Methods of analysis

 Nodal analysis
 Mesh analysis

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Introduction
• In last chapter, we have learned the fundamental laws of circuit
theory (Ohm’s law and Kirchhoff’s laws)
• In this chapter, we will apply these laws to develop two powerful
techniques for circuit analysis
• Nodal analysis: based on a systematic application of KCL
• Mesh analysis: based on a systematic application of KVL
• With these two techniques, we can analyze any linear circuit by
obtaining a set of simultaneous equations

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Nodal analysis
Steps to determine node voltages:
1. Select a node as the reference node. Assign voltages v1, v2,…, vn‐1 to the
remaining n‐1 nodes. The voltages are referenced with respect to the
reference node
2. Apply KCL to each of the n‐1 nonreference nodes. Use Ohm’s law to express
the branch currents in terms of node voltages
3. Solve the resulting simultaneous equations to obtain the unknown node
voltages

The reference node is commonly called Current flows form a higher potential
the ground since it is assumed to have to a lower potential in a resistor
zero potential.

The number of nonreference nodes is equal to the number of independent

equations that we will derive. 3
 Nodal analysis
Example: Calculate the node voltage in the circuit
Step1. The ground is selected as reference. Assign node 1
unknown voltage v1, and node 2 unknown voltage v2
Step2. Apply KCL to node 1 and node 2.
In node 1, we have
v v v 0
5 1 2  1
4 2
In node 2, we have
v1  v2 v 0
 10  5  2
4 6
Note: except for the branches with current sources, the
direction of the currents is arbitrary but consistent
Simplifying the above two equations, we have a set of two
equations with two unknown

 3 v1  v 2  20 (1)

  3 v1  5 v 2  60 (2)

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Step3. Solve the simultaneous equations.
• One simple method is elimination technique: Adding (1) and (2), we have 4v2 = 80
=> v2 = 20V. Putting the result of v2 back into (1), we get 3v1 ‐ 20 = 20, which gives
v1 = 40/3 = 13.333V.
• Another more systematic approach is treat the simultaneous equations as a
matrix equation and solve it using Cramer’s rule
• Rewrite (1) and (2) into matrix form, we have

3 -1 v1   20 
• By Cramer’s rule, -3 5  v   60 
   2  

20 -1 3 20
 60 5 100  (60)  -3 60 180  ( 60)
v1  1    13.333V, v2  2    20V
 3 -1 15  3  3 -1 15  3
-3 5 -3 5

• A software called MATLAB can also be used for solving the matrix equation

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Nodal analysis
Example: Determine the voltages at all the nodes

• Step1. Choose the ground as the reference node. Assign voltages at node 1, 2, and
3 with v1, v2 and v3, respectively
• Step2. Apply KCL at node 1, 2, and 3.
Simplifying the above
At node 1, we have v v v v
3 1 3  1 2 three equations gives
4 2
 3v1  2v2  v3  12 (1)
At node 2, we have v1  v2 v2  v3 v2  0 
  -4v1  7v2  v3  0 (2)
2 8 4  2v  3v  v  0
 1 2 3 (3)
At node 3, we have v1  v3 v2  v3 2(v1  v2 )
 
4 8 2 6
• Step3. Solve the system of equations.
Method 1. Elimination technique
Add (1) and (3), we get v1 ‐ v2 = 2.4
Adding (2) and (3) gives v1 = 2v2
Solving the above two equations gives v2 = 2.4V and v1 = 4.8V
Put the answers of v1 and v2 back into (3) gives v3 = ‐2.4V
Method 2. Cramer’s rule
Rewrite the simultaneous equations into matrix equation
 3 -2 -1 v1  12 
-4 7 -1 v   0 
  2  
 2 -3 1  v3  0 
The solution is given by v1 = 1/, v2 = 2/ and v3 = 3/, where
12 -2 -1 3 12 -1
7 -1 -4 -1
1  0 7 -1  12  48  2  -4 0 -1  12  24
-3 1 2 1
0 -3 1 2 0 1

3 -2 12
-4 7
3  -4 7 0  12  24
2 -3
2 -3 0
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Nodal analysis with voltage sources
• Up until now, we haven’t consider a circuit with voltage source in nodal
analysis
• The reason is that in general, there is no way of knowing the current through a
voltage source in advance => difficult to apply KCL
• How do we use nodal analysis if the circuit contains voltage sources?

• Case 1:
– If the voltage source is connected between
the reference node and a non‐reference node,
we simply set the voltage at the non‐reference
node equal to the voltage of the voltage
source.
– e.g., in the figure shown, v1 = 10V.
– In this case, our analysis is somewhat
simplified

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• Case 2:
• If the voltage source (dependent or independent) is connected between two
non‐reference nodes, the two non‐reference nodes form a generalized node
or supernode
• e.g., in the previous figure, a supernode is formed by enclosing a voltage
source
• In general, a supernode is formed by enclosing a (dependent or independent)
voltage source connected between two non‐reference nodes and any
elements connected in parallel with it
• KCL is also satisfied at a supernode
• So in the previous figure, i1 + i4 = i2 + i3
• In the previous figure, by using a supernode, we have one less equation
• But note that the relationship of v2 and v3 is known, more specifically v2‐ v3=5

Example: Find the node voltage for the figure shown.

• The supernode contains the 2V source, nodes 1 and 2
and the 10 resistor

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 • Apply KCL to the supernode, we get
2=i1+i2+7, or in terms of node voltages

v1  0 v2  0
2  7
2 4
 v2  20  2v1
• Furthermore, from the original figure, we have v2 = v1 + 2
• Solving the equations gives v1=‐7.333V, v2=‐5.333V

Example: Find the node voltage for the figure

shown.
• Nodes 1 and 2 form a supernode; so do nodes 3
and 4

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• Redraw the circuit with supernodes and apply KCL
• At supernode 1‐2, i3 + 10 = i1 + i2, expressing
this in terms of the node voltages gives
v3  v2 v v v
 10  1 4  1
6 3 2
• At supernode node 3‐4, i1 = i3 + i4 + i5,
expressing this in terms of node voltages gives
v1  v4 v3  v2 v4 v3
  
3 6 1 4
• From the original figure, we have v1 ‐ v2 = 20 and v3 ‐ v4 = 3vx = 3 (v1 ‐ v4)
• Therefore, we have four equations with four unknowns
• After simplifying, we have
 5v1  v2  v3  2v4  60 (1)

4v1  2v2  5v3  16v4 0 (2)

 v1  v2  20 (3)
 3v1  v3  2v4 0 (4)
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• This system of equations can be easily solved using MATLAB
• For solving by hand, it is a little bit tedious
• Fortunately, we can easily eliminate one variable from the system of equations.
From (3), we have v2= v1 ‐ 20. Put this back into (1), (2) (notice that (4) has no v2,
so no need to change for (4)), after simplifying the equations, we have a reduced
system of equations
3 -1 -2  v1   0 
6 -1 -2  v   80 
  3  
6 -5 -16  v4   40 

• Using Cramer’s rule,

3 -1 -2 0 -1 -2
  6 -1 -2  18, 1  80 -1 -2  480
6 -5 -16 40 -5 -16
3 0 -2 3 -1 0
3  6 80 -2  3120,  4  6 -1 80  840
6 40 -16 6 -5 40

• The final answer is v1 = ‐480/‐18 = 26.67V, v3 = ‐3120/‐18 = 173.33V,

v4 = 840/‐18 = ‐46.67V, v2 = v1 ‐ 20 = 6.67V
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 Mesh analysis
• Mesh analysis provides another general procedure for analyzing circuits
• Mesh analysis uses mesh currents as the unknown variables
• A mesh is a loop which does not contain any other loops within it
• e.g., the figure shown a circuit with two meshes
• Steps to determine mesh currents
1. Assign mesh currents i1, i2, …, in to the n meshs
2. Apply KVL to each of the n meshes. Use Ohm’s law to express the voltages in
terms of the mesh currents
3. Solve the resulting n simultaneous equations to get the mesh currents

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 Mesh analysis
Example: Find the branch currents I1, I2 and I3 using mesh analysis
• Step1. Identify the meshes and assign variables
• Step2. Apply KVL to each mesh
For mesh 1, ‐15 + 5i1 + 10(i1 ‐ i2) + 10 = 0
For mesh 2, 6i2 + 4i2 + 10(i2 ‐ i1) ‐ 10 = 0
Simplifying the equations, we have
3i1  2i2  1 (1)

 i1  2i2  1 (2)
• Step3. Solving the equations
Method 1. By Elimination. (1) minus (2) gives 2i1 = 2 => i1 = 1A. Put this result
back into (2) gives i2 = 1A. From these results, we have
I1 = i1 =1A, I2 = i2 = 1A and I3 = i1 ‐ i2 = 0A
Method 2. By Cramer’s rule. Write the system of equations in matrix form
3 -2  i1  1 3 -2 1 -2 3 1
-1 2  i   1    4, 1   4,  2  4
  2   -1 2 1 2 -1 1

This gives i1 = 1/ = 1A, i2 = 2/ = 1A and the results for I1, I2 and I3 follows

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Example: Find Io
Step1. Identify meshes and assign variables
Step2. Apply KVL to the meshes
For mesh 1, ‐24 + 10(i1 ‐ i2) + 12(i1 ‐ i3) = 0
For mesh 2, 24i2 + 4(i2 ‐ i3) + 10(i2 ‐ i1) = 0
For mesh 3, 4Io + 12(i3 ‐ i1) + 4(i3 ‐ i2) = 0 ,
but Io = i1 ‐ i2 so that the above equation becomes
4(i1‐i2) + 12(i3‐ i1) + 4(i3‐i2) = 0
‐‐ Simplifying the above three equations and write it into matrix form gives
11 -5 -6  i1  12 
-5 19 -2  i   0 
   2  
-1 -1 2  i3  0 

Step 3. Solve for the equations. In order to use the Cramer’s rule, we have to
calculate the determinants , 1, and 2

Note we do not need i3, so 3 is not calculated

This gives i1 = 1/ = 432/192 = 2.25A, i2 = 2/ = 144/192 = 0.75A.
Thus, Io = i1 ‐ i2 = 1.5A 16
 Mesh analysis with current source
• Up until now, we haven’t apply mesh analysis to circuits containing current sources
(dependent or independent)
• The reason is that KVL requires that we know the voltage across each branch, and
we do not know the voltage across a current source in advance
• Two possible cases:
• Case 1. When a current source exists only in one mesh, e.g., for the circuit
shown at the right hand side. We can immediately
write down i2 = ‐5A. Write a mesh equation for the
other mesh gives ‐10 + 4i1 + 6(i1 ‐ i2) = 0 => i1 = ‐2A

• Case 2. When a current source exists between two meshes, e.g., circuit
shown in Fig. a) below. In this case, we create a supermesh as shown in Fig.
b).

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 • A supermesh is created by excluding the current source and any elements
connected in series with it
• Supermesh must also satisfy KVL like any other mesh
• Therefore, applying KVL to the supermesh in Fig. b) in the previous slide gives ‐
20 + 6i1 + 10i2 + 4i2 = 0 or equivalently 6i1 + 14i2 = 20
• Because of the using of supermesh, we only get one equation, but we have
two unknowns!!!
• At node 0, by KCL, we obtain another equation i2 = i1 + 6
• Solving both equations gives i1 = ‐3.2A, i2 = 2.8A

• Note the following properties of a supermesh:

1. The current source not included in the supermesh provides the
constraint equation necessary to solve for the mesh currents
2. A supermesh has no current of its own
3. A supermesh requires the application of both KVL and KCL
4. If a circuit has two or more supermeshes that intersect, they should be
combined to form a larger supermesh

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Example: Find i1 to i4 using mesh analysis.
• Meshes 1, 2 form a supermesh
• Meshes 2, 3 form another supermesh
• The two supermeshes intersect and
form a larger supermesh as shown
• Apply KVL to the larger supermesh,
2i1 + 4i3 + 8(i3 ‐ i4) + 6i2 = 0
• Applying KVL in mesh 4, 2i4 + 8(i4 ‐ i3) + 10 = 0
• Apply KCL at node P, i2 = i1 + 5
• Apply KCL at node Q, i2 = i3 + 3Io , but Io = ‐ i4 => i2 = i3 ‐ 3i4
• Simplifying the equations gives
i1  3i2  6i3  4i4  0
 5i4  4i3  5


 i2  i1  5
 i2  i3  3i4

• Solving the equations gives i1 = ‐7.5A, i2 = ‐2.5A, i3 = 3.93A, i4 = 2.143A

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Nodal and Mesh Analyses by Inspection
• This section presents a generalized procedure for nodal or mesh analysis.
• It is a shortcut approach based on mere inspection of a circuit.
• When all sources in a circuit are independent current sources, we do not need to
apply KCL to each node to obtain the node‐voltage equations
• We can obtain the equations by mere inspection of the circuit
• In general, if a circuit with independent current sources has N nonreference nodes,
the node‐voltage equations can be written in terms of the conductances as

This is valid for circuits

with only independent
current sources and
linear resistors.
Nodal and Mesh Analyses by Inspection
 Nodal and Mesh Analyses by Inspection
Example: Write the node‐voltage matrix equations for the circuit by inspection.

• The circuit has four nonreference nodes, so we

need four node equations. This implies that the
size of the conductance matrix is 4 by 4.

1. Gkk = Sum of the conductances

connected to node k
2. Gkj = Negative of the sum of the
conductances directly connecting
nodes k and j, k്j
3. ik = Sum of all independent current
sources directly connected to node k
Nodal and Mesh Analyses by Inspection
• We can obtain mesh‐current equations by inspection when a linear resistive
circuit has only independent voltage sources.
• In general, if the circuit has N meshes, the mesh‐current equations can be
expressed in terms of the resistances as
 Nodal and Mesh Analyses by Inspection
Example: By inspection, write the mesh‐current equations for the circuit.
We have five meshes, so the resistance matrix
is 5 by 5. The diagonal terms, in ohms:

1. Rkk = Sum of the resistances in mesh k

2. Rkj = Negative of the sum of the
resistances in common with meshesk
and j, k്j
3. vk = Sum taken clockwise of all
independent voltage sources in mesh k,
with voltage rise treated as positive

The mesh‐current equations are:

 Nodal vs Mesh analysis
• Both nodal and mesh analyses provide a systematic way of analyzing a
complex network
• Which one is better?
• The answer depends on the particular network
• Use mesh analysis if
• the network contains many series‐connected elements, voltage
sources, or supermeshes
• the circuit has fewer meshes than nodes
• Use nodal analysis if
• The network contains many parallel‐connected elements, current
sources, or supernodes
• The circuit has fewer nodes than meshes
• Of course, if node voltages are required, it may be more convenient to use
nodal analysis. If branch or mesh currents are required, it may be better to
use mesh analysis

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