Ann. Anim. Sci., Vol. 24, No. 4 (2024) 1007–1024 DOI: 10.

2478/aoas-2024-0012

Pesticides and heavy metal toxicity in fish and possible remediation – a review

Hamed Ghafarifarsani1♦, Md. Fazle Rohani2, Mahdieh Raeeszadeh3, Saman Ahani4, Morteza Yousefi5, Maedeh Talebi6, Md. Sazzad Hossain2

1
Department of Animal Science, Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari Agricultural and Natural Resources Research and Education Center, Agricultural
Research, Education and Extension Organization (AREEO), Shahrekord, Iran
2
Department of Aquaculture, Bangladesh Agricultural University, Mymensingh 2202, Bangladesh
3
Department of Basic Sciences, Sanandaj Branch, Islamic Azad University, Sanandaj, Iran
4
School of Veterinary Medicine, Islamic Azad University Karaj Branch, Karaj, Iran
5
Department of Veterinary Medicine, RUDN University, 6 Miklukho-Maklaya St, 117198 Moscow, Russia
6
Department of Natural Resources, Fishery Group, Islamic Azad University (Lahijan branch), Iran
♦
Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract
Pesticides and heavy metals are considered as potent contaminants in aquatic environment. Both contaminants are sourced into the
aquatic ecosystems by various types of anthropogenic as well as natural practices. Such types of aquatic contamination drastically affect
the normal activity of associated living organisms particularly fish. Both the pesticides and heavy metals toxicity cause several negative
effects on fish growth, physiology, immune response, reproduction, embryonic and larval development as well as different histopathology
of major organs including fish gill, kidney, liver, gonads, and intestine. Besides, the consumption of contaminated fish poses a serious
health concern to associated consumers. Considering these serious issues, the current review is designed to investigate the toxic effects of
pesticides and heavy metals on different aspects of fishes along with their possible sources, major types, and mode of action as well as role
of medicinal herbs to mitigate their toxicity.

Key words: pesticide, heavy metal, contamination, fish, remediation

Contamination of aquatic ecosystem is a matter of vestable crops has been related to some factors compris-
serious concern throughout the world. Both the natural ing the use of pesticides (Aktar et al., 2009).
and anthropogenic activities adversely affect the aquat- Certain ingredients of pesticides including
ic environment as well as associated living organisms. azadirachtin and/or glufosinate are compounds that hap-
Various types of contaminants including pesticides (San- pen naturally and are created using processes of synthetic
tana et al., 2021, Ghafarifarsani et al., 2023 a; Rohani, chemistry (Fernandes et al., 2019; Mesnage et al., 2019).
2023), heavy metals (Mirghaed et al., 2018; Mahmuda et These naturally occurring pesticides are commonly es-
al., 2020; Suchana et al., 2021; Taslima et al., 2022) etc. tablished to have profitable well-being influences in
have resulted in a wide range of complexities in aquatic humans because they evoke cellular stress adaption re-
communities (fauna and flora) and posed a serious threat. sponse pathways (Martel et al., 2019; Mesnage et al.,
Rapid industrial establishment resulted in discharge of 2019).
a number of toxicants which either directly or indirectly Since 1945, the utilization of pesticides has contained
affects both the aquatic ecology as well as organisms roughly 7 million people from death as a result of killing
(Jan et al., 2022). Among them, heavy metals and pes- pests, which extend diseases, including yellow fever, ty-
ticides are considered as the most potent contaminants phoid fever, bubonic plague, and encephalitis. Preventing
in aquatic environment (Alam et al., 2023; Emon et al., the outbreaks of diseases was one of the advantageous
2023; Ramesh et al., 2023). Generally, pesticides have uses of pesticides to improve human health. For example,
beneficial effects that are important, including control- malaria is reported to be responsible for the death of over
ling pests, weeds, and rodents, high productivity, and bet- 5000 a day worldwide (Ross, 2005).
ter quality of crops which also results in additional eco- Heavy metals and pesticides toxicity negatively af-
nomic revenue (Popp et al., 2013). Yield protection and fect the physiology and growth of fish (Yang et al.,
food affordability, thereby provide economic benefits to 2021; Zulfahmi et al., 2021). Heavy metals toxicity sig-
farmers and the consumers (Mesnage et al., 2019). The nificantly altered the hemato-biochemical profile of fish
increases in outputs and production, and the decline of (Islam et al., 2020 a; Balali-Mood et al., 2021; Ahmed
losses caused by diseases, insect pests, and weeds can et al., 2022). Besides, heavy metal pollution exhibited
reduce the quality, market value, and the number of har- genotoxicity in several fish species (Tlenshieva et al.,
1008 H. Ghafarifarsani et al.

2022; Choudhury et al., 2023). On the other hand, pes- also human health as they have the ability to accumulate
ticides contamination also negatively affects the larval to a different extent in fish and hence destroy the food
development and growth (Nataraj et al., 2023); hemato- chain (Bodnar et al., 2022). In review article of Kumar
biochemical profiles (Rohani, 2023); cellular and nuclear Sinha et al. (2022), toxicity of most pesticides has resulted
structure of erythrocytes (Akter et al. 2020; Khatib et al., in anemia and leukocytosis in fish. Altered hematologi-
2022); functions of important organs such as gill, liver, cal parameters in turn detrimentally change vital physi-
kidney and gonad (Khabbazi et al., 2014; Farag et al., ology of fish, e.g. respiration, feeding, reproduction etc.
2021; Shah and Parveen, 2022) of different fish species. Any change in the physiology of fish could have cata-
Finally, aquatic organisms especially fish have become strophic consequences like decrease in productivity of
the unvoiced victims of these contamination as it is be- fish. So, Kumari (2012) reviewed pesticides toxicity in
lieved that aquatic systems act as final destination of all fishes and it can be assumed that the long-term exposure
these contaminants. And these types of alarming aquatic of fish to pesticides (including insecticides) is an ongoing
contamination has attracted the concentration of the con- danger to the population’s health. The rationalization of
cerned researchers throughout the world. Though heavy the use of pesticides has been considered a crucial factor
metals and pesticides severely affect the growth, physi- in reducing the degradation of the marine ecosystem by
ology, reproduction of fishes, very little comprehensive pesticides and other pollutants. Panda et al. (2023) have
information regarding their responses is available. There- found that the strongest positive associations were dis-
fore, the current review summarizes the toxicity of heavy covered between Cu–Zn (r = 0.74, P<0.05) and Cr–Zn
metals and pesticides in fish as well as highlights pos- (r = 0.57, P<0.05). Spatial distribution maps depicting
sible way to ameliorate their toxicity. the consumption of fish as food and its corresponding Pb
and Cr intake revealed a higher incidence of both carci-
Pesticides nogenic and non-carcinogenic health concerns attributed
Pesticides are chemical (natural or synthetic) com- to Pb and Cr in the region with populations consuming
pounds which are toxic in nature and widely used to the fish. Beketov et al. (2013) reported that the pesti-
control different pests, insects, weeds and pathogens to cides are responsible for reducing regional biodiversity
enhance the yield quality as well as quantity (Kim et al., of aquatic insects and other fresh water invertebrates.
2017) that act as a potent contaminant in aquatic water- A review study by Lakhani (2015) indicated that disadvan-
bodies and hence exert negative impacts in aquatic organ- tages of pesticides include their toxicity to some humans,
isms (Helfrich et al., 2009). Based on the harmfulness animals and useful plants, and the persistence of some of
of pesticides, the World Health Organization (WHO) these chemicals in the environment, which causes serious
grouped them into four categories, including extremely hazard to both the public health and the environment.
hazardous, highly hazardous, moderately hazardous and According to Sud and Kaur (2012) unutilized soluble
slightly hazardous (Al-Mamun, 2017). Numerous groups pesticides of plants are converted into less soluble ones
of pesticides (insecticides, herbicides, bactericides, lar- and then released into the waterbodies through run-off.
vicides and fungicides) are extensively used all over the Being an essential part of aquatic system, fish are sensi-
world (Abdel Khalek et al., 2018). Pesticides in aquatic tive to several environmental contamination and there-
ecosystems are mainly sourced from agricultural runoff fore widely used as bio-indicator of several toxicity pa-
and exert serious concern to not only aquatic species but rameters (Okwuosa et al., 2019) (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Various kinds and sources of water pollutants (Yadav et al., 2019)
 Pesticides and heavy metal toxicity in fish and possible remediation 1009

Figure 2. Structures of some of the major pesticides (values in the circles denote median lethal doses [LD50] in mg/kg in mammals) (Yadav et
al., 2019)

Primarily, pesticides are accumulated into the body Herbicides

of aquatic organisms including fish by three possible Herbicides are frequently used in different crops
routes: skin, gills and mouth. Firstly, pesticides are di- lands, gardens, and lawns. Besides, they are applied in
rectly absorbed through fish skin when fish swim into the various aquatic systems to restrict the growth of different
contaminated waters. Secondly, gills play an important unwanted aquatic weeds including submerged (coontail,
role in pesticides uptake through respiration process and milfoil, naiad); floating (duckweed, spatterdock), and
finally, pesticides absorption occurs by mouth through emergent (cattails, rushes, reeds). Moreover, the produc-
consumption of pesticides contaminated water as well tion of different nuisance algal species such as colonial,
as prey known as “secondary poisoning” (Helfrich et al., filamentous and single cells is controlled by their ap-
2009; Poopak et al., 2023). Pesticides toxicity adversely plication. Herbicides significantly affect the reproduc-
affects the normal physiology of gills, liver, kidney and tive performance of fish. Some of the aquatic weeds act
digestive tract of fish and hence disturbs their functions as shelter and food source for fish. Destruction of these
(Khatib et al., 2022). Pourgholam et al. (2013) demon- weeds by herbicides negatively affects their protection
strated that pesticides toxicity caused severe histopa- as well as food source. Moreover, aquatic plants play an
thology (hyperemia, hyperplasia, necrosis, separation of important role in maintaining dissolved oxygen levels in
membrane, and fusion of lamellae) in fish gills and af- aquatic systems and their destruction results in adverse
fected the osmoregulation as well as respiration in fish. impacts on aquatic environment.
Median lethal dose (LD50) is a toxic unit which is
generally used to measure the toxicity of different toxins Rodenticides
including pesticides in aquatic systems. Generally, lower Rodenticides are also termed as rat poison. Some
value of LD50 indicates the more toxicity of the toxicants commonly used rodenticides are warfarin, red squill,
and range between 0 and 10 regarded as extreme tox- sodium fluoroacetate, and zinc phosphide. They kill the
icity. However, severity of pesticides contamination in rodents by inhibiting the vitamin K and make them una-
aquatic ecosystems depends on various factors (toxicity, vailable to the rodents. Different forms of vitamin D (D3
degradation and persistence) (Figure 2). Major groups of and D2) result in hypercalcemia in rodents. Strychnine,
pesticides are described below: a rodenticide generally found in semen nut tree (Strych-
nos nux-vomica) kills the rats by causing asphyxia. Chlo-
Fungicides ralose derived from glucose and Paris green rodenticide
Fungicides are important pesticides which are con- (arsenic trioxide + copper acetate) act as important ro-
sidered less toxic to fish and other aquatic organisms denticides.
in comparison to insecticides. However, some of them
caused destructive impacts on the ecosystem and have Insecticides
been banned. Application of mercury bearing fungicides Insecticides harm the insects by three main ways such
has been stopped in the USA since 1976 as accumulation as upon ingestion, direct contact and finally play the role as
and transmission of mercury in the food cycle resulted fumigants. In general, insecticides are of two types namely
in huge fish deaths. Some of the currently used fungi- natural insecticides and synthetic insecticides. Commonly
cides are found very toxic to fish as well as other aquatic used natural insecticides are Azadirachta indica, Peganum
invertebrates. So, proper care and management should harmala and Chrysanthemum. Among them A. indica spe-
be taken during their application adjacent to the aquatic cifically infect the larval stage of insects hence known as
waterbodies. larvicides. On the other hand, organochlorines, organo-
1010 H. Ghafarifarsani et al.

phosphates, carbamates, and pyrethroids (ethylene dibro- ments (platinum, Pt; gold, Au; silver, Ag etc.) and v. ra-
mide, EDB) are commonly used as synthetic insecticides. dionuclides (uranium, U; radium, Ra etc.). On the other
Sporeine, the first commercially available bioinsecticide hand, trace elements including copper, Cu; selenium, Se;
was introduced in Germany. Various types of insect growth and zinc, Zn are also recognized as heavy metals. Though
regulatory ingredients (azadirachtin, hydroprene etc.) are some of the metals are essential for fish growth and feed
used in insecticides that restrict the formation of chitin and utilization (Akter et al., 2021; Rohani et al., 2022), all are
ecdysone of different insects such as mosquitoes, cock- toxic in excess levels (Suchana et al., 2021; Sarkar et al.,
roaches etc. Depending on the chemical formation, pesti- 2022). Sources of heavy metals in the environment are
cides are mainly categorized into (a) organochlorines; (b) broadly divided into two types: natural or anthropogenic
organophosphates; (c) carbamates; (d) pyrethroids and (e) activities. Heavy metals in aquatic environment are main-
triazines (Figure 3). ly sourced from several types of anthropogenic practices
such as agricultural, docking and embarkation activities,
Heavy metals effluents from industrial and household practices and
Different types of organic and inorganic substances are natural sources including outbreaks of volcanos, soil and
responsible for aquatic contamination and among them rock formation etc. (Roozbahani et al., 2015). Most of the
heavy metals caused severe contamination (Raeeszadeh et metals are non-biodegradable and carcinogenic in nature.
al., 2022; Vijayaram et al., 2023). Metals and metalloids Bioaccumulation of heavy metals occurs in different tis-
that have high molecular density and exert toxicity in even sues of aquatic organisms that possess severe chronic
very low concentrations are known as heavy metals (Koller health impacts (Ghafarifarsani et al., 2023 b). Therefore,
and Saleh, 2018). Commonly occurring heavy metals are it is utmost necessary to find out appropriate methods for
arsenic, As; lead, Pb; mercury, Hg; cadmium, Cd; chromi- removal from the environment. Guideline values for some
um, Cr; thallium, Tl; etc. Among them, Pb, Hg, and Cd are of the heavy metals are listed in Table 1.
considered as most potent toxic metals in the environment Heavy metals toxicity in fish varies with various fac-
(Raeeszadeh et al., 2022). On the basis of their positive as tors such as ecological condition, metabolic rate, salinity
well as negative roles, heavy metals can be classified into concentration, state of water contamination, feed and sed-
two broad types such as essential and non-essential metals iment. Basically, types and concentration of heavy metals
(Kim et al., 2017). Essential heavy metals are those which determine the metal toxicity on human as well as other
are generally harmless or less harmful at low concentra- aquatic species (Ghaedi et al., 2007). Gill is the main
tions. Metals including Zn, Cu, Fe and Co are categorized site by which different contaminants including heavy
as essential heavy metals. These metals can influence sev- metals accumulate into fish (Hansen et al., 2002). Bioac-
eral biological processes by playing the role of coenzyme. cumulation and biotransformation of metals has become
For instance, Fe plays an important role in the formation of a great concern for human health (Smith, 1993). Results of
hemoglobin (Hb) and myoglobin while Co is essential for a research (Begum et al., 2009) showed that the high-
the production of vitamin B12. On the contrary, the metals est concentration of heavy metals is in kidney and liver
which exert toxicity even at very small concentrations, re- of ten different fish species. Contaminated sediments can
sult in severe negative impacts on living organisms and are threaten creatures in the benthic environment, exposing
generally non-biodegradable are known as non-essential worms, crustaceans and insects to hazardous concentra-
heavy metals. Metals such as Pb, Cr, As, Hg and Cd are tions of toxic chemicals. Also, Vinodhini et al. (2009)
grouped as non-essential metals. In addition, heavy metals in common carp (Cyprinus carpio) exposed to heavy
can also be classified as: i. macro-nutrient elements (Co, metals showed that the concentrations of red blood cells,
Fe etc.); ii. micro-nutrient elements (Cu, Ni, Cr etc.); iii. blood glucose and total cholesterol were significantly el-
highly toxic metals (Hg, Cd, Pb, As etc.); iv. precious ele- evated.

Figure 3. Classification and the chemical composition of pesticides (Fishel and Ferrell, 2010; modified after Yadav and Devi, 2017)
 Pesticides and heavy metal toxicity in fish and possible remediation 1011

Table 1. Guideline values of heavy metals (according to World Health logical methods are established to assess the toxic effects
Organization, WHO, 2004) of these pesticides on living aquatic species including
Heavy metals Guideline value (mg/l) fish (Pandey et al., 2011; Kushwaha et al., 2012). Ef-
Antimony (Sb) 0.02 fects of different pesticides on various fish species are
Arsenic (As) 0.01 demonstrated in Table 2. Pesticides can affect fish either
Barium (Ba) 0.7 directly or indirectly (Ullah et al., 2014). Pesticides in-
Cadmium (Cd) 0.003
directly affect fish by reducing natural food availability
of the aquatic systems (Helfrich et al., 2009). In addi-
Chromium (Cr) 0.05
tion, pesticides make fish more prone to the predators by
Copper (Cu) 2
altering their normal behavior as well as by degrading
Lead (Pb) 0.01 their habitat (Gill and Raine, 2014). A number of stud-
Manganese (Mn) 0.4 ies reported that pesticides induced several alterations
Mercury (Hg) 0.006 in fish behavior (Rani and Kumaraguru, 2014; Tang et
Molybdenum (Mo) 0.07 al., 2017). Kinds of effects of various pesticides can be
Nickel (Ni) 0.07 variable to a greater extent on fish population. Survival,
Selenium (Se) 0.01
growth, and reproduction of fish are badly affected either
by direct death due to starvation or by the destruction of
Uranium (U) 0.015
food organisms (Prashanth, 2011; Murthy et al., 2013).
Now, it has been a fact that all pesticides are potentially
Effects of pesticides on fish lethal to the fishes even at relatively low concentrations
Pesticides are regarded as one of the most toxic con- (Ullah and Zorriehzahra, 2015). Moreover, fish mortal-
taminants in aquatic system which can be sourced from ity due to pesticides like malathion (organophosphorus
three main ways including water column, organic com- pesticide) and aldrin (organochlorine pesticide) groups
pounds (several algae, aquatic vegetation, leaf litter) and of chemicals is on the record (Sabra and Mehana, 2015;
inorganic sediment (Golshani et al., 2020). Several bio- Jayaraj et al., 2016).

Table 2. Effects of different pesticides on various fish species

Exposure time
Species Pesticides Doses Effects References
(days)
1 2 3 4 5 6
Trichogaster fasciata Thiamethoxam 9.37, 18.75, 90 Pathologies such as necrosis, autolysis, vacuola- Hasan et al., 2023
37.5, 75 and tion, cell swelling observed in liver.
150 mg/l Deformed cell and irregular renal corpuscle in
kidney.
T. fasciata Thiamethoxam 0, 9.37, 18.75, 60 Telangiectasia, hemorrhage, clubbed and dam- Hasan et al., 2021
37.5, 75 and aged gill rakers and filaments were noticed.
150 mg/l Water dissolved oxygen level significantly low-
ered.
Danio rerio Sumithion 0.235 and 3 Edema, notochord deformity, yolk sac damage, Rahman et al.,
0.341 mg/l body arcuation, lordosis, black pigmentation on 2020
the yolk sac.
C. carpio Imidacloprid 0, 10, 30, 100, 4 Hatching rate of fertilized eggs and number of Islam et al., 2019
300 and 1000 dead embryos and larvae significantly decreased.
µg/l Several malformations were observed in embryos
and larvae.
O. niloticus Sumithion 0.025, 0.050 180 Vacuolation, ruptured and degenerated hepatopan- Kabir et al., 2019
and 100 mg/l creas, necrotic and hemorrhagic hepatocytes.
Deformed renal cells, unusual blood vessel, vacu-
olation and necrosis were seen in kidney.
Pangasianodon Sumithion 5.886 mg/l 4 WBCs, blood glucose level increased while Hb, Islam et al., 2019
hypophthalmus RBCs decreased significantly
Increased micronucleus formation.
M. cavasius Cypermethrin 0, 2, 4, 8, 16 3 Hatching success decreased and mortality of lar- Ali et al., 2018
and 32 µg/l vae increased significantly.
Malformations in embryos and larvae were no-
ticed.
Barbonymus gonionitus Sumithion 0.00, 0.025, 30 Hypertrophic, pyknotic, necrotic, hemorrhagic Al-Emran et al.,
0.05 and 0.1 cells were found in liver and kidney tissues. 2018
mg/l
1012 H. Ghafarifarsani et al.

Table 2 – contd.
1 2 3 4 5 6
T. fasciata Chlorpyrifos 0, 0.01, 0.10, 4 Hatching success decreased and mortality of lar- Sumon et al.,
1.0, 10 and vae significantly increased. 2017
100 μg/l Hampered the development of larvae.
H. fossilis Sumithion 150 and 250 2 Irregular head shape, lordosis, yolk sac edema, Shahjahan et al.,
μg/l body arcuation, tissue ulceration were noticed in 2017
larvae.
Clarias batrachus Sumithion 5.25 mg/l 1 Hb, RBC and HCT significantly reduced. Naqvi et al., 2017
D. rerio Sumithion 0.5, 1.0 and 7 Blood glucose increased but Hb decreased. Ahmed et al.,
2.0 mg/l Abnormal mucosal lumen, disrupted villi, slug- 2016
gish epidermal cells were noticed in intestine.
H. fossilis Sumithion 0.5, 1.0, 2.0, 120 Very poor reproductive performances. Decreased Das et al., 2016
4.0 and 8.0 fertilized eggs, egg malformation increase.
mg/l
C. carpio Sumithion 0.85 and 1.7 21 Vacuoles, hemorrhage, degenerated hepatic cells. Hossain et al.,
mg/l 2016
C. carpio Sumithion 0.85 and 1.7 4 Glu, MCV and MCH increased while Hb, RBC Hossain et al.,
mg/l and Hct decreased. 2015
C. carpio Sumithion 4.25 mg/l 4 Significantly changed physiological functions. Salam et al., 2015
O. niloticus Fenitrothion 0–7.0 mg/l 4 Several histopathological disorders observed in Abu Zeid and
gills, liver and kidney tissues. Khalil, 2014
Ctenopharyngodon Sumithion Fed contami- 4 Cholinesterase in blood serum decreased while Pucher et al.,
idella nated grass blood glucose level increased. 2014
H. fossilis Sumithion 0.24 mg/L 240 Glucose increased; RBC, WBC and Hb decreased. Ali et al., 2014
O. niloticus Sumithion 1.89 mg/l 4 Bioconcentration factor of the muscle tissue in- Sherif et al., 2013
creased.
Channa punctatus Fenitrothion 0.01, 0.02, 21 Fibrostic, necrotic, vacuoles found in hepatic cells. Akhter and Saha,
0.03, 0.04 and Hemorrhagic, edematic Bowman’s capsule, 2013
0.05 mg/l atrophic glomeruli in kidney.
H. fossilis Sumithion 0.64 mg/l 4 Glycogen and cholesterol content significantly al- Kumari, 2012
tered in ovary.
O. niloticus Fenitrothion 0.005, 0.05, 4 Hyperaemia, haemorrhage in kidney. Benli and Ozkul,
0.1 and 0.5 Cloudy swelling, hydropic degenerations, lipid 2010
mg/l infiltration in liver.
Hyperplasia, fusion, telangiectasia in gills.
Poecilia reticulata Fenitrothion 3.28 mg/l 4 Sluggish movement at high concentration. Sarikaya et al.,
2007
C. carpio Fenitrothion 10 mg/l 2 Several histopathological disorders observed. Sepici-Dincel et
al., 2007

Blood is an important tool for investigating the effects several infections and diseases by lowering their immune
of pesticides on fish. In fact, hematological parameters responses (Satyavardhan, 2013). Methyl parathion ex-
provide a signal of a change in the physiological state of hibited irregular movement, alteration in body color, and
fish due to stress, pollution, exposure to pesticides or in- enhanced mucus secretion in katla, Catla catla (Ilavazha-
fection. By studying changes in important blood param- han et al., 2010). Marigoudar et al. (2009) revealed that
eters of fish including total red blood cell count (TEC), cypermethrin caused erratic swimming, loss of balance,
Hb content, packed cell volume (PCV), red blood cell hyperactivity in rohu, Labeo rohita. Histopathological
sedimentation rate (ESR), absolute values, total leuko- changes in different fish tissues due to pesticides toxicity
cyte count (TLC), coagulation time and the number of were also documented by several studies (Mohammed et
thrombocytes, changes in the quality of the water envi- al., 2019; Ghafarifarsani et al., 2023 a). Thiamethoxam
ronment can be easily evaluated. and chlorpyrifos caused several liver pathologies in-
Pesticides resulted in sluggish movement and abnor- cluding necrosis, vacuolation, hemorrhages etc.; kidney
mal swimming (Nagaraju et al., 2011); interrupted their pathologies such as degenerated glomerulus, congested
nature to maintain fish schooling (Gill and Raine, 2014) and damaged renal tubules, infiltrated lymphocytes; gill
that enhanced the chance of different preys attack. Pes- pathologies including telangiectasia, fused gill lamel-
ticides resulted in stressful situations for fish and caused lae, damaged and clubbed gill rakers and arches etc. in
 Pesticides and heavy metal toxicity in fish and possible remediation 1013

striped gourami, Trichogaster fasciata (Hasan et al., water (Has-Schӧn et al., 2007). Generally, heavy met-
2021). Moreover, numerous studies revealed toxicities als are absorbed into the fish by gills or intestine, then
of different pesticides in various tissues of fish includ- transported with blood and finally deposited in differ-
ing sumithion to Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus (Ka- ent fish organs (Javed and Usmani, 2014; Al-Taee et
bir et al., 2019), Thai sharputi, Barbonymus gonionitus al., 2020). Extent of metals bioaccumulation in fish
(Al-Emran et al., 2018), common carp (Hossain et al., body depends on metals absorption as well as elimi-
2016); fenitrothion to spotted snakehead, Channa punc- nation rates (Ahmed et al., 2016). Effects of heavy
tatus (Akhter and Saha, 2013); cypermethrin to amazon metals on different aspects of fish are summarized in
bluespotted corydora Corydoras melanistius (Santos et Table 3.
al., 2012). Pesticides also altered the hemato-biochemi- Heavy metals toxicity greatly affect the growth and
cal profiles of fish (Sivanatarajan and Sivaramakrishnan, feed utilization of fish. Some of the metals showed posi-
2013). Several pesticides such as fenitrothion, profeno- tive impacts in fish growth up to certain levels (Akter et
fos, sumithion were reported to cause significant changes al., 2020; Rohani et al., 2022). While excess levels of
in red blood cells (RBCs), white blood cells (WBCs), Cr negatively affect the growth of fish (El-Sayed et al.,
Hb, blood glucose level, packed cell volume (PCV) etc. 2010). Toxic effects of Zn resulted in poor growth and
in different fish species (Islam et al., 2019). Besides, en- feed utilization in O. niloticus (Tan et al., 2011) and juve-
zymes secretion inhibited by pesticide contamination es- nile yellow catfish, Pelteobagrus fulvidraco (Luo et al.,
pecially acetylcholinesterase (AChE) is very much sen- 2011). Reproductive performances of fish are severely af-
sitive to pesticides of organophosphate and carbamate fected by heavy metals contamination, which hampered
groups (Bibi et al., 2014), and, AChE inhibition resulted the sperm and ovum production of fish as well as low-
in overall poor performance of fish including reduced ered their quality, hatching, and fertilization rate (Celino
swimming capacity (Rao et al., 2007). Cypermethrin et al., 2009). Cr toxicity resulted in shrunken sperm lob-
induced alterations in several enzymes (AChE, succinic ules, fibrosis in the testis, reduced sperm movement as
dehydrogenase, lactic dehydrogenase) and resulted in well as fertilization rates (Dietrich et al., 2012; Hayati
hyperactivity in L. rohita (Marigoudar et al., 2010); com- et al., 2017; Raeeszadeh and Fallah, 2018). Moreover,
plexities in nervous system in C. fasciatus (Singh et al., negative effects of heavy metals on embryonic and larval
2010). Moreover, pesticides induced several biochemi- development including lower hatchability, poor survival,
cal changes and caused stress in fish (Muthukumaravel improper skeletal structure, incomplete pigmentation,
et al., 2013). Thenmozhi et al. (2011) reported that mala- abnormal eyes etc. have been demonstrated in several
thion toxicity restricts the functions of catalase (CAT) studies (Gárriz and Miranda, 2020; Taslima et al., 2022).
and glutathione-S-transferase (GST) in several organs Heavy metals significantly altered the blood profiles
(muscle, gill, liver) of L. rohita. Similar results were also of fish (Islam et al., 2020 a; Suchana et al., 2021). RBCs,
exhibited due to the sodium cyanide exposure (Dube et Hb, and leukocytes decreased significantly WBCs, and
al., 2013). Another study reported reduced catalase activ- blood glucose levels increased in different heavy met-
ity by sodium cyanide in C. carpio (David et al., 2008). als contaminated fish (Fazio, 2019). Cr toxicity signifi-
Moreover, pesticides lowered the immune response and cantly enhanced the WBCs content of striped catfish,
endocrine disorders in different fishes (Dey and Saha, Pangasianodon hypophthalmus (Islam et al., 2020 a)
2014). Furthermore, genetic damages (genotoxicity) which could result from increased lymphocytes produc-
as a result of pesticides contamination have been re- tion to boost up immunity in stressed condition. On the
ported by several studies (Devi et al., 2011; Kushwaha et other hand, Al-Ghanim (2011) reported significant re-
al., 2012; Poorbagher et al., 2018). Oxygen consumption duction in WBCs level in Ni exposed C. carpio which
rate also changed due to pesticides toxicity (Shereena et could be caused by the inhibition of lymphopoiesis by
al., 2009). Heavy contamination resulted in fish mortal- heavy metals. Heavy metals toxicity significantly de-
ity by damaging their metabolic activity (Shanker et al., creased the packed cell volume, PCV (Soundararajan
2013). Moreover, pesticides negatively change the nu- and Veeraiyan, 2014) while decreasing and increasing
tritional composition of several fish species (Bibi et al., trends observed in terms of mean corpuscular volume,
2014). MCV; mean corpuscular Hb, MCH (Banday et al.,
2019). Several studies reported that exposure to Cd, Cu
Effects of heavy metals on fishes and Fe significantly enhanced blood glucose level in C.
Heavy metals are the most hazardous contaminants catla; African catfish, Clarias gariepinus; C. puncta-
in ecological systems (Radkhah et al., 2020, 2022) that tus (Javed and Usmani, 2014; Banday et al., 2019). Be-
negatively influence the physiology of fish. Heavy met- sides, exposure to heavy metals caused a significant in-
als result in different types of complexities (Jadhav et crease in blood cholesterol and low density lipid (LDL)
al., 2010). Bioaccumulation and toxicity of heavy met- level in C. punctatus (Javed et al., 2017). Moreover, dif-
als in different fish tissues not only varies with metals ferent cellular and nuclear anomalies were reported for
concentration and exposure duration but also chemical heavy metals toxicity in fish erythrocytes (Islam et al.,
properties (temperature, salinity, pH, and hardness) of 2020 a).
1014 H. Ghafarifarsani et al.

Table 3. Effects of heavy metals on different aspects of fish

Exposure
Species Doses Effects References
period
1 2 3 4 5
Cd
Catla catla 4.5 mg/l 30 days Atrophy, telangiectasia, and necrosis in gill. Naz et al., 2021
Degenerated, congested and hemorrhagic hepatocytes.
Atrophic glomerulus, degenerated and necrotic renal
tubes, melanomacrophages center in kidney.
Mystus seenghala 1/3 of LC50 112 days Poor growth as well as feed utility. Fazio et al., 2021
Ictalurus punctatus 0.5 and 2.6 μg/l 180 days Negatively affected the growth performances of fish. Paul and Small,
2021
Odontesthes bonariensis 0.25 and 2.5 μg/l 10 days Poor survival of larvae and embryo. Gárriz and Miranda,
2020
Pelteobagrus fulvidraco 0, 50 and 200 μg/L 56 days Significantly lowered the weight gain and specific growth Xie et al., 2019
rate.
C. gariepinus 0.316 mg/l – AST, ALP, ALT, Cort, Glu, MCH increased while CK, Banday et al., 2019
TLC, MCV decreased.
Oncorhynchus mykiss 2 µg/l 4 days Micronucleus, nuclear bud and bi-nucleated erythroblasts Jurgelėnė et al.,
in larvae . 2019
Channa striata 0.001 mg/l – HDL, LDL, TP, AST and ALT increased while Glu level Phoonaploy et al.,
decreased. 2019
D. rerio 30 µg/l 35 days Growth and survival rate significantly declined. Yuan et al., 2017
C. carpio 0.10 mg/l 30 days Spiked and fused lamellae, club-shaped epithelial fila- Rajeshkumar et al.,
ments in lamellae. 2017
Hepatic cells with ruptured vein and vacuoles.
D. rerio 60 ppb 7 days post- Otolith diameter decreased, various fiber observed be- Green et al., 2017
-fertilization tween otoliths.
C. carpio 8.4 mg/l 15 days Fused gill lamellae, widen vessel, hyperemia, and hyper- Khalesi et al., 2017
plasia in epithelial cells of gill.
Sparus aurata 0.5 mg/kg 15 days Expression of cytochrome P450 increased while heat Benhamed et al.,
shock protein (HSP90) decreased. 2016
C. carpio 0.3 and 0.06 mg/l 60 days Poor survival and growth, deformed yolk sac, cardiac El-Greisy and El-
edema, bent vertebral column. Gamal, 2015
O. niloticus 0.5 mg/l 56 days Reduced growth and feed intake. Abdel-Tawwab and
Wafeek, 2014
Leuciscus idus 0.1 mg/l 21 days Body length and perimeter small, survival rate declined. Witeska et al., 2014
L. rohita 0.826 mg/l – WBC level increased significantly while RBC, Hct de- Chandanshive et al.,
creased significantly. 2012
Oryzias latipes 0.18–19.8 μg/l 10 days Kyphosis, lordosis observed in larval spine. Barjhoux et al., 2012
Colisa fasciatus 1.86 mg/l - Protein, gly, nucleic acid decreased. Tripathi et al., 2012
O. mykiss 35.9 μg/kg 28 days Level of hepatic transferrin, metallothionein (MTs) and Kwong et al., 2011
heat shock protein (HSP70) increased.
O. niloticus 1.0 mg/l 7–14 days ALT, Cort., Glu and TP level increased while cholesterol Firat and Kargin,
level decreased. 2010
Cr
P. hypophthalmus 2, 4 and 8 mg/kg 60 days Growth and feed utilization significantly decreased in Akter et al., 2021
fish fed 8 mg/kg with micronucleus formation.
P. hypophthalmus 0.8, 1.6 and 3.2 30 days Erythrocytic cellular and nuclear complexities resulted Suchana et al., 2021
mg/l in histopathologies observed in gills, liver and kidney.
WBCs, blood glucose level increased.
Oryzias melastigma 10.44 and 20.88 4 days Vacuoles, pyknotic cells, abnormal nucleus observed in Ni and Shen, 2021
mg/l hepatic cells.
O. niloticus 4.57 mg/l 60 days Weight gain, specific growth rate reduced. Mohamed et al.,
2020
P. hypophthalmus 10, 20, 30, 40, 50 4 days Different anomalies observed in erythrocytes. Islam et al., 2020
and 60 mg/l RBC, Hb, PCV decreased significantly.
Platichthys stellatus 0, 50, 100, 200 and 28 days Daily weight and length gain declined. Ko et al., 2019
400 ppb Hepatosomatic index (HSI) reduced.
 Pesticides and heavy metal toxicity in fish and possible remediation 1015

Table 3 – contd.
1 2 3 4 5
C. punctatus 0.08 mg/l – Albumin, triglyceride, HDL and VLDL level in serum Javed et al., 2017
decreased.
O. latipes 4 mg/l 90 days GSI and fecundity significantly lowered. Chen et al., 2016
Frequencies of immature oocytes and spermatozoa in-
creased in gonad.
Sebastes schlegelii 0, 30, 60, 120 and 28 days Growth performance reduced. Kim and Kang, 2016
240 mg/kg Poor feed utilization.
Acipenser ruthenus 0.1 and 5.0 mg/l 2h Higher Cr concentration inhibited the sperm motility and Li et al., 2010
velocity.
C. punctatus 4 mg/l 30 days Oocytes with incomplete vitellogenesis. Mishra and Mo-
hanty, 2008
Cu
C. carpio 0.05 and 0.1 mg/l 90 days Significantly reduced the growth and feed utilization in- Ghosh et al., 2020
dices.
Channa gachua 1.4202 mg/l 4 days Vacuoles in the cytoplasm and stroma, degenerated nu- Kawade, 2020
clei observed in liver.
P. reticulata 0, 5 and 10 mg/l 56 days Poor reproductive performances, increased parturition Forouhar Vajargah et
period, highest mortality of larvae. al., 2020
Oryzias melastigma 0.32 mg/l 7 days Improper skeletal structures, anomalies in vascular sys- Wang et al., 2020
tem, lower pigmentation of embryo.
O. niloticus 25, 50 and 75 µg/l 90 days Weight gain, specific growth rate declined. Shokr, 2020
C. carpio 20, 30, 40 and 70 28 days TL, WG and CF decreased; HSI increased . Sevcikova et al.,
µg/l 2016
Carassius carassius 0.30 and 0.60 mg/l 20 days Hindered the growth performances. Jiang et al., 2016
P. reticulata 0, 0.004, 0.013, 56 days Higher feed conversion ratio. Moosavi and Sha-
0.019 and 0.029 Poor growth response. mushaki, 2015
mg/l
Leuciscus idus 0.1 mg/l 21 days Yolk sac malformation, lower body length and perimeter, Witeska et al., 2014
curve vertebrae.
Carassius auratu 0.1–1 mg/l 1 day Scoliosis and tail curvatures. Kong et al., 2013

Pb
Myoxocephalus scorpius 4.01 μg/l 28 days Gill lamellae fused, hyperplastic epithelial cells, synechia Jantawongsri et al.,
and telangiectasia observed in gill tissue. 2021
Hepatosis, necrosis, granuloma, and neoplasm in hepato-
cytes.
Mugil cephalus 0.0015 and 0.0025 4 days Glucose, malondialdehyde level in blood increased. Hajirezaee et al.,
mg/l 2021
Chanos chanos 0, 42.64, 63.97 and 40 days WG, LG, SGR, FE, and FCR significantly reduced with Zulfahmi et al., 2021
85.2 mg/l the increase of Pb concentration.
C. carpio 0.25 mg/l 30 days Spiked and fused secondary lamellae, club-shaped fila- Rajeshkumar et al.,
ments epithelium tissue of gill. 2017
Carassius gibelio 8, 13, 24 and 49 365 days Poor reproductive performance. Łuszczek-Trojnar et
mg/kg al., 2014
L. rohita 0.756 mg/l – RBCs, Hct decreased while WBCs increased. Chandanshive et al.,
2012
As
Clarias batrachus 84 mg/l 4 days Total serum proteins level decreased. Pichhode and Gaher-
wal, 2020
H. fossilis 7.0 and 20.0 mg/l 60 days Split muscle fibers, edema, atrophy found in muscle. Begum et al., 2014
Loss of serosal intactness, irregular villi formation.
Necrosis, hemorrhage and hemolysis in liver.
Tilapia mossambica sublethal 21 days WBC, MCH, MCHC level increased while Hb, RBC, Soundararajan and
PCV level decreased significantly. Veeraiyan, 2014
Oreochromis mossam- 3.0, 28.0 and 56.0 8 days Joined lamellae, hyperplasia and necrosis noticed in epi- Ahmed et al., 2013
bicus mg/l thelial cells of gill.
Infiltrated macrophages, shrunken and congested hepatic
cells, hypertrophy and vacuolation found.
1016 H. Ghafarifarsani et al.

Table 3 – contd.
1 2 3 4 5
O. mykiss 26–77 µg/kg 30 days Growth and feed utility declined significantly. Erickson et al., 2010

Hg
O. niloticus 0.025 mg/l 30 days ALT, AST, SOD levels in blood increased significantly. Mahboub et al.,
2021
O. niloticus 500, 750 and 1000 60 days Epithelial lifting and hypertrophy. Fusion of secondary Al-Ghanim et al.,
mg/kg lamellae in gill. 2019
Necrosis of hepatocytes and portal veins in liver.
Cirrhinus mrigala 0.0206 and 0.0402 30 days Lamellar degeneration, epithelial lifting and necrosis in Chavan and Muley,
mg/l intercellular epithelial cells of gill. 2014
Necrosis in hepatocytes, blood vessels dilated, hemoly-
sis, inflammation of hepatic cells, congestion in blood
sinusoids.
Channa gachua 1.0625 mg/l 4 days Vacuolation in the cytoplasm and stoma, degeneration of Deore and Wagh,
nuclei in liver. 2012
Acipenser baerii 0–100 mg/l 4h Motility of sperm reduced with the increase of Hg con- Dietrich et al., 2012
centration.
Acanthopagrus lates 0.01, 0.02, 0.04 21 days Hb, Hct, monocyte increased but WBCs, eosinophil de- Safahieh et al., 2010
and 0.08 mg/l clined.
O. mykiss 1, 10 and 100 mg/l 4h Sperm motility lowered. Dietrich et al., 2010

Zn
Clarias magur 50, 200 and 300 60 days GSI and fecundity decreased with the increased concen- Gupta et al., 2021
mg/kg tration of Zn.
O. melastigma 100 μg/l 30 days Incomplete oocytes formation including empty follicle Yan et al., 2020
with no follicular lining and enhanced follicular atresia.
D. rerio 50 and 500 mg/l 4 days Poor hatching success, heart rate of embryo increased Gouva et al., 2020
with the increase of concentration.
O. niloticus 500 and 2000 μg/l 15 days Significantly increased GSH, SOD, CAT, GST level. Saddick et al., 2017
S. aurata 0.4 μg/l 15 days Metallothionein decreased significantly. Benhamed et al.,
2016
C. punctatus 0.30 mg/l – WBC increased while opposites result observed in RBC Javed and Usmani,
and Hb. 2014
Pagrus major 0.1, 0.3, 0.5, 0.7, 10 days Poor reproductive success. Huang et al., 2010
1.0, 1.5, 2.0 and Abnormal embryo and larvae with improper pigmenta-
2.5 mg/l tion, hooked tail, deformed spine, hemorrhagic viscera
etc.
Ni
C. gariepinus 0.302 mg/l – Significantly altered hemato-biochemical profile of fish. Banday et al., 2019
C. punctatus 0.12 mg/l – RBC, Hb decreased while WBC increased. Javed and Usmani,
2014
C. carpio 6, 9, 12, 15 and 18 4 days RBC, WBC, Hct and Hb, MCV remarkably decreased. Al-Ghanim, 2011
mg/l
C. gariepinus 4, 6, 8, 10 and 12 4 days Significantly changed biochemical indices of blood. Ololade and Oginni,
mg/l 2010

Heavy metals induced severe histopathology in dif- cells, pyknosis, and vacuoles) observed in different ex-
ferent important fish organs. Heavy metals contamina- tent in various fish (Kawade, 2020). Degenerated and
tion resulted in hyperplastic and hypertrophic epithelial, necrotic renal tubes, shrunken renal corpuscle, atrophic
chloride and mucous cells in gills, congested capillary, glomerulus, hypertrophic epithelial cells, etc. have been
jointed gill lamellae, clubbing, telangiectasia in fish exhibited due to different metals toxicities in fish kid-
gill and caused respiratory difficulties (Rajeshkumar et ney and disrupted their normal functions (Islam et al.,
al., 2017; Al-Ghanim et al., 2019). Liver is very much 2020 a). Moreover, significant negative effects of heavy
sensitive to heavy metals in comparison to other organs metals on fish intestine were stated by different studies
and several histopathological changes (necrotic and de- and caused difficulties in fish digestion (Kaoud et al.,
generated hepatocytes, cirrhosis and lysis of hepatic 2015).
 Pesticides and heavy metal toxicity in fish and possible remediation 1017

Impact of pesticides and heavy metals on the im- Ghafarifarsani et al., 2021; Bello-Medina et al., 2022).
mune system in fish Uncontrolled oxidative stress caused alteration of several
Pesticides and heavy metals adversely affect the im- physiological activities of organisms that caused sever-
mune responses of several fish species. They reduced the al chronic diseases that directly or indirectly affect the
disease resistance capacity of fish by declining the leu- survival rate of organisms (Zheng et al., 2021; Sandys
kocytes, granulocytes as well as lymphocytes, restricting and Te-Velde, 2022). Malondialdehyde (MDA) level
the production of B and T cells (Abdel-Latif et al., 2020; indicates the level of peroxidized lipids and has been
Raeeszadeh et al., 2022). Lysozyme activity drastically considered as an important indicator of oxidative stress
lowered due to the exposure of cypermethrin in Korean resulting from various contaminants including pesticides
rockfish, Sebastes schlegelii (Jee et al., 2005). Cyperme- (Anila et al., 2021; Golomb et al., 2021). Single and com-
thrin and deltamethrin activity noticeably decreased the bined exposure of acetamiprid and thiamethoxam in C.
serum protein content in S. schlegelii (Jee et al., 2005) catla resulted in an enhanced level of MDA in gill tis-
that may be resulted by lower WBCs content that act as sues (Veedu et al., 2022). Ali et al. (2015) revealed that
a major source of serum protein formation. exposure of organophosphate pesticide (diazinon) sig-
Heavy metals restrict the formation of WBCs, lym- nificantly elevated the MDA content in rainbow trout,
phocytes and phagocytosis functions of macrophages Oncorhynchus mykiss (Ali et al., 2015) and O. niloticus
and hence disrupt the immune activity of fish (Jiaxin et (Abdelkhalek et al., 2017; Sebaei et al., 2022) that is
al., 2020; Choudhury et al., 2021). Moreover, heavy met- stated as a common response of diazinon toxicity (Ak-
als negatively affect the hemolymph integrity of fish and turk et al., 2006). Similarly, pyrethroid pesticides caused
results in immunosuppressive impacts (Naz et al., 2021). similar MDA increment in D. rerio (Al-Ghanim et al.,
Cd exposure significantly interfered with the functions 2020). Besides, several studies also demonstrated that
of lymphocytes, lysozymes and neutrophils and reduced heavy metals toxicity enhanced the MDA level in various
the disease resistance capacity of juvenile P. fulvidraco fish species including medaka, Oryzias latipes (Li et al.,
(Tan et al., 2010) and zebrafish, Danio rerio (Xu et al., 2009) and cichlid species (Ruas et al., 2008). In this con-
2018). However, deficiency of certain metals resulted in text, several substances having antioxidant capacity are
significant reduction in cellular as well as humoral im- employed to mitigate the oxidative stress and maintain
mune activities of fish (Altarelli et al., 2019) (Figure 4). a healthy aquatic ecosystem (Halliwell and Gutteridge,
2015; Nwobi et al., 2020).

Effective factors in reducing oxidative stress in-

duced by pollutants
Several enzymatic as well as non-enzymatic antioxi-
dants play a crucial role to reduce the pollutants medi-
ated oxidative stress. Enzymatic antioxidants, also called
natural antioxidants, including superoxide dismutase
(SOD), catalase (CAT), glutathione peroxidase (GPx),
glutathione reductase (GR), glutathione S-transferase
(GST) and non-enzymatic antioxidants known as exog-
enous antioxidants such as vitamin A, vitamin C, vitamin
E, Zn, Se are popularly applied for this purpose (Lind-
shield, 2019; Irato and Santovito, 2021) that may directly
or indirectly act as a rescue for the associated organisms
including fish surrounded by oxidative stress. In addition,
oxidative stress can be reduced by reducing the toxicants
through oxidizing properties, by enhancing levels of sev-
Figure 4. Heavy metals toxicity in fishes. Heavy metals induce oxida-
tive stress by generating reactive oxygen species (ROS). The anti-ox-
eral antioxidants (endogenous and exogenous) and by
idation defense mechanism (including different enzymes CAT, SOD, stabilizing the energy production and efficiency of mito-
GST, GPx, and metal scavenging protein MT) involved in detoxifica- chondria (Poljsak, 2011).
tion
Role of medicinal plants to reduce the toxic effects
of contaminants
Oxidative stress is a prominent effect of environ- Several herbal plants are applied to remediate the
mental pollution toxic effects of different contaminants as they contain
Oxidative stress is very commonly induced by expo- several bioactive as well as therapeutic agents (Farzaei
sure of several contaminants that generates dangerous et al., 2013; Islam et al., 2020 b). They are very popular
free radicals as reactive oxygen species (ROS) and pro- due to their favorable characteristics such as easy avail-
duces some neutralizing nutritional substances termed ability, lower price in comparison to modern medicines
antioxidants that favors ROS (Sharifi-Rad et al., 2020; (Paryab and Raeeszadeh, 2017; Pu et al., 2017). Benefi-
1018 H. Ghafarifarsani et al.

cial impacts of these medicinal herbs can be categorized nogenic as well as non-carcinogenic human health com-
as (a) curative (treatment); (b) promotive (enhance body plexities. This review illustrates the possible routes of
fitness); (c) preventive (boost up immunity) that signifi- pesticides and heavy metals in aquatic ecosystems, their
cantly reduce stress and stimulate fish appetite (Citarasu, toxic impacts on fish, and finally role of medicinal plants
2010). The commonly used herbs for these purposes are to detoxify these potent contaminants. Regular moni-
garlic, Allium sativum; milk thistle, Silybum marianum; toring program is a crying need to ensure safe aquatic
cilantro, Coriandrum sativum; ginkgo, Ginkgo biloba; environment and fish production as well as sustain this
turmeric, Curcuma longa; and green algae, Chlorophyta potential industry. And this should be implemented by
sp. (Mehrandish et al., 2019). However, different plants legal authorities at local, state and national levels. His-
such as A. sativum, Apium graveolens, Artemisia ab­ topathological effects of pesticides in fishes have been
sinthium, Carum carvi, Citrullus colocynthis, Laurus studied intensively. Pathological changes occur mainly
nobi­lis, Mentha pulegium, Myrtus communis, Nerium in the liver, gonads, brain, kidneys, and endocrine glands
oleander, Ocimum basilicum, and Origanum majorana and in gills. Accordingly, for reducing the risk of pesti-
can be used as an alternative to insecticides to control cide and protecting water quality, pesticides can be used
pests in food produc­tion (Cheraghi Niroumand et al., only when necessary, using less toxic pesticides and us-
2016). ing safe/sensible application methods. Finally, establish-
ment of a comprehensive framework has become the ut-
Role of algae in the bioremediation of heavy met- most necessity to protect the aquatic ecosystems as well
als as associated organisms. Besides, continuous researches
Different algal species have the capability of degrad- should be carried to find out the possible remedial meas-
ing or removing toxic heavy metals through biosorption ures to control the aforementioned pollution.
(Cirillo et al., 2012; Abbas et al., 2014). It can be attribut-
ed to the enhanced photosynthetic capacity of algae that Data availability
confirms huge availability of dissolved oxygen in aquatic The datasets generated during and/or analyzed during
environment which resulted in aerobic breakdown of the current study are available from the corresponding
several organic substances including heavy metals. En- author on reasonable request.
zymatic and metabolic activities of several algae trigger
the degradation, detoxification and transformation of var- Compliance with ethical standards
ious toxic compounds like metals (Kumar et al., 2021). All applicable international, national, and/or institu-
Cell wall of algae contains several functional bioactive tional guidelines for the care and use of animals were
compounds such as fucoidan, alginate etc. that play ac- followed.
tive role in removing toxic metals by biosorption (Anas-
topoulos and Kyzas, 2015; Park et al., 2016). Besides, Conflicts of interest
algae can bind several heavy metals through different Authors have no conflict of interest to declare for the
mechanisms (chelation, complexation, physical adsorp- publication of the work herein.
tion) and reduce the toxicity (Mantzorou et al., 2018).
Moreover, algae can detoxify several metals through Funding statement
their capacity of synthesizing phytochelatins which are There is no government or organizational fund for
formed by phytochelatin synthase enzymes which re- this work.
quire post-translational activation by heavy metals (Chen
et al., 1997; Perales-Vela et al., 2006). In addition, algae
bear several chemical compounds like hydroxyl, car- References
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