🖥️ BCA 3rd Semester - Operating Systems
📚 UNIT – 1
🚀 (a) Introduction to Operating Systems
📖 i) Definition, Need, and Functions of OS
🔍 Definition of Operating System
An Operating System (OS) is a system software that acts as an
intermediary between computer hardware and application programs. It
provides a platform for other software to run and manages all the
hardware and software resources of a computer system.
The OS creates a virtual machine that hides the complexity of hardware
from users and applications, providing a simple and consistent interface for
interaction.
🎯 Need for Operating System
Resource Management: Modern computers have multiple resources like
CPU, memory, storage devices, and I/O devices that need to be managed
efficiently.
User Interface: Users need a friendly interface to interact with the
computer without dealing with complex hardware details.
Program Execution: Multiple programs need to run simultaneously,
requiring coordination and resource allocation.
Error Handling: Hardware and software errors need to be detected and
handled gracefully to prevent system crashes.
Security: Protection of data and programs from unauthorized access and
malicious activities.
Hardware Independence: Applications should work regardless of the
underlying hardware configuration.
⚙️ Functions of Operating System
Process Management: Creating, scheduling, and terminating processes.
Managing process synchronization and communication.
Memory Management: Allocating and deallocating memory space for
programs. Implementing virtual memory systems.
File System Management: Organizing, storing, and retrieving files on
storage devices. Managing file permissions and access control.
Device Management: Controlling and coordinating access to hardware
devices through device drivers.
User Interface: Providing command-line interface (CLI) or graphical user
interface (GUI) for user interaction.
Network Management: Managing network connections and
communication protocols.
Security and Protection: Implementing authentication, authorization, and
access control mechanisms.
🏗️ ii) Types of Operating Systems
Type Characteristics Examples
Jobs processed in batches, no user IBM MVS, Early
Batch OS
interaction during execution mainframe systems
Multitasking Windows, Linux,
Multiple programs run concurrently
OS macOS
Time-sharing Multiple users share system resources
UNIX, Linux servers
OS simultaneously
Guarantees response within specified VxWorks, QNX,
Real-time OS
time constraints FreeRTOS
Distributed Resources shared across multiple
Amoeba, Plan 9
OS networked computers
Designed for specific hardware with Android, iOS,
Embedded OS
limited resources Windows CE
📦 Batch Operating Systems
In batch operating systems, similar jobs are grouped together and
processed as a batch without user interaction during execution. The system
processes one batch at a time in a sequential manner.
Characteristics:
No direct interaction between user and job during execution
High throughput for large volumes of similar jobs
Efficient resource utilization for repetitive tasks
Long turnaround time for individual jobs
Advantages:
High system efficiency for bulk processing
Reduced idle time of CPU
Suitable for payroll processing, billing systems
🔄 Multitasking Operating Systems
Multitasking systems allow multiple programs to run concurrently by
rapidly switching between them, giving the illusion of simultaneous
execution.
Types of Multitasking:
Preemptive Multitasking: OS controls task switching
Cooperative Multitasking: Programs voluntarily yield control
Key Features:
Improved system utilization
Better user experience with multiple applications
Resource sharing among processes
⏰ Time-sharing Operating Systems
Time-sharing systems allow multiple users to access the system
simultaneously by allocating small time slices to each user in rotation.
Characteristics:
Each user gets a time quantum for CPU usage
Fair resource distribution among users
Interactive computing environment
Response time is crucial
⚡ Real-time Operating Systems
Real-time systems guarantee response within specified time limits. They
are critical for applications where timing is essential.
Types:
Hard Real-time: Missing deadline causes system failure
Soft Real-time: Missing deadline degrades performance but doesn't
cause failure
Applications:
Aircraft control systems
Medical monitoring devices
Industrial automation
Automotive systems
🌐 Distributed Operating Systems
Distributed systems manage resources across multiple networked
computers, presenting them as a single unified system to users.
Features:
Transparency in resource location
Fault tolerance through redundancy
Scalability by adding more nodes
Load distribution across network
🔧 Embedded Operating Systems
Embedded systems are designed for specific hardware platforms with
limited resources and dedicated functions.
Characteristics:
Minimal resource consumption
Real-time capabilities
High reliability and stability
Customized for specific applications
🏛️ iii) System Components
🎯 Kernel
The kernel is the core component of an operating system that manages
system resources and provides essential services to other parts of the OS.
Types of Kernels:
Kernel
Structure Advantages Disadvantages
Type
Fast execution,
All services in single Large size, difficult
Monolithic efficient
address space to maintain
communication
Minimal kernel with
Modular, stable, Slower due to
Microkernel services in user
secure message passing
space
Combination of Balance of
Hybrid monolithic and performance and Complex design
microkernel modularity
Kernel Functions:
Process Scheduling: Determining which process runs when
Memory Management: Allocating and protecting memory
Interrupt Handling: Responding to hardware and software interrupts
System Call Interface: Providing services to applications
Device Driver Management: Controlling hardware devices
🐚 Shell
The shell is a command interpreter that provides an interface between
users and the kernel. It translates user commands into system calls.
Types of Shells:
Command Line Interface (CLI): Text-based interaction
Bash (Bourne Again Shell)
Zsh (Z Shell)
PowerShell
Graphical User Interface (GUI): Visual interaction
Windows Explorer
GNOME Desktop
KDE Plasma
Shell Functions:
Command interpretation and execution
File and directory operations
Environment variable management
Script execution and automation
I/O redirection and piping
📞 System Calls
System calls are programming interfaces that allow applications to
request services from the operating system kernel.
Categories of System Calls:
Process Control: fork(), exec(), wait(), exit()
File Management: open(), read(), write(), close()
Device Management: ioctl(), read(), write()
Information Maintenance: getpid(), alarm(), sleep()
Communication: pipe(), shmget(), msgget()
System Call Execution Process:
1. Application makes system call
2. Parameters passed to kernel
3. CPU switches to kernel mode
4. Kernel executes requested service
5. Results returned to application
6. CPU switches back to user mode
🛡️ (b) Operating System Services
🔄 Process Management
Process management involves creating, scheduling, and controlling
processes throughout their lifecycle.
Key Concepts:
Process: Program in execution with associated resources
Process States: New, Ready, Running, Waiting, Terminated
Process Control Block (PCB): Data structure containing process
information
Context Switching: Saving and restoring process state
Process Management Functions:
Process creation and termination
Process scheduling and dispatching
Inter-process communication (IPC)
Process synchronization
Deadlock prevention and resolution
💾 Memory Management
Memory management ensures efficient utilization of primary memory
and provides memory protection.
Memory Management Techniques:
Contiguous Allocation: Fixed and variable partitioning
Paging: Dividing memory into fixed-size pages
Segmentation: Dividing memory into variable-size segments
Virtual Memory: Using secondary storage to extend primary memory
Key Functions:
Memory allocation and deallocation
Memory protection and sharing
Address translation
Garbage collection
Swapping and paging
📁 File System Management
File system management provides organized storage and retrieval of data
on secondary storage devices.
File System Components:
Files: Named collections of related information
Directories: Containers for organizing files
Metadata: Information about files (size, permissions, timestamps)
File Allocation Methods: Contiguous, linked, indexed
File System Services:
File creation, deletion, and modification
Directory operations
File access control and permissions
Backup and recovery
File system consistency checking
🔌 I/O System Management
I/O system management handles communication between the computer
and external devices.
I/O System Components:
Device Controllers: Hardware interfaces for devices
Device Drivers: Software interfaces for device control
I/O Schedulers: Algorithms for optimizing I/O requests
Buffers: Temporary storage for I/O operations
I/O Management Functions:
Device allocation and deallocation
I/O request scheduling
Error handling and recovery
Data transfer optimization
Device status monitoring
🔒 Security and Protection
Security and protection mechanisms ensure data integrity and prevent
unauthorized access.
Security Measures:
Authentication: Verifying user identity
Authorization: Controlling resource access
Encryption: Protecting data confidentiality
Audit Trails: Monitoring system activities
Intrusion Detection: Identifying security threats
Protection Mechanisms:
Access control lists (ACLs)
Capability-based security
Role-based access control (RBAC)
Mandatory access control (MAC)
Discretionary access control (DAC)
🎯 Summary
Operating Systems serve as the foundation of modern computing,
providing essential services for hardware management, process
coordination, and user interaction. Understanding OS concepts is crucial
for developing efficient and secure software applications.
The various types of operating systems cater to different computing needs,
from batch processing to real-time applications. System components like
kernel, shell, and system calls work together to create a cohesive
computing environment that abstracts hardware complexity while
providing powerful services to applications and users.
