Chapter Five

Computer Networks and Internet

5.1 Introduction to Networking
What Is a Network?
 A system in which a number of independent computers are linked together to share
data and peripherals.
 A computer network refers to the system of two or more interconnected computers by
a media that allows them to share data, device, peripherals, and remote computer
databases.
 Sharing is the purpose of computer networking. The ability to share information
efficiently is what gives computer networking its power and its appeal.
 A computer that is not connected to other computers is called a standalone system.
5.1.1 Why Computer Networks are needed?
With the availability and power of today's personal computers, you might ask why networks are
needed. Networks increase efficiency and reduce costs. Computer networks achieve these
goals in three primary ways:
1. Sharing information (or data)
2. Sharing hardware and software
3. Centralizing administration and support
More specifically, computers that are part of a network can share:
 Documents (memos, spreadsheets,  Live audio and video broadcasts.
invoices, and so on).  Printers.
 E-mail messages.  Fax machines.
 Word-processing software.  Modems.
 Project-tracking software.  CD-ROM drives and other removable
 Illustrations, photographs, videos, drives.
and audio files.  Hard drives.
1. Sharing Information (or Data)
The ability to share information quickly and inexpensively has proven to be one of the most
popular uses of networking technology.
By making information available for sharing, networks can reduce the need for paper
communication, increase efficiency, and make nearly any type of data available simultaneously
to every user who needs it.
2. Sharing Hardware and Software
Computer networks can be used to share printers, plotters, and other peripherals. Networks
can be used to share and standardize applications, such as word processors, spreadsheets,
inventory databases, and so on, to ensure that everyone on the network is using the same
applications and the same versions of those applications.
3. Centralizing Administration and Support
Networking computers can simplify and support tasks as well. It is far more efficient for
technical personnel to support one version of one operating system or application and to set up
all computers in the same manner than to support many individual and unique systems and
setups. And also used to centralized control.
5.1.2 Network components and functions
 Servers—Computers that provide shared resources to network users.
 Clients—Computers that access shared network resources provided by a server.
 Media—the wires/air that make the connections.
 Resources—any service or device, such as files, printers, or other items, made available
for use by members of the network.
5.1.3 Types of Networks
Depending on their geographical coverage, size and function of computer networks are mostly
classified into three groups.
1. Local area network (LAN):
 It is the smallest form of a network and the basic building block of any computer network.
 It is limited by geography that covers within a mile-perhaps one office, one building, or a
college campus.
  A LAN can range from simple (two computers connected by a cable) to complex
(hundreds of connected computers and peripherals throughout a major corporation).
2. Metropolitan area network (MAN):
 Is a communication network covering a geographical area such as the size of a city.
3. Wide area network (WAN):
 On the other hand, has no geographical limitation.
 It can connect computers and other devices on opposite sides of the world.
 A WAN is made up of a number of interconnected LANs. Perhaps the ultimate WAN is the
Internet.

5.1.4 Network Configuration

 Networks are classified into two principal groups based on how they share information:
peer-to-peer networks and server-based networks.
Peer-to-Peer Networks
In a peer-to-peer network, there are no dedicated servers, and there is no hierarchy among the
computers. All the computers are equal and therefore are known as peers. Each computer
functions as both a client and a server, and there is no administrator responsible for the entire
network. The user at each computer determines what data on that computer is shared on the
network. Computers in the network are connected by a simple, easily visible cabling system.
Peer-to-peer networks are good choices for environments where:
 There are 10 users or fewer.
 Users share resources, such as files and printers, but no specialized servers exist.
 Security is not an issue/less security.
 Limited growth within the foreseeable future.
Server-Based Networks
 In server-based network works an environment with more than 10 users.
 In a server-based network, one or more computers act as servers and provide the
resources to the network. The other computers are the clients and use the resources
provided by the server.
  Centrally located for network control; requires at least one knowledgeable
administrator
 Extensive and consistent resource and user security
 Limited only by server and network hardware
5.1.5 Network Topology
The term network topology refers to the arrangement or physical layout of computers, cables,
and other components on the network.
A network's physical topology is the wire itself. A network's logical topology is the way it carries
signals on the wire. Logical topology refers the flow of information. That means it determine
how computers communicate on the network.
Topology mostly classify into four basic topologies. They are:
1. Bus 3. Ring
2. Star 4. Mesh
1. Bus topology:
The bus topology is often referred to as a "linear bus" because the computers are connected in
a single straight line called a trunk (also called a backbone or segment) that connects all of the
computers in the network in a single line. Computers on a bus topology network communicate
by addressing data to a particular computer and sending out that data on the cable as
electronic signals. Collision will occur, When two computer send data simultaneously.
Sending the Signal Network data in the form of electronic signals is sent to all the computers on
the network. Only the computer whose address matches the address encoded in the original
signal accepts the information. All other computers reject the data. Because only one computer
at a time can send data on a bus network,
Signal Bounce Because the data, or electronic signal, is sent to the entire network, it travels
from one end of the cable to the other. If the signal is allowed to continue uninterrupted, it will
keep bouncing back and forth along the cable and prevent other computers from sending
signals.
Terminator To stop the signal from bouncing, a component called a terminator is placed at each
end of the cable to absorb free signals. Absorbing the signal clears the cable so that other
computers can send data.

Figure 5.1 bus topology

2. Star topology:
In the star topology, each computer are connected to a centralized component called a hub.
Signals are transmitted from the sending computer through the hub to all computers on the
network.

The star topology offers the advantage of centralized resources and management. This
topology requires a great deal of cable in a large network installation. Also, if the central point
fails, the entire network goes down. If one computer or the cable that connects it to the hub—
fails only the failed computer will not be able to send or receive network data.

Figure 5.2 star topology

3. Ring topology:

The ring topology connects computers on a single circle of cable. Unlike the bus topology, there
are no terminated ends and no collisions. Since only one terminals can send data at a given
time.

The signals travel around the loop in one direction and pass through each computer, which can
act as a repeater to boost the signal and send it on to the next computer. The failure of one
computer can have an impact on the entire network.

One method of transmitting data around a ring is called token passing. (A token is a special
series of bits that travels around a token-ring network. Each network has only one token.) The
token is passed from computer to computer until it gets to a computer that has data to send.
The data passes by each computer until it finds the one with an address that matches the
address on the data.

The receiving computer returns a message to the sending computer indicating that the data has
been received.

Figure 5.3 ring topology

4. Mesh topology:
In a mesh topology, each computer is connected to every other computer by separate cabling.
This configuration provides redundant paths throughout the network so that if one cable fails,
another will take over the traffic. These networks are expensive to install because they use a lot
of cabling.

Figure 5.4 mesh topology

These four topologies can be combined in a variety of more complex hybrid topologies.
Many working topologies are hybrid combinations of the bus, star, ring, and mesh topologies.
There are many factors to consider when deciding which topology best suits the needs of an
organization.
Table 1.2 Topology Advantages and Disadvantages
Topology Advantages Disadvantages
Bus -Use of cable is economical. -Network can slow down in heavy traffic.
-System is simple and reliable. -Problems are difficult to isolate.
- Easy to extend. -Cable break can affect many users.
-limits on cable length & computers

Ring -System provides equal access for all computers. -Failure of one computer can impact the rest.
-Performance is even despite many users. -Problems are hard to isolate.
-computers act as repeaters -the more terminals, the network becomes slower.
-Security may be less(as data has to travel through
other computers)
-Network reconfiguration disrupts operation.
Star -Modifying and adding new computers is easy. -If the centralized point fails, the network fails.
-Centralized monitoring and management. -uses more cable
-Failure of one computer does not affect the rest.

Mesh -System provides increased redundancy and - expensive to install because it uses a lot of cabling
reliability as well as ease of troubleshooting.
-Failure of one computer or one cable does not
affect the rest of the network.

5.2 The internet

The internet is a vast network of networks, the ultimate WAN, consisting of tens of thousands
of businesses, universities, and research organizations with millions of individual users and
using a variety of different network architectures.

The Internet is defined as “a loosely-organized international collaboration of autonomous,

interconnected networks.”
  Loosely-organized: No single organization has authority over the Internet. Anyone can
upload any kind of content or software and no one controls that. No one guarantees the
accuracy of the information that you find on the Internet.
 International: More than 100 countries are represented on the Internet.
 Collaboration: Many organizations cooperate to provide the services and support
needed to sustain it. For example, much of the software that drives the Internet is open-
source software developed collaboratively by programmers throughout the world, who
constantly work to improve the code.
 Autonomous: Organizations that join the Internet are free to make their own decisions
about how they configure and operate their networks.
 Interconnected: There are standard protocols to enable different networks
communicate with each other. Without the interconnection provided by TCP/IP
protocol, the Internet would not exist.
 Networks: The Internet is “network of networks”, i.e. most of individual users who are
on the Internet don’t access the Internet directly. Instead they access the Internet
indirectly through another network, like LAN or dial up or broadband network provided
by an Internet Services Provider (ISP). Otherwise, the Internet would be completely
unmanageable if it consisted of 171 million individual users, all interconnected.
The Internet is composed of several distinct types of networks: Government agencies, military
sites, educational institutions, businesses, ISPs, commercial online services etc.

Every site on the internet has address, just like people have PO Box number at their local post
office. On the internet addresses are called URLs (Uniform Resource Locaters). URLs are written
as a number of words separated by dots, for example www.yahoo.com. The word after the final
dot (e.g.com) is the domain of the address. The domain indicates the category of the web site.

The World Wide Web:-The World Wide Web (www) is a way of browsing the information on
the internet in a pleasant, easy to understand. Text can be mixed with graphics, video and
audio to provide multimedia (many different media) internet content.
5.3 Computer Hazard and Security
5.3.1 Computer Hazard
Computers and the information they contain are often considered confidential systems because
their use is typically restricted to a limited number of users. This confidentiality can be
compromised in a variety of ways. Factually, these data or information inside the computer
may be affected by different hazards. For example, people who spread computer viruses and
worms can harm computers and computer data. So taking care of the data and information in
the computer and the computer itself is very essential, this idea tends to security.
What is computer virus?
- Computer virus is a self- replicating (copying) computer program that interferes with
computer's HW or OS & duplicates itself without the user's knowledge. It may
damage corrupt, or destroy data or degrade system performance. Once the infected
program is executed, the computer viruses like biological viruses destabilize the
normal flags of the OS.
- Like any other computer program a virus must be executed to function, that is, it
must be loaded from the computer’s memory and the virus's instructions must then
Identify each letter or number, symbol etc. in the form of two states/digital signals,
either a HIGH voltage state “ON/TRUE”, or a LOW voltage state “OFF/FALSE”.

Types of Computer Viruses

There are different types of viruses. Some of these are:-
1. Data File Viruses 4. Multi-partite viruses
2. Bootstrap-sector viruses 5. Script viruses
3. Parasitic or file viruses
1. Data File Viruses
Viruses infect programs that contain powerful macro language (programming language that let
the user create new features & utilities). These files are called data file viruses or macro viruses.
This virus spread infected files, which allows use of macro Languages
2. Boot Sector Viruses
These viruses infect the boot sector of a hard disk or floppy. They reside on the boot sector &
replace either the program that store information about the disk's contents or the program that
start the computer. An attempt to boot from a diskette infected with active in memory. These
types of viruses will place a copy of itself on to master boot record;
3. Parasitic or file viruses
These viruses infect executable files or programs in the computer. These files are often
identified by the extension .exe in the name of the computer file. File viruses leave the contents
of the host program unchanged but attach to the host in such a way that the virus code is run
first. These viruses can be either direct-action or resident. A direct-action virus selects one or
more programs to infect each time it is executed. A resident virus hides in the computer's
memory and infects a particular program when that program is executed.
4. Multi-partite viruses
These viruses combine the abilities of the parasitic and the bootstrap-sector viruses, and so are
able to infect either files or boot sectors. These types of viruses can spread if a computer user
boots from an infected diskette or accesses infected files.
5. Script viruses
These viruses are written in script programming languages, such as VBScript (Visual Basic Script)
and JavaScript. These script languages can be seen as a special kind of macro language and are
even more powerful because most are closely related to the operating system environment.
The "ILOVEYOU" virus, which appeared in 2000 and infected an estimated 1 in 5 personal
computers, is a famous example of a script virus.

5.3.2 Computer Security

Computer security is a technical developed to protect single computers and Network- Lined
computer system from accidental or intentional harm including destruction of computer hue &
sue. One of the causes of disaster on a computer system is computer virus. There are different
types of security methods. Some of which are as follows:-
I. Disaster Recovery Plans: It is Periodical testing and upgrading of the contents of the
computer. It helps to safe guard documents from sudden damage.
 II. Application Safeguards: Protecting the computer itself and the document within the
system from internal and external damage.
III. Intrusion Selection Systems: it Security software called intrusion detection systems may
be used in computers to detect unusual and suspicious activity and, in some cases, stop
a variety of harmful actions by authorized or unauthorized persons. Abuse and misuse
of sensitive system and application programs and data such as password, inventory,
financial, engineering, and personnel files can be detected by these systems
IV. Firewalls: Software placed between the networked computers and protects the
networked computers. The firewall examines, filters, and reports on all information
passing through the network to ensure its appropriateness.
V. Passwords: are confidential sequences of characters that allow approved persons to
make use of specified computers, software, or information.
VI. Backup: Storing backup copies of software and data and having backup computer and
communication capabilities are important basic safeguards because the data can then
be restored if it was altered or destroyed by a computer crime or accident.
VII. Encryption: a process of converting messages or data into a form that cannot be read
without decrypting or deciphering it. The root of the word encryption—crypt—comes
from the Greek word kryptos, meaning “hidden” or “secret.”

VIII. Anti-viral Tactics

A. Preparation and Prevention

B. Virus Detection
C. Containment and Recovery