CHAPTER 3

FABRIC STRUCTURE, PROPERTIES AND

ANALYSIS
3.1 Introduction
The most important fabric structure, properties and
analysis will be given in this chapter.

The purpose of this chapter is to relate the fabric

properties to the manufacturing process and end use
performance.

Fabrics are flexible yet strong and durable.

Flexibility is one of the most important characteristics of

woven fabrics. The fabric flexibility is mostly due to
flexible fibers and yarns in the fabric. Due to their
polymeric nature and fine diameters, fibers are quite
flexible.

It is possible to weave very flexible fibers into fabrics

with a very wide range of stiffnesses depending on fabric
structures used.

A staple yarn is a lot more flexible than a monofilament

yarn of the same count.

A multiftlament or staple yarn may consist of several

hundred or thousand fibers in its cross section.

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Increasing twist increases the stiffness of the yarn and
therefore of fabric. Restricting fiber movement or
slippage in the yarn, which is the case in sizing of warp
yarns, increases the stiffness of the yarn.

Fabric weave structure also affects flexibility to a certain

extent.

3.2 The Stiffness of Various Assemblies of Fibers

If a rod is divided into portions in the fashion indicated in
Fig. 3.1.

Figure 3.1
If the rod is divided into many component fibres, the
stiffness will be reduced. It is the smallness of diameter of
the individual fiber that makes possible the high degree of
flexibility which is associated with a textile material.

Hard twisted yarns will make a fabric stiffer than a fabric

made of low twist yarns.

There will be a difference in the tactile character of the

fabric, the fabric from hard twisted yarn feeling harsh to
the touch whereas the fabric from low twist yarns will feel
soft.
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In a very tight structure where considerable yarn tensions
are involved, the fabric is likely to be stiff. Conversely, a
loose structure is likely to be flexible and soft.

A loose structure allows yarns to move more easily over

one another at the crossovers, which makes shear
deformations easier (see Fig. 3.2).

Figure 3-2

This in turn makes it easier for the fabric to mould to a

surface and drape well.

In finishing, the aqueous treatment will often release

some of the compacting forces and allow fibers more
freedom, with the consequence that yarns and fabrics tend
to become softer. Laundering and use have a similar
effect.
3.3 Fabric Geometry
A fabric consists of millions of fibers assembled together
in a particular geometry. The properties of a fabric depend
on material properties, fiber and yarn structure and
properties and fabric structure and geometry as shown in
Table 3.1.

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 Table 3.1 Parameters that can be chosen/changed to control woven fabric structure
Fiber Yarn Fabric
Coloration Type(single,ply,spun, Filling number per unit length

Crimp filament,flat,textured) Warp number per unit length

Cross-sectional shape spinning method(ring,open-end,air-jet,friction) Order of interlacing

Density fiber content (pure or blend) Weigth

Luster twist level and direction Performance properties

Type (staple, filament) coloration Abrasion resistance

Dye affinity hairness absorbency

Strength and elongation bulk Chemical resistance

Fineness linear density Colorfastness

Finish strength Drape

Generia elongation Durability

Grade abrasion resistance Extensibility

Length and its distribution stiffness Flame resistance/retardance

Moisture content properties due to heatset Mildew resistance

Resilience Moth rersistance

Shrinkage Oil/grease resistance

Solubility Pilling resistance

stiffness Resilience

Shape retention

Shrink resistance

Softness (hand)

Soil resistance

Strength

Strech resistance

Weather resistance

Wrinkle resistance

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Yarns are interlaced into an interlocking structure to produce a
sheet-like material which has a three-dimensional macro
structure. The weave shown in Figure 3.3 is a plain weave [3].

Figure 3.3 Three dimensional macro structure of fabric

Frequently, a woven fabric is used to obscure whatever lies

beneath it and in such cases the covering power of the material
is important. There are two aspects of covering power; the
optical and the geometrical. The optical aspect is a function of
the readiness with which the surface of the material reflects and
scatters the incident light. The geometrical aspect is a function
of the extent to which the superficial area is covered by the
component yarns.
The optical effects are controlled by the nature of the fibers and
the surfaces presented to the incident light. Optical
characteristics are also affected by the structure into which the
fibers are fitted. Thus both the yarn and fabric structures will
influence greatly the overall optical behavior. Dyeing and
finishing will also play a part [3].

3.4 Geometrical Models

The structure, appearance and hand properties of a fabric

depends on yarn number, fabric sett and weave pattern so the

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researches on fabric geometry begins with investigating the
fabric sett [23].
Ashenhurst (1884), Armitage (1907), Law (1922), Brierley
(1931), Snowden (1965), Von Bergen (1969) made important
researches on fabric sett and defined the maximum available
fabric sett values and normal fabric sett values according to
these maximum values by some coefficients obtained from the
experiments and formulas. These researches are followed by
geometry works. At the begining of all geometrical reseaches
Pierce (1937), explains the first model that defines the shape
of yarn and the location of warp and weft yarns against each
other. Then Kemp (1985) developed geometrical models
based on Pierce model, and Hamilton (1964) showed the way
of applying these models on fabrics except plain weave type.
The first reliable model belongs to Pierce that assumes the
yarn as a flexible structure. This model was developed by
Oloffson (1964) with a wide range [23].

Pierce’s Geometrical Model

Pierce suggested the geometry shown in Figure 3.4 for a fabric

of plain structure. In this model, the interior forces were not
taken into consideration [24].

Figure 3.4 Pierce’s geometrical model for plain weave

The foundations of this model are as follows:
a. The cross section of yarn is circular.

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b. Yarn is flexible enough that shows no response against
interior forces in a woven fabric.
c. The shape of yarn is circular when surrounding the other
yarns is a straight line at all other points.
Kemp’s Geometrical Model

Kemp (1958) suggested an acceptable and simple geometrical

model in comparison to Pierce model [23]. This model takes
the yarn flattening into consideration and defines the cross
section of yarn as arc track as shown in Figure 3.5.

Figure 3.5 Kemp’s geometrical model

Hamilton’s Geometrical Model

Hamilton (1964), developed a geometrical model for weave

types except plain, by depending on the Kemp’s race track
maodel for plain fabrics shown in Figure 3.6 [23].

Figure 3.6 Hamilton’s geometrical model

Pierce’s Elastic Geometrical Model

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As shown in Figure 3.7, in this model, it is accepted that the
yarn changes shape as a result of forces that effects at
interlacing points of a woven fabric. Yarn may be misshapen
by flattening and the shape of cross section isn’t important,
may be neglected [23].

Figure 3.7 Pierce’s elastic geometrical model

Oloffson’s Geometrical Model
Oloffson evaluates the yarn geometry shown in Figure 3.8 as a
function of exterior forces that effects the fabric and opposite
reaction forces in the fabric. This model accepts a relationship
between the yarn crimp in a fabric and the released form of
yarn after taken form the fabric [23].

Figure 3.8 Oloffson’s geometrical model

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3.5 Woven Fabric Properties

Fabric Cover Factor and Density, Crimp, Fabric Weight and

Thickness, Order of intercaling (weave pattern)

Performance Properties
o Tensile Strength
o Tear Resistance
o Fabric Bow and Skew
o Air permeability
o Void Volume
o Abrasion Resistance
o Burst and impact Resistance
o Flexibilty and stiffness
o Drape and Hand
o Flame Resistance

3.5.1 Structural properties of Woven Fabrics

Cover Factor

The geometrical aspect may be defined by the cover factor

shown in Figure 3.9. This differs from covering power, which
takes into account the optical effects; cover factor is concerned
only with the geometry [3].

Figure 3.9 Cover factor

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Where dW = the width of the warp yarn as it lays in the fabric,
d f = the width of the filling yarn as it lays in the fabric, W =
the pitch of the warp yarns, and  f = the pitch of the filling
yarns.
The warp wise cover may be defined as;
dW
CW 
W (1)
The filling wise cover may be defined as
df
Cf 
f (2)
The percentage fabric cover factor;

Total area obscured

C fab  *100% (3)
Area enclosed
(W  dW )d f  dW  f
C fab 
W  f (4)
W d f  dW  f  dW d f
C fab  *100% (5)
W  f
d f dW dW d f
C fab    *100% (6)
 f W  f W
C fab  C f  CW  C f CW ) *100% (7)

A woven fabric is used to obscure whatever lies beneath it

and in such cases the covering power of the material is
important. There are two types of cover functions of fabrics:
optical cover and geometrical cover. The reflection and
scattering of the incident light by the fabric surface is called

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optical cover function. Optical cover characteristics of fabric
depend on the fiber material and fabric surface. Dyeing and
finishing can change the optical cover properties.

Geometrical cover is the area of fabric covered by fibers and

yarns and is characterized by fabric cover factor.

Fabric cover factor (CF) is defined as the ratio of projected

fabric surface area covered by yarns to the total fabric surface
area and given by the following equation (Figure 3.10):

Figure 3.10 Cover factor diagram of a plain weave

CF (%) = (Cw + Cf – Cw. Cf ) x 100 (8)

where Cw is the warp cover factor and Cf is the filling cover

factor.

Cw=nw.dw

Cf=nf.df

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where nw : warp count

nf : filling count

dw :diameter of warp yarn

df: diameter of filling yarn

The maximum cover factor is 1 in which the yarns touch each

other. This situation is called the jamming state.

Theoretically, the cover factor can be larger than 1 in which the

yarns pile up on each other giving multilayers of yams.

The property of a fabric that is affected most by the cover factor

is the permeability. Liquid and gas (air) permeability depend on
the cover factor to a great extent.

The density of a fabric is the weight per unit volume of the

fabric. The unit volume is calculated by multiplying the unit
area with fabric thickness. Theoretically, the fabric density can
be very close to fiber density.

Crimp

Due to the necessity of interlacing in a woven fabric structure, at

least one of the two yarn sets must have crimp. In most of the

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cases, both warp and filling have crimp.

The amount of crimp in each yarn can be largely controlled by

controlling the yarn tensions during weaving. Crimp ratio
between warp and filling can also be changed to a certain extent
for some yarns such as nionofilarnents with heatsetting or
finishing processes.

Tensioning a yarn causes its crimp to be reduced. This will

result in tension increase in the other yarn set.

Yarn crimp is also affected by the pattern of yarn interlacing in a

fabric; high frequency of interlacing increases yam crimp.

For example, the plain weave has the highest frequency of

interlacing and therefore the highest yarn crimp level in both
warp and filling yarn. Satin (or sateen) weaves have the lowest
frequency of interlacing and hence lowest degree of yarn crimp.

Crimp affects the weight, thickness, cover, flexibility and hand

of fabric.

Lx
% Crimp (crimp factor)  *100 (3.2)
x

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 Lx
% Take  up (contraction)  *100 (3.3)
L

Where L represents length of yarn before crimping and x

denotes length or width of the fabric.

Fabric Weight and Thickness

Fabric weight can be expressed in two ways: direct and indirect

system.

In the direct system, the fabric weight per area is given, e.g..
g/m2 or oz/yd2.

In the indirect system, which is used less in practical usually the

running length per weight is given.

Fabric weight is affected by the following:

• fiber density

• yarn size

•contractions

• fabric construction

• weave pattern

• tensions during weaving

• finishing

Fabric thickness is important since it affects permeability and

insulation characteristics of fabric.

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Yield

In practice, another related term, yield, is used quite often during

manufacturing. Yield is defined as the ratio of woven fabric

length to the warp length. Yield affects the fabric modulus.

3.5.2 Performance Properties

o Tensile Strength
o Tear Resistance
o Fabric Bow and Skew
o Air permeability
o Void Volume
o Abrasion Resistance
o Burst and impact Resistance
o Flexibilty and stiffness
o Drape and Hand
o Flame Resistance

Tensile Strength (performance properties)

Tensile strength is the most important property of a fabric. In

almost every fabric development and manufacturing, tensile
properties are reported.

Modulus, breaking strength , elongation at break

They are widely used for quality control.

Tear Resistance (performance properties)

In a relatively dense fabric, individual yarns oppose to the

tearing load one by one, that is why propagation of tear is
relatively easy. If the number of yarns per unit length is low,

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then the yars are allowed to displace themselves and form
groups to resist the tear in groups rather than individually. This
increases tear resistance of the fabric, that is why loosely woven
fabrics have better tear resistance than dense or coated fabrics.

Fabric Bow and Skew (performance properties)

Figure 3.11 Fabric bow and skew

Bow is expressed as:

% Bow = (KL/MN) x 100 (3.5)

Fabric bow can be symmetrical or non-symmetrical.

Skew is expressed as:

% Skew = (PQ / QR) x 100 (3.6)

Fabrics with bow or skew are not acceptable in today’s quality

conscious business environment.

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Air Permeability(performance properties)

Air flow through a fabric is very complex due to the

complicated structure of the fabric. Air permeability is of
considerable value in predicting insulation characteristics of a
fabric. Increasing twist in the yarn increases the air permeability
of the fabric.

Void Volume(performance properties)

Void volume is the amount of space in a volume of fabric that is

not occupied by solid material (Figure 3.12). Both fabric
thickness and internal structure affect absolute void volume.

25% water

75% fabric

25% void volume 75% void volume

50% void volume

Figure 3.12 Void volume

Void volume can be calculated as follows:

Total volume = length x width x thickness

Calculated void = total volume — (weight of sample/density

of material)

% void volume= (calculated void/total volume) x 100 (3.7)

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Abrasion Resistance (performance properties)

Both the fiber material and fabric geometry affect the abrasion
resistance of a fabric. The twist level, yarn crimp and weave
design affect the abrasion resistance of the fabric.

Low twist yarns may present greater surface to the abradant;

however, too little twist may leave loose fibers protruding from
the yam body which may be snagged or broken during abrasion.
High twist reduces the abrasion resistance of the yarn.

Abrasion resistance of fabrics is measured in terms of visual

appearance. Number of cycles to open a hole in the fabric and
residual strength of the fabric.

Burst and Impact Resistance (performance properties)

Some applications require resistance of fabrics against pressure

forces which are perpendicular to the fabric plane. Filter fabrics,
geotextiles, parachutes, transportation bags, air and tension
structure fabrics must often withstand considerable bursting
pressure.

Impact

Some fabrics are designed to withstand impact loading. Ballistic

protective fabrics, airbags and seat belts are examples of these

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types of fabrics.

Flexibility and Stiffness (performance properties)

Strength and flexibility are the two properties that make textiles
unique. Fabric flexibility is affected by the flexibility properties
of the constituent fibers and by the yam and fabric structure.

Drape and Hand (performance properties)

Drape and hand are extremely important for apparel fabrics.

Drape can be defined as the ability of a fabric to bend under its

own weight to form folds.

Hand or handle is a subjective property that can be related to the

comfort perception of the fabric.

Fabric wrinkle resistance is also affected by temperature and

relative humidity. Densely woven fabrics have less wrinkle
resistance due to low freedom for fiber movement.

Flame Resistance (performance properties)

Flame resistance can be obtained in two ways:

a) by using inherently flame resistant fibers such as Nomex®

aramid

b) by treating (coating) the fiber or fabric with flame resistant

chemicals

The disadvantage of using fiber/fabric coating is the decrease in

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flame resistance with repeated washings. However, this method
may be less expensive than using inherently flame resistant
fibers.

3.6 WOVEN FABRIC IDENTIFICATION

Woven fabric structures can be identified with the naked eye or
with microscope. The following guidelines are generally
applicable in identification of various characteristics of woven
fabrics.
 Woven fabric pattern
 Warp and weft sett
 Crimp of warp and weft yarns
 Count of warp and weft yarns
 Fabric weigth ( grams per square meter / grams per meter –
meter weight U.S.- )
Weigth of warp yarns per square meter.
Weigth of weft yarns per square meter.
Before perform these examinations above, WARP DIRECTION
OF THE FABRIC and FACE OF THE FABRIC must be
identified first.

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identifying the warp direction of the fabric

1. The selvedge on the fabric. The warp direction is lengthwise

to the selvedge.
2. Generally the warp sett is higher than the weft sett.
3. If number of yarns per centimeter is higher it is generally
warp direction.
4. Warp yarns generally have more strength and higher twist.
5. For plaid patterned fabrics plaids usually get longer towards
warp direction.
6. For striped fabrics lines are usually towards warp direction.
7. If yarns are double or more folded these are warp yarns.
Especially for fabrics made of worsted yarns double folded
warps are used.
8. Generally coarser yarns are used for weft.
9. If the fabric is woven by cotton and wool yarns or by cotton
and linen yarns, linen and wool yarns are used as weft yarns.
10. Weft yarns have more crimp than warp yarns.

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identifying the face of the fabric

1. Fabric pattern is seen clearly on the face of the fabric.

2. A better finishing is usually applied to the face of tha fabric.
3. The fibers on the fabric surface are usually sheared or singed
on the face of the fabric.
4. On the printed fabrics the figures are seen clearly on the face
of the fabric.
5. If the fabric was woven with two types of yarns, quality or
expensive yarns are used on the face of the fabrics.

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 3.6.1 Woven fabric pattern

Determination of the Order of Interlacing (Weave)

Order of interlacing can be determined with the naked eye for

coarse fabrics or using a magnifying glass or a microscope for
fine fabrics. It is important that an undistorted sample that is
larger than the repeat unit (by estimation) is examined from the
main body of the fabric for this purpose. Starting at a randomly
selected point on the lower left side of the fabric, the interlacing
pattern of the warp and filling yarns is determined until a repeat
is found in both directions.

Warp yarns are numbered from left to right and filling yams are
counted from bottom to top. The selvage design is determined in
a similar way. However, it is usually drastically different than
the rest of the fabric.

Woven fabrics have different patterns. Patterns are obtained by

raising warp yarns by heddles or harnesses to allow weft yarns
to float under warp yarns. By this way lots of various patterns
can be achieved and also it is possible to add different properties
to woven fabrics.

To show the schematic figure of a fabric pattern on a paper we

will paint or cross out the squares with ( X ) if the warp yarn is

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over the weft yarn and we will leave the square emty if the weft
yarn (filling) is over the warp yarn. You must follow the warp
direction starting at first column from the left and go on column
by column.

There are 3 basic patterns:

 Plain weave, Twill weave, and Satin weave

PLAIN WEAVE: Plain weave is the simplest one of the basic

weaves. In this type of the fabric the warp and the weft (filling)
yarns floats under and over each other. This type of fabrics have
maximum interlacing points and so the most stable fabrics.
Plain weave is the least expensive weave to produce. To
construct a plain weave two frames are generally enough.

P 1 Warp yarn
1 Weft yarn
The figure above means you will start to form the pattern
with one warp yarn (that is seen on the fabric) by painting or
crossing the square at first column on left and first line at bottom
and then one weft yarn (that is seen on the fabric) by leaving
emty the the square at first column on left and second line at
bottom.

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You will continue column by column towards right. P = Plain
weave.
Pattern Draft : The diagrammatic representation of a
construction. It is marked and read from the bottom left to top
right.
Pattern Repeat : The smallest number of the cells which can
specify a given construction. The size of repeat depends on the
size and complexity of the pattern.

To determine the pattern repeat on a fabric, the interlacings of

warp yarns with the weft yarnsare examined then these
interlacings are marked on a pattern paper.this process is kept on
until a repeat in both direction are found.
Pattern Draft

Repeat

Elaborations of Plain Weave

1. Warp Ribs
2. Weft Ribs
3. Hopsack

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TWILL WEAVE: In a twill weave each wrap or weft yarn
floats over two or more weft yarns. A very important distinct of
this pattern is the diagonals that are seen. By changing the
directions of these diagonal lines it is possible to improve
different patterns. The diagonal lines may run to right ( Z
direction) or left ( S direction).
T 2 ( Z or S) Two warp yarns and two weft yarns that
2 goes in the warp direction.

T = Twill.
Z or S =
Pattern repeat
Direction of the Pattern repeat
Z twill
S twill
twill line.

Warp faced twill: show a Weft faced

twill: have
Predominance of warp yarns more
Elaborations of Twill Weave weft than warp
on the face.
Showing on the face.
1. Balanced Twill
2. Diagonals
3. Broad Twill
4. Steep Twill
5. Flattened Twill
6. Herringbone
7. Waved Twill 8. Broken Twill

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SATIN WEAVE: In the basic construction the satin weave is
similar to the twill weave but it differs from the twill weave
because the diagonal effects are not visible. In a satin weave
each wrap yarn floats over four filling yarns and interlaces with
the fifth filling yarn or each filling yarn floats over four warps
and interlaces with the fifth warp. In certain fabrics each yarn
floats across seven yarns. Satin weave may have five to twelve
floats. This results in the long floats which determine the
appereance and the properties of these fabrics. The face and the
back of the fabric look quite different.
Satin fabrics are smooth, uniform and lustrous due to the
scarcity of interlacings and the density of the threads. A soft and
supple handle and drape can be obtained with relatively loose
constructions.
 S 5 ( 3 ) Five warp yarns and one weft yarn that
1 goes in the warp direction.
S = Satin weave. 3 or etc.= Move number that shows the
number of the weft yarns that next warp yarn must be displaced.

Warp satins have a predominance Weft satins have a predominance

on the face side on the face side

When warp yarns cover the surface the fabric is warp faced fabric and named as
SATIN. When the filling cover the surface the fabric is a filling faced fabric and
named as SATEEN.

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WARP AND WEFT SETT-
Weft sett: Number of wefts Per cm.
Warp sett: Number of warps Per cm.
Identifying wefts and warps per centimeter requires an
equipment called magnifier. This magnifier may be for 1 cm, 1
inch or etc. First 1 cm of warp and weft yarns are removed from
each side. This procedure facilitates to count the yarns. Then by
means of a magnifier warp and weft yarns are counted per
centimeter.
CRIMP OF WARP AND WEFT YARNS -
To compose a woven fabric, warp and weft yarns floats over
each other depending on the patterns. Due to these floats, warp
and weft yarns get shorter than their first lengths.

Identifiying crimp of warp and weft yarns is needed to

determine the yarn requirements for the fabric that will be
woven. A particular problem arises when it is necessary to
calculate the count of a yarn removed from a fabric, since one
has to work on portions of a few centimeters and take into
account thw waviness which has been imparted to the yarn in
the fabric interlacement. The waviness is defined by the concept
of percentage crimp % C by means of the relation:

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 L1 – L0
Crimp of the yarn = X 100
(For weft and warp) L0

FABRIC WEIGTH

Fabrics are wanted to have different weigths depend on their

using purposes and using areas. The effects that influence fabric
weigth:
 Warp and weft sett
 Count of warp and weft yarns
 Weaving pattern of the fabric
 Finishing

There are two measurement types of fabric weigth:

 Grams per square meter ( gr / m2 ): identifies the
grams for a fabric of 1 m2 area.
 Grams per meter ( gr / m ): identifies the grams for a
fabric of 1 meter length and production width.

For determining the fabric weigth:

 10cm X 10cm area of 5 samples are prepared.
 These samples must be taken from the middle areas of the
fabric.
 These samples must not be wrinkled.
 If there are wide patterns that can create difference on the
fabric weigth, the samples must be prepared as keeping the
accurate fabric pattern repeat in mind.
 The fabrics are then weighed.

Garms per m2 = Weight (gr)/Area (1m2)

This procedure is kept on for 5 times and then the arithmetic average
will be calculated. Then this result will be converted to grams Per
meter.

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-Calculating the warp weigth Per square meter-
Warp sett X 100 X 1
Gwarp = X (1+%C)
Nm warp

-Calculating the warp weigth Per meter-

Warp sett X Width (in meter ) X 100

Gwarp = X (1+%C)
Nm warp

-Calculating the weft weigth Per square meter-

Weft sett X 100 X 1

Gweft = X (1+%C)
Nm weft

-Calculating the weft weigth Per meter-

Weft sett X Width (in meter ) X 100

Gweft = X (1+%C)
Nm weft

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Determination of the Presence of Size and Finish

Sometimes observation by the naked eye is enough to detect the

size or finish on the fabric. The next step would be to determine
the hand properties of fabrics such as stiffness, smoothness, etc.
If necessary, the sample can be observed under a microscope.

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 FABRIC ANALYSIS

ANALYSIS CHART

WARP WEFT

Yarn sett

Crimp (%)

Count (Nm)

Square Meter Weight

(g/m2)

Meter Weight (g/m)

Weigth of warp Per m2

Weigth of weft Per m2

Weigth of weft Per m

Weigth of weft Per m

Application

WARP

Left Right
Colour Colour Sequence Total
Edge Edge

TOTAL

WEFT

Left Right
Colour Colour Sequence Total
Edge Edge
Blue
Grey
D.Blue
Yellow
White
TOTAL

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Table 3.2 lists the more commonly produced fabric types by
name.
Table 3.2 Common fabric type names
 Batiste: Fine, transparent, smooth hand (mercerized cotton)
 Bedford cord : Warpwise cord; uncut
 Bengoline: Coarse warp, fine, fill, pronounced warp ribs
 Broad cloth: Finer warp; warp density (number) is twice of
filling density
 Chambray : coloured warp, white fill, fine to medium yarns
 Corduroy: uncut is like Bedford; cut is unique
 Crepe: rough hand
 Crinnoline Stiff, open
 Denim: coloured warp, white or coloured filling, twill
weave,stiff
 Drill: like denim but not blue and medium weight
 Duck: fabric made of heavy, plied yarns
 Flannel: Brushed, soft hand
 Gabardine: Twill, finer yarns, armed services dress uniform
 Gingham : Plaid or checks
 Huck : Flat towelling; floats checkboard motif
 Lawn: Fine, transparent, unmercerized

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