakeholders may be wary of potential accidents, e.g. explosions, poisonous

gases and environmental damage (digestate flowing into rivers or harming the
quality of the soil). They will need honest and humble explanations and replies.

9.4 Finance
In order for a biogas plant to be constructed, it has to prove to be financially
viable. Large commercial plants will most likely require considerable funding.

BIOGAS GUIDEBOOK
 Financing conditions strongly depend on the perceived risks. Reliable technology
and professionals experienced in planning are important aspects for banks.
Present a realistic business case and economic viability assessment to the bank.

When contacting financing institutions, clarify the following issues:

 Investment
 Finance conditions
 Interest rate of debt
58
 Return on equity (ROE)
 Return on investment (ROI)
 Ratio equity/debt
 Running time of finance
 Weighted Average Cost of Capital (WACC).

9.5 The law and biogas plants

Since commercial biogas plants are complex facilities, consider all laws, legal
issues, permissions and environmental issues during the planning phase.

Biogas consultants and Environmental Assessment Practitioners (EAP) will be

aware of these legal and environmental hurdles. This is a checklist to consider:

 Construction
– Statistics
– Site selection (e.g. near watercourses or other environmentally
sensitive areas)
 Emissions/Pollution
– To the atmosphere
– To the soil
– To water bodies
 Digestate application
 Pasteurization of digestate
 Waste utilization
 Safety
 Energy connection/supply
 Environmental impact assessment needed?

In 2015, the German Development Cooperation Agency published an exhaustive

study on the licensing procedures for biogas in South Africa. 13

The study concluded that various interrelated approvals/licences/permits 13

under numerous Acts have different requirements, processes and time frames.

For example, there are discrepancies between defi­nitions and interpretations,

particularly between provincial authorities and the national departments. 13

BIOGAS GUIDEBOOK
 Table 5 presents the regulations to be considered when establishing a biogas
plant.

Table 5: Regulations to be considered

Name of the licence/ Responsible entities Approximate Additional requirements (if any)
permit time frame

Environmental impact Designated provincial 1.5 years Specialized studies including but not limited to:
59 assessment (EIA) department Groundwater impact study
Surface water impact
Heritage / visual impact assessment
Air emission impact
Biodiversity assessment

Land lease agreement Land owner (for leases 6 months Required if someone else besides the owner
shorter than 10 years) of the land plans to build and operate a plant,
Land owner and where maximum duration of agricultural land
Department of lease is 10 years. In cases where more time is
Agriculture (for leases required, e.g. when the life of the plant is 20
longer than 10 years) years, an application has to be lodged with the
Department of Agriculture for an extension.

Municipal consent of Responsible municipality 2 years Granted by municipalities, allows biogas plants
use licence to be built and operated

Waste management Department of Forestry, Up to 6 months Application is issued under the National
licence Fisheries and the Environmental Management Act of 2008 by
Environment the Department of Forestry, Fisheries and the
Environment. The licence authorises the stor-
age and processing of animal waste. Must go
through an EIA process to obtain the licence.

Water use licence Department of Water Up to 2 years Application issued to the Ministry of Water and
application and Sanitation (DWS) Sanitation according to the National Water Act.

Generation licence National Energy Up to 6 months A generation licence from NERSA for projects
Regulator of South outside the REIPPP have to get approval from
Africa (NERSA) the Department of Energy.

Grid connection Eskom Up to 12 Agreements obtained from Eskom if the con-

and transmission months nection is subcontracted
agreements

Wheeling Eskom 6 months The procedure for this requires that a power
agreement into the purchase agreement is concluded. This is not a
national grid clear-cut process in all projects and can still be
very costly, cumbersome and time-consuming.

Wheeling agreement Involved 2 years The process of acquiring this is lengthy, as

with the involved municipality there is no framework in place. This can also
municipality only be signed once a PPA has been signed.

BIOGAS GUIDEBOOK
 10. Biogas plant construction

A biogas plant represents a complex industrial construction process. Choose

60 an interdisciplinary team of experts to guarantee a reliable, stable and safe
operation with low maintenance effort and downtime.

Planning of a biogas plant may take months. Project development costs for large
biogas plants could be as high as 10% of the investment costs.

The planning of a biogas plant has several steps. In the figure below, some typical
phases of this process are shown.

Rough Selection
planning of biogas Permission
manufacturer Implementa-
planning Planning of
tion planning
Optional: Tender construction
process
Figure 10.1: Biogas plant planning process

10.1 Managing equipment purchases

Most biogas projects are joint ventures between willing stakeholders.

On very large biogas projects and after the specifications of the biogas plant have
been completed, a tender process could be initiated to identify companies who
offer complete biogas plants or components. Commonly, there are two ways to
organize the purchase of a biogas plant.

 Turnkey projects: Appoint a company to deliver the complete biogas

plant.
 Appointment of a project coordinator or consultant: This individual will
organize the purchase of the individual components by working in close
cooperation with the owner of the project.

Local contacts and experiences are also important aspects influencing the path you
will take.

BIOGAS GUIDEBOOK
 10.2 Collective action partnerships
In any project that is a collective active partnership, consider these issues:

 Ownership: Settle the percentage participation of the ownership of the biogas

project, as it will affect the split of profit share.
 Ownership of land or rental of land
 Feedstock: The quality, quantity and price of feedstock will determine the
farmer’s stakeholder share in the venture.
61
 Energy supply contracts: Who will buy your power or heat, and at what price?
 Heat supply contract: If nearby industry is buying your power, you will need
documentation in place.
 Suppliers: Make sure that the planner, manufacturer, component supplier
and construction team are aware of their fees.
 Operational contract: Who will run the biogas plant operation?
 Maintenance contracts: Do you have CHP plant maintenance in place?
 Digestate: Quantify the cost of fertilizer by offering a long-term contract with
local farmers.

10.3 Construction sign-off

Communication and collaboration between experts is important in order to avoid delays
and mistakes during construction.

At the end of the construction phase, an inspection of the plant should take place to
sign off the construction. Consider these issues:

 Sign off each phase/discipline of work during construction (electrical work,

pipework, welding and concrete work).
 Performance tests: Check that all components and emergency equipment
works.
 Does it work? Make sure the biogas plant can produce biogas (check gas
quality, etc.) and convert the energy (e.g. into electricity) according to the
design parameters. The intended performance parameters are usually defined
in contracts.
 Get deviations from the planning documented in writing.
 Take contract and guarantee conditions into account.

10.4 Documentation
The biogas plant manufacturer should supply complete documentation to the operator
regarding:

 Overall description of the plant

 All construction and technical drawings
 Operation manual for each component
 Manual for whole plant operation, including action for unplanned situations
 Checklists (daily, weekly, monthly, annual).

BIOGAS GUIDEBOOK
 11. References

62 1. Fachverband Biogas e.V. Biowaste to Biogas. 2016.

2. Asian Development Bank. Mandaluyong City, Philippines: Asian
Development Bank. 2015.
3. TRGS 900. Technische Regeln für Gefahrstoffe. Arbeitsplatzgrenzwerte.
2016.
4. SVLFG. Technische Information 4. Kassel: Sozialversicherung für
Landwirtschaft, Forsten und Gartenbau. 2016.
5. Mutungwazi, Asheal, Mukumba, Patrick and Makaka, Golden. Biogas
Digester Types Installed in South Africa: A review. Renewable and
Sustainable Energy Reviews. 2018, Volume 81, Part 1.
6. Hugo, W (ed.). BioEnergy Atlas for South Africa – Synopsis Report. Pretoria,
South Africa: Department of Science and Technology. 2016.
7. Industrial Development Corporation. IDC. [Online] 21.11.2014. [Quoted
from: 20.07.2018.] https://www.idc.co.za/home/media-room/articles/746-
natural-gas-vehicles-in-the-spotlight.html.
8. GIZ. Biogas Industry in South Africa – An Assessment of the Skills Needed
and Estimation of the Job Potential. s.l.: Deutsche Gesellschaft für
Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH. 2016.
9. GIZ. Estimating the Biogas Potential of Electricity Generation from the Agro-
Waste Industry. South Africa: Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale
Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH. 2016.
10. GIZ. Biogas Technology Matrix. s.l.: Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale
Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH. 2016.
11. Thiel, Dennis, Hause, Jens and Brink, Saskia. Zielmarktanalyse Südafrika –
Bioenergie Fokus auf Biogas 2015. s.l.: Southern African-German Chamber of
Commerce and Industry. 2015.
12. Steenkamp, Lee-Ann. South African Institute of Tax Professionals. [Online]
19 January 2016. [Quoted from: 18.07.2018.] https://www.thesait.org.za/
news/269950/Powering-up-A-look-at-section-12B-allowance-for-renewable-
energy-machinery.htm.
13. GIZ. Biogas Development in South Africa – Analysis of Licensing and
Permitting Processes. Pretoria: Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale
Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH. 2015.
14. Stead, Jean, Stead, Garner and Edward, W.. Management for a Small Planet.
s.l.: M.E. Sharpe. 2009.

BIOGAS GUIDEBOOK
 15. Baader, Wolfgang, Dohne, Erich and Brenndörfer, Michael. Biogas in
Theorie und Praxis. s.l.: KTBL-Schriften-Vertrieb im Landwirtschaftsverl.
1978.
16. Bachmann, Nathalie. Sustainable Biogas Production in Municipal
Wastewater Treatment Plants. s.l.: IEA Bioenergy. 2015.
17. Cape EAPrac. Biogas Development in South Africa: Analysis of Licensing and
Permitting Processes. s.l.: South African-German Energy Programme (GIZ-
SAGEN). 2015.
63 18. European Biogas Association. Annual Statistical Report of the European
Biogas Association. 2017.
19. energypedia.info. [Online] 5 December 2017. https://energypedia.info/wiki/
Feed-in_Tariffs_(FIT).
20. carbontrust.com. Technology Guide: Introducing Combined Heat and Power.
[Online] September 2010. https://www.carbontrust.com/media/19529/
ctv044_introducing_combined_heat_and_power.pdf.
21. Burkhardt, Peter. Cornell Composting. [Online] 1995. [Accessed:
14.05.2018.] http://compost.css.cornell.edu/odors/ammonia.html.
22. FNR. Guide to Biogas – From Production to Use. Gülzow: Fachagentur
Nachwachsende Rohstoffe e.V. (FNR). 2010.
23. German Federal Environment Agency. Environmental Costs in the Energy
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Agency. Dessau-Roßlau: Umweltbundesamt. 2013.

BIOGAS GUIDEBOOK
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