Complete Guide to Relational Databases for Class 12

CBSE 2025-26

August 8, 2025

1 Introduction to Relational Databases

A relational database organizes data in tables with rows (records) and columns (fields).
Tables are linked using keys. For Class 12 CBSE (2025-26), the NCERT syllabus covers
SQL for creating, querying, updating, and deleting data in relational databases. This
guide provides theory, simple SQL programs, output-based questions, and a final program
combining all queries, ensuring clear understanding for students.

1.1 Why Relational Databases are Important

• Organize data systematically.

• Enable efficient data retrieval and updates using SQL.

• Maintain data accuracy with keys.

• Used in applications like school management and online systems.

2 Key Concepts
The NCERT syllabus includes:

• Database: A collection of related data.

• Table: A set of rows and columns storing data.

• Keys:

– Primary Key: Uniquely identifies each record.

– Candidate Key: A column that could be a primary key.
– Foreign Key: Links two tables (not used in programs here).

• SQL: Language for database operations.

– DDL (Data Definition Language): CREATE, ALTER, DROP.

– DML (Data Manipulation Language): INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE, SELECT.

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 3 Syntax and Examples
Below are simple SQL programs covering all NCERT syllabus operations, with clear expla-
nations and outputs. Programs use a table student (columns: rollno INTEGER PRI-
MARY KEY, name VARCHAR(20), marks INTEGER) and a table teacher (columns:
tid INTEGER PRIMARY KEY, name VARCHAR(20), subject VARCHAR(20)).

3.1 Program 1: Creating a Student Table

1 CREATE TABLE student (
2 rollno INTEGER PRIMARY KEY ,
3 name VARCHAR (20) ,
4 marks INTEGER
5 );

Explanation:

1. CREATE TABLE student: Creates a table named student.

2. Columns:

• rollno: Unique integer (primary key).

• name: String up to 20 characters.
• marks: Integer for marks.

Output: (No output; table is created.)

3.2 Program 2: Creating a Teacher Table

1 CREATE TABLE teacher (
2 tid INTEGER PRIMARY KEY ,
3 name VARCHAR (20) ,
4 subject VARCHAR (20)
5 );

Explanation:

1. CREATE TABLE teacher: Creates a table named teacher.

2. Columns:

• tid: Unique integer (primary key).

• name: String up to 20 characters.
• subject: String for subject taught.

Output: (No output; table is created.)

2
 3.3 Program 3: Inserting Student Records
1 INSERT INTO student VALUES
2 (101 , ’ Anita ’ , 85) ,
3 (102 , ’ Ravi ’ , 90) ,
4 (103 , ’ Suman ’ , 75) ;

Explanation:

1. INSERT INTO student VALUES: Adds records to student.

2. Each record includes rollno, name, marks.

3. Three students are added.

Output: (No output; records are added.)

3.4 Program 4: Inserting Teacher Records

1 INSERT INTO teacher VALUES
2 (1 , ’ Meena ’ , ’ Math ’) ,
3 (2 , ’ Arun ’ , ’ Science ’) ;

Explanation:

1. INSERT INTO teacher VALUES: Adds records to teacher.

2. Each record includes tid, name, subject.

3. Two teachers are added.

Output: (No output; records are added.)

3.5 Program 5: Selecting Student Records

1 SELECT * FROM student WHERE marks >= 80;

Explanation:

1. SELECT *: Retrieves all columns (rollno, name, marks).

2. FROM student: Targets student table.

3. WHERE marks >= 80: Filters records with marks 80 or higher.

Output (After Program 3):

+--------+-------+-------+
| rollno | name | marks |
+--------+-------+-------+
| 101 | Anita | 85 |
| 102 | Ravi | 90 |
+--------+-------+-------+

3
 3.6 Program 6: Selecting with Sorting
1 SELECT * FROM student ORDER BY marks DESC ;

Explanation:

1. SELECT *: Retrieves all columns.

2. FROM student: Targets student table.

3. ORDER BY marks DESC: Sorts records by marks in descending order.

Output (After Program 3):

+--------+-------+-------+
| rollno | name | marks |
+--------+-------+-------+
| 102 | Ravi | 90 |
| 101 | Anita | 85 |
| 103 | Suman | 75 |
+--------+-------+-------+

3.7 Program 7: Selecting with Multiple Conditions

1 SELECT * FROM student WHERE marks >= 80 AND name LIKE ’A % ’;

Explanation:

1. SELECT *: Retrieves all columns.

2. FROM student: Targets student table.

3. WHERE marks >= 80 AND name LIKE ’A%’: Filters records with marks 80 or higher
and name starting with ’A’.

Output (After Program 3):

+--------+-------+-------+
| rollno | name | marks |
+--------+-------+-------+
| 101 | Anita | 85 |
+--------+-------+-------+

3.8 Program 8: Selecting with OR Condition

1 SELECT * FROM teacher WHERE subject = ’ Math ’ OR subject = ’
Science ’;

Explanation:

1. SELECT *: Retrieves all columns (tid, name, subject).

2. FROM teacher: Targets teacher table.

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 3. WHERE subject = ’Math’ OR subject = ’Science’: Filters records where subject
is ’Math’ or ’Science’.

Output (After Program 4):

+-----+-------+---------+
| tid | name | subject |
+-----+-------+---------+
| 1 | Meena | Math |
| 2 | Arun | Science |
+-----+-------+---------+

3.9 Program 9: Updating Student Marks

1 UPDATE student SET marks = 80 WHERE rollno = 103;

Explanation:

1. UPDATE student: Targets student table.

2. SET marks = 80: Sets marks to 80.

3. WHERE rollno = 103: Updates only the record with rollno 103.

Output: (No output; record is updated.)

3.10 Program 10: Updating Multiple Columns

1 UPDATE student SET marks = 88 , name = ’ Priya ’ WHERE rollno = 101;

Explanation:

1. UPDATE student: Targets student table.

2. SET marks = 88, name = ’Priya’: Updates marks and name.

3. WHERE rollno = 101: Updates only the record with rollno 101.

Output: (No output; record is updated.)

3.11 Program 11: Deleting Student Records

1 DELETE FROM student WHERE marks < 80;

Explanation:

1. DELETE FROM student: Removes records from student.

2. WHERE marks < 80: Deletes records with marks below 80.

Output: (No output; records are deleted.)

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 3.12 Program 12: Deleting All Teacher Records
1 DELETE FROM teacher ;

Explanation:

1. DELETE FROM teacher: Removes all records from teacher.

2. No WHERE clause means all records are deleted.

Output: (No output; all records are deleted.)

3.13 Program 13: Altering Student Table

1 ALTER TABLE student ADD class VARCHAR (10) ;

Explanation:

1. ALTER TABLE student: Modifies student table.

2. ADD class VARCHAR(10): Adds a class column (up to 10 characters).

Output: (No output; table structure is updated.)

3.14 Program 14: Modifying Column Type

1 ALTER TABLE teacher MODIFY subject VARCHAR (30) ;

Explanation:

1. ALTER TABLE teacher: Modifies teacher table.

2. MODIFY subject VARCHAR(30): Changes subject column to allow up to 30 char-

acters.

Output: (No output; column type is updated.)

3.15 Program 15: Combined SQL Script for School Database

1 -- Create tables
2 CREATE TABLE student (
3 rollno INTEGER PRIMARY KEY ,
4 name VARCHAR (20) ,
5 marks INTEGER
6 );
7 CREATE TABLE teacher (
8 tid INTEGER PRIMARY KEY ,
9 name VARCHAR (20) ,
10 subject VARCHAR (20)
11 );
12

13 -- Insert records

6
14 INSERT INTO student VALUES (101 , ’ Anita ’ , 85) ;
15 INSERT INTO student ( rollno , name ) VALUES (102 , ’ Ravi ’) ;
16 INSERT INTO teacher VALUES (1 , ’ Meena ’ , ’ Math ’) ;
17

18 -- Select records
19 SELECT * FROM student WHERE marks >= 80 OR name LIKE ’A % ’;
20 SELECT * FROM teacher ORDER BY name ;
21

22 -- Update records
23 UPDATE student SET marks = 90 WHERE rollno = 102;
24

25 -- Delete records
26 DELETE FROM student WHERE marks IS NULL ;
27

28 -- Alter table
29 ALTER TABLE student ADD class VARCHAR (10) ;
30

31 -- Drop table
32 DROP TABLE teacher ;

Explanation:
1. Create: Creates student and teacher tables.

2. Insert: Adds two student records (one with marks as NULL) and one teacher record.

3. Select: Retrieves students with marks 80 or names starting with ’A’; retrieves
teachers sorted by name.

4. Update: Sets marks to 90 for rollno 102.

5. Delete: Removes student records with NULL marks.

6. Alter: Adds a class column to student.

7. Drop: Deletes the teacher table.

Output (Partial, after executing all commands):
-- SELECT * FROM student WHERE marks >= 80 OR name LIKE ’A%’:
+--------+-------+-------+
| rollno | name | marks |
+--------+-------+-------+
| 101 | Anita | 85 |
| 102 | Ravi | 90 |
+--------+-------+-------+

-- SELECT * FROM teacher ORDER BY name:

+-----+-------+---------+
| tid | name | subject |
+-----+-------+---------+
| 1 | Meena | Math |
+-----+-------+---------+

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4 Output-Based Questions
1. Question: What is the output of Program 5 after running Program 3? Answer:

+--------+-------+-------+
| rollno | name | marks |
+--------+-------+-------+
| 101 | Anita | 85 |
| 102 | Ravi | 90 |
+--------+-------+-------+

2. Question: What is the output of Program 6 after running Program 3? Answer:

+--------+-------+-------+
| rollno | name | marks |
+--------+-------+-------+
| 102 | Ravi | 90 |
| 101 | Anita | 85 |
| 103 | Suman | 75 |
+--------+-------+-------+

3. Question: What is the output of Program 8 after running Program 4? Answer:

+-----+-------+---------+
| tid | name | subject |
+-----+-------+---------+
| 1 | Meena | Math |
| 2 | Arun | Science |
+-----+-------+---------+

4. Question: After running Programs 3 and 9, what is the output of SELECT * FROM
student? Answer:

+--------+-------+-------+
| rollno | name | marks |
+--------+-------+-------+
| 101 | Anita | 85 |
| 102 | Ravi | 90 |
| 103 | Suman | 80 |
+--------+-------+-------+

5. Question: What is the output of SELECT rollno, name FROM student in Pro-
gram 15 after all commands? Answer:

8
 +--------+-------+
| rollno | name |
+--------+-------+
| 101 | Anita |
+--------+-------+

5 Best Practices
• Use clear, meaningful names for tables and columns (e.g., student, rollno).

• Define primary keys to ensure unique records.

• Use WHERE conditions to avoid unintended updates or deletions.

• Use ORDER BY for sorted output when needed.

• Match data types to data (e.g., INTEGER for rollno).

• Test queries on sample data first.

6 Conclusion
This guide covers all relational database topics in the CBSE Class 12 (2025-26) NCERT
syllabus, providing simple SQL programs for creating, querying, updating, and deleting
data, output-based questions, and a final program combining all queries for practical
understanding.